(Ea) MADE EASY Publications Corporate Citice: 44-4/a, Kalu Sarai (Near Hau Khas Metro Station), New Delhi 110046 Email inlomep@nadeeasy in Contact: 011-45124660, ogaeoa7e0a7 Visit us at: wauw madeeas publications org ESE 2019 Preliminary Examination : Basics of Energy and Environment ‘© Copyright, by MADE EASY Publications. All rights are reserved. No pat ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in er intwodiced into @ rewieval syst, oF transmitted in any form o* by any means (elecronie, mechanics phle-cepying, recording or ‘otherwis), without the pricr writen permission of the above mentioned publisher ofthis book FustEdition -2016 Second Edition 2017 Third Edition: 2018. MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS fas taken due care in clecting the dats and providing the sluts, bef publishing ts boo Ip of this fay Inalty dr pang enor occurs then MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS owes no responsi. MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS wl be rate you ould point out any sich en Your suagestions wl be ape ‘ Argh reserved by MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS. No pr of his book ay be reproduced ould nan fon witout he rts peso te pub Be, : SPreface The compilation of this book Basics of Energy and Environment was motivated by the desire to provide a concise book which can benefit students to understand the concepts ofthis specific topic of General Studies ang Engineering Aptitude section. See This textbook provides a the requrrements of the Deane students, ie. comprehensive coverage of theory, Tundamental concepts and obiestive ype questions arcusted in luels lenguege. The conelse presentation wil hep the readers gras he theory of thie subject wih lary and apply them with ease t sve obec «questions uicky. This book ot only covers he syllabus of ESE in late manner buts also sel for other competitive examinations. All the topics are given the emphasis they deserve 80 thal mere reading of the book clarifies al the concepts. ‘We have putin our sincere effoits to present detailed theory and MCQs without compromising the accuracy of answers. For the interest of the readers, some notes, do you know and interesting facts are given in the comprehensive manner. At the end of each chapier, sets of practice question are given with their keys and detailed explanations, that will allow the readers to evaluate thelr understanding of the topics and sharpen their question solving skis, (Our team has made their best efforts to remove all possible errors of any kind, Nonetheless, we would highly appreciate and acknowledge if you find and share with us any printing and conceptual errors. Itis impossible tc thank all the individuals who helped us, but we would like to sincerely thank all the authors, editors and reviewers for pulling in thelr efforts to publish this book. With Best Wishes B.Singh CMD, MADE EASY GroupChapter 1 Chapter 3 aS Energy Resource : Conservation & Utilisation. Biodiversity & its Conservation... 41 Introduction... 3.1 Introduction.. 1.2 Types of Energy Resources 3.2. Biodiversity Hotspot a eeera) 1.3 Renewable Enetay Resources: 33. Biodiversity Protected Areas 14 Biofuels. ote 3.4 Loss of Biodiversity. 15 Difference between Renewable Energy 35 Conservation of Biodiversity nnn 110 Energy on and Green Energy Objective rain Teaser ewneeninnnat2A 116 Non-renewable Energy ResOUrC@S eeunne30 34 Chapter 4 Environmental Degradation & Pollution. 1.7 Chemical Sources of Energy... 1.8 Energy Conservation... 1.9 Organisations and Policies related 4.4 Introduction to Energy &its Conservation, 38 4.2. ClassiRications of POllUtION sronannnnn 27 Objective Brain Teasers smn 42 43 _ International Conventional/Policies Chapter 2 ‘on Pollution. Basics of Environment: Ecology & Ecosystem, 44 Environmental Laws for Controlling 146 Pollution in india 24. Introduction... 22 Biosphere jee Objective Brain Teasers 23 EcOlOgyinnn Chapter 5 24 Ecosyst cited Global Warming & Climate Change. 25 Biome. 74 5.1 introduction... 26 Wetlands... nat TS 5.2. Greenhouse Effect. nen 1M 27 Mangroves. 78 53. Global Warming... 28 Coral Reef... 54 — Ozone Layer... 29 Nature of Relationship between Mae : ca? 55. Cases of Climate Change wennnnnnnnl7O a3 58 Evidences of Climate Change wns 72 2.10 Environmental Degradation. 5.7 _ International Conventions/Policies 2.11 Conservation of Environment... 8A 2.12 Events/International Days related to ‘on Climate Change. 173 Environment. 58 National Action Plan on Climate Change... 178 Objective Brain Teasers. Objective Brain Teasers. Saal | | k iChapter 6 Environmental impact Assessment (EIA)....... 187 ea 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 Introduction. . 187 EIA Regulations. 188 ‘Steps in Environmental impact Assessment Process... 189 Roles of Parties in EIA Process 191 Forms of Impact Assessment... 192 Purposes of EIA... 193 Benefits of EIA 193 Limitations OF EIA vremetsnsonmesnnnn 194 Objective Brain Teasers... me 194 Chapter 7 ‘Sustainable Habitat Norms... 71 troduction 72 Green Building 7.3 Assessment Tools and Rating Systems. 74 — Environmental Considerations. 202 7.5 _ Ecological Considerations. 7.6 Green Public Procurement (GPP Objective Brain Teasers oe 204 Chapter 8 Disasters & thelr Management. .207 81 Inttoduction. 207 82 Classification of Disasters. .207 83 Disaster Management Objective Brain Teasers. (vi)i EERSTE ESET 1.1 1.2 Energy Resource : Conservation & Utilisation Introduction ‘+ The word ‘energy’ is derived from the Greek word "en-ergon which means “in-work” or “work content” Therefore, energy may be defined as the capacity of doing work, + llliving things possess some form of energy and simultaneously witness the flow of energy from one form to another form, i.e. mechanical to electrical, thermal to chernical, tidal to electrical, etc. These forms of energy differ from ane another, but constitute the physical reality of the universe. + Energy is an important input for the overall development and is, therefore, vital for improvement in ‘ually oflie. Its use in sactors such as industries, commerce, transports, telecommunications, and wide range of agriculture and household activities has compelled to meet ever increasing demands which can not be fulfilled by conventional sources of energy alone, ike coal, petroleum, gas, etc. Hence, there is need to explore the possibilities of hamessing energy from renewable sources of energy lke solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, etc. ‘+ The phrase ‘conservation of energy’ was coined and made popular by German physicists Helmholtz and Joule. They demonstrated that energy could not be annihilated but only be transformed. ‘The different types of energy and their conversion from one form to another are given below: * Heat Energy : Heat is an intrinsic energy of all the combustible substances. It is basically the kinetic energy of molecules, © Chemical Energy : Chemical energy is tapped in fossilfuels such as coal, oil and natural gas. Fossil {uals are used to generate electricity, power vehicles and railway engines. «Nuclear Energy : Matter can be changed into energy when larger atoms are spilt into smaller ones (Aiomic Fission) or when smaller ones combine to form larger atoms (Atomic Fusion) ‘© Radiant Energy : Solar radiation is the manifestation of radiant energy that is received on the earth. Radio waves, X-rays, infrared and ultraviolet electromagnetic radiations contain radiant energy. © Electrical Energy : Electrical eneray arises out of the movernent af electrons to produce heat, magnetic field and electromagnetic radiations. Itis a highly versatile form of energy, and can be easily converted, io other forms for ullization, © Kinetic Energy : The energy of an object in motion is called kinetic energy. If the mass of an object is ‘mand the object is moving with a velocity v, then its kinetic energy is expressed in Joules as KE = (1/2)mv2, where mis inkg and vis in mvs, © Potential Energy : The energy which a body possesses as a result of its position in the earth's gravitational field is called ‘potential energy’ and is expressed in Joules as PE =mgh Where the mass mis in kg, gis the acceleration due to gravity in mis?, and his the height in metre. Types of Energy Resources + Energy resources can be classified into two types: (i) Renewable energy resources (i) Nontenewable energy resources,Basics of Energy and Environment EEE eer stcies Engineering Aptitude Energy Resources f 1 Renewable “Nonfehewabie | ray Resources Energy Resour pscenifeastens + Solar Energy Cc -Wind Enoroy = + Ocean Eneray + Hyer Energy + Coal «Biomass Energy + Povalour + Geothermal Eneray + Natural Gos + Shale (0, Gas) Fig: 1.1. Types ofEnergy Resources * The renewable energy resources, such as wind, water, solar, geothermal, etc., come from sources that regenerate as fast as they are consumed and are continuously available. * The non-renewable energy resources, such as fossi fuels and nuclear materials, are extracted from the earth and can be depleted in near future. These resources have been the most used type of energy in the modem era * Inthe early part of the 21% century, renewable energy resources have become more popular as non- renewable energy resources have begun to be depleted. * Thermal plants (coal, oil, gas), Environment Eavronment nuclear anc hydropower stations are or generating electieal energy. sein reo the cost of fossil fuels has created tl . Pe an urgency to conserve these fuels, oo andengineersacrosstheworldare Nee @=)\ TEE Te looking for alternative renewable sources of energy. Fig: 1.2 Energy Conversion 1.3. Renewable Energy Resources ‘+ The energy sources which can be renewed by nature again and again, and their supply is not affected by the rate of their consumption are called renewable energy resources. These are environment friendly and have potential to replace non-renewable energy resources. These are also known as inexhaustible sources of energy. The examples of renewable energy resources are solar, wind, ocean, hydro, biomass, geothermal, ete + Renewable energy resources are available in - Unlimited amount innature and can be renewed Fig: 1.3 Renewable Energy Resources ‘over relatively shorter period of time. Most of the renewable sources of energy are fairly non- polluting and! considered as clean * _India.is implementingone of the world’s largest programmes in renewable energy sector. The Govemment of India is on its way to achieving 175 GW target for installed renewable energy capacity by 2022 gtmade EASY Energy Resource : Conservation &Utilisation 2) 134 * Large hydropower is also renewable in nature, buthas been utilized all over the world for many decades and hence not included in the term ‘renewable’. However, small hydropower comes under renewable source category. ‘* Municipal and industrial waste is also a useful source of energy, but these are different forms of biomass, ‘* The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has made efforts during the past few decades to develop and utilize various renewable energy resources in the country. Consequently, wind electric generators, solar water healers, solar lanterns, street lights, biogas plants, biomass gasifiers and small hydroelectric generators have become commercially available. Table 1.1: Renewable energy installed capacity in India (As on November 30, 2017) Renewable Energy Source Installed capacity (MW) Wind power _ 92746.87 | Biomass power : 7 8181.70 al Hs Powe G9 oS as038 Waste to (Urban & industrial) 114.08 | (ee : Solar Energy * Solar energyis a primary source of energy which directly obtained from the sun by capturing the solar radiation and converting it into another form of energy to perform various useful activites. © For receiving the solar radiation, itis necessary for the collectors tobe able to track the sun to ensure a maximum and continuous reception. Solar Panel © There are two ways of solar energy utilization: Sead 1. Conversion of solar energy into thermal energy 2. Photovoltaic cells, * The conversion of solar aneray into thermal energy can GIAC_ be done by using solar collectors, whereas in photovoltaic cells the direct sunlight is used to generate electricity. The given schematic diagram of solar power plant depicts Used within supply four processes: orogeny” "(UT ee () Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert sunlight to Direct poe Current (DC) electricity (i) The inverter converts Direct Current (DC) into Fla. 14s Working of Solar Power Prant Alternating Current (AC) electricity (ii) The electrical panel sends power to be consumed within property as lights and in other appliances. (iv) The distribution board supplies electricity to grid Terrestrial Solar Radiation * Solar radiations pass through the earth's atmosphere and are subjected to scattering and atmospheric absorption. ‘* Shortwave ultraviolet rays are absorbed by ozone and long wave infrared rays are absorbed by CO, and water vapour.asics of Energy and Environment Morro suese a 2 pane lone Engineering Aptitude * Apart of scattered radiation is reflected back into space. This scattering is due to air molecules, dust particles anciwater droplets that cause attenuation of radiation | ch sort Xo ° EP MPN A 7h Ss oe ron ie ‘Types of Radiation * Boum radiation (,): Solar raciation received on the earth's surface without change in direction, is called beam or direct radiation * Diffuse radiation (1): The radiation received on a terrestrial surtace (scattered by aerosols and dust) from all parts of the sky, is known as diffuse radiation, Total radiation (f,): The sum of beam and diffuse radiations is referred as total radiation. When measured at a location on the earth’s surface, itis called solar insolation at that place. When measured ‘on a horizontal surface, itis called global radiation (F,) Irradiance: The rate of incident energy per unit area of a surlace is termed as irradiance. It is also known as Solar Constant, Based on the experimental measurements, the standard value of the Solar Constant is 1.967 KWim?. * Albedo: The earth reflects back nearly 30% of the total solar radiant energy to the space by reflection from clouds, scattering and reflection at the earth’s surface. This is called the albedo of the earth's atmosphere system, *_Insolation: insolation is the solar radiation that reaches the eavth's surface. It is measured by the mount of solar eneray received per square centimeter per minute. Insolation is directly proportional to the temperature i.¢., more the insolation; higher the temperature. Factors that affect insolation are angle of the sun, distance between sun and the earth and duration of daylight. (ot lon ‘The Sun is a fydrodynanié spherical body of exvemely generates energy by the process of thermonuclear fusion. fay radiated from the sun is electromagnetic Waves reaching the Earth in three spectral reqi ions namely, ultraviolet 6.4% (A <0.38 1m), visible 48% (0.38 um <) <0.78 um) and infrared 45.6% (A. > 0,78 um) of total eneray. d_ gases (plasiria) which Bel Solar Radiation Measuring Instruments * Pyranometer: The pyranometer measures global or diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface. It covers ‘otal hemispherical solar radiation with a view angle of 2n steradians. It operates on the principle of thermopile, Pyranometer consists ofa black surface which heats up when exposed to solar radiation. | * Pythetiometer: A pyrhetiometer is an instrument which measures beam radiation ona surface normal {o the sun's rays. Is offen used in the same setup with pyranometer.i i si Ee made ERsy Energy Resource : Conservation & Utilisation 5 © Sunshine recorder: A sunshine recorder is a device that records the amount of sunshine at the given location. The results provide information about the weather and climate of a geographical area, ‘Types of Solar Collector * A solar thermal energy collector is an equipment in which solar energy is collected by absorbing radiation in an absorber and then transferring to a fluid + In general, there are two types of solar collectors: (i) Flat-plate solar collector : In flat-plate solar collector, the collector area and the absorber area are numerically the same. The efficiency of this type of collector is low, and temperature of the working fluid can be raised only up to 100°C. It has no optical concentrator. (ii) Concentrating-type solar collector : In concentrating-type solar collector, the area receiving the solar radiation is several times greater than the absorber area and the efficiency is high. Mirrors and lenses are used to concentrate the sun's rays on the absorber, and the fluid temperature can be raised up to 500°C. Solar Photovoltaic System * Photovoltaic power generation is a method of producing electricity using solar cells. & solar cell converts solar optical energy directly into electrical energy. A solar cellis essentially a semiconductor device fabricated in a manner which generates a voltage when solar radiation falls on it. © Solar cells are fixed on a board and connected in series and parallel ‘combinations to provide the required voltage and power to form a PV module. Working of Solar Photovoltaic System * Solar photovoltaic system consists of photovoltaic cells in which each cell is made Up of at least two semiconductor layers—one positively charged and the other negatively charged + Asa PV cellis exposed to sunlight, photons are absorbed by the cell, When enough photons are absorbed by the negative layer of the photovoltaic cell, electrons are freed from the negatively charged semiconductor material. These freed electrons migrate ta the positive layer creating a voltage difference. When these two layers are connected to an external load, the electricity produced, Solar Cot Module .6 Components of PV Array Flow of electicty (x © Novato 0009 6 Nee semeorductor Paype ‘semeorductor @® Poste stectode Fig: 1.7 (a) Working of a PV CellBasics of Energy and Environment EST evra stuctios . id Engineering Aptitude * Tooperate electrical appliances used in households, the inverters are used to convert DC power into 220, 50 Hz AC power. * Components other than PV module are collectively known as Balance of System (BOS) which includes Storage baiteries, an electronic charge controler, and an inverter. Storage batteries with charge regulators are provided for back-up power supply during periods of cloudy day and during nights. Batteries are charged during the day and supply power to loads. AC LOAD =——{_inverten[— op CHARGE REGULATOR DC LOAD igi 1.7 (b) Block Diagram of Solar Photovoltaic System * The major uses of photovaltaic system have been in space satellites, remote radio-communication booster stations and marine warning lights, Besides, these are also used in water pumping, medical ‘efrigeration and for lighting in remote areas The capacity of a battery is usually expressed in ampare-hours (Ah). lis defined as the number of hours for which a battery can provide current equal othe discharge rate at the nominal vellage of the battery. Advantages of Solar Energy * Solar energy is a clean, noise ree and renewable energy source which causes no pollution ‘+ Vory litle maintenance is required to keep solar cell running as there are no moving parts init * In the long term, there can be @ high return on investment due to the amount of free energy a solar panel ean produce. Limitations of Solar Energy * Electricity generation depends entirely on the exposure to sunlight; this could be limited by climate * Solar power stations de not match the power output of similar sized conventional power stations; they can also be very expensive to build. * Solar power is used for charging batteries so that solar powered devices can be used at night. The batteries can often be large and heavy, taking up space and need to be replaced from time to time. Applications of Solar Energy (Photovoltaic cell (i) Solar thermal power generation (ii) Solar drying system (lv) Solar cooker (v) Solar water and air heater (vi) Cooling and refrigeration 1.3.2 WindEnergy * Wind is air in motion and it derives energy from solar radiation. About 2% of the total solar flux that reaches the earth's surface is transformed into wind energy dlue to uneven heating of the atmosphere. * During daytime, the air over the land mass heats up faster than the air over the oceans. Subsequently, the hot air expands and rises while cool ar from oceans rushes to fll the space, creating local winds. (mpage EASY Energy Resource : Conservation &Utiisation 7 ‘At night, the process is reversed as the air cools more rapidly over land than ocean, causing breeze. Therefore, wind eneray is the kinetic energy generated by virtue of the movement of large air masses ‘caused by differential heating of the atmosphere by the sun, ‘* Wind energy is one of the cleanest renewable energy sources that hold out the promise of meeting a significant portion of energy demand in the direct, grid connected modes as well as remote applications like water pumping, desalination, telacommunication, etc. Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) 1 + A.wind energy conversion system (WECS) is an equipment which generates mechanical energy powered by wind energy, that can be directly converted into electrical energy. + The major components of a typical wind energy conversion system include a wind turbine, a generator, inter-connected apparatus, and control systems. © The wind tuns large turbine blades which spins a generator shaft and produces electricity, This electricity then charge batteries which can be directly connected to local power distribution system or to the power grid. ia Fig: 1.8 Wind Energy Conversion System ' * In particular, the medium and large scale wind energy conversion systems are designed to operate in parallel with a public or local AC grid High Wind Potential Regions and Areas © Equator : This is the high temperature and high humidity region. Due to low pressure belt around the Equator, the winds blow from areas of high atmospheric pressure, i.e. sub-tropical belts, towards the Equator, and are known as trade winds, * Tropical Regions: The tropical regions are located between 30° North and 30° South of the Equator. ‘These regions are dominated by seasonal wind systems, like the monsoon and the trade winds. These are high pressure belts. There are well-defined areas which is rich in wind resources, such as open sea, coastal areas, hills, valleys, terrace, saddle and khals (low depression) © Open seas : Open sea is in general characterized by a very high wind potential. © Coastal areas : Land sites close to the coastline experience stronger winds compared to inland sites in the same wind regime © Hills :Inhilly areas, the topography enhances the wind potential. Rounded hills and ridges experience higher wind speeds due to acceleration over the hil. Acceleration of wind over a ridge depends on the height and its slope profile. * Valley : When two steep slopes meet each other, a valley is formed. It is an ideal location for wind energy installation + Khals (Low Depressions) : Low depression saddles (When the mountain range dips shallow between {wo escarpments, a saddle is formed) have suitable aerodynamic conditions for wind energy generation, ‘These are common sites in rural Garhwal Himalayas, locally known as Khals. ‘Advantages of Wind Energy ‘© Wind energy is 4 non-polluting and environment friendly source of energy which is available free of cost.8 7 Basics of Energy and Environment oa EE Eeenreaae + Power generation is cheaper as there is no shortage of input, and recurring expen I + It can be made available easily in many offshore, onshore and remote areas. Thus, itis h supplying electricity to remote and rural areas. j Limitations of Wind Energy { * Wind tubbine design is complex and needs more research and development work due to widely varying | atmaspheric conditions where these turbines are made to operate ! + Laeuntshav uss capil cosperi, eutrequtocaptal mens tetnday ncontassmat | Units are more reliable but have higher capital cost per kWh. i + Ithas low energy density. | * tis generally favourable in geographic locations which are away from cities. ! * tis variable, unsteady, iegular and intermittent type of eneray resource. i 1.3.3 Hydro Energy National Institute of Wind Eneray (NIWE) is located in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. 2. The mejor wind energy installations are situatedin Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra | Pradesh, Karnataka and Rajasthan, 8 _ India now tanks 4th in grid connected wind power installations in the world after China, USA and Germany, Hydro energy or hydraulic energy is the energy of moving water which is obtained when the gravitational descent of a river is compressed from a long run to a single location with a dam or a flume. It is not only @ clean and non- polluting source of energy, but also ‘one of the most important sources of energy next only to thermal Fig: 1.9. Hydro nergy Conversion System energy. Inthe hydro power plant, a turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water inta mechanical ene: which is coupled with a generator that converts this mechanical energy into electrical energy. ‘oportional tothe product of net head (in metre) and flow (in 1d (inkW) is expressed by The amount of electric power generated cubic metre per second). Therefore, the power gener P= 9.81QHn where, Q = Discharge through turbine, in m/s Hz Nethead, inm n= System elfienicy, in 9 Water head in hydraulic systems is defined in several ways as follows (Gross head : It is the difference in level from the upper surface of water at the highest usable point to the lowest level at the discharge side of the turbine when no water is flowing, (i) Nethead ; Itis the head of water available for doing work on the turbine. itis the gross head less the hydraulic losses occurred in carrying water tothe entrance of the turbine. turbine produces the rated output at th rated speed at which the (ii) Rated head : Its the he:| | | mAnE ERSY Energy Resource : Conservation &Utlisation 9 + Hydropower projects are generally categorized in two segments: (Small hydro project (SHP) (i) Large hydro project (LHP) © Inindi hydro projects upte 25 MW station capacity have been categorized as small hydro power (SHP). These projects have been increasingly used as an altemative energy source, especially in remote’areas where other power sources are not feasible. A small hydro project can be installed in small rivers or streams with little or no environmental effect on activities such as fish migration. * Large scale hydropower plants are generally developed to produce electricity for large electric uty projects. These plants use a dam or reservoir to retain water from river Do you know? In India, the first hydropower station (130 kW capacity) was commissioned in 1897 in the hills of Darjeeling in West Bengal Classification of Small Hydropower (SHP) Stations The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) and the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) have classified SHPs depending on capacity range and available head, The classifications are as follows Table 1.2 (a) Table 1.2 (b) Based on Capacity (Unitsizein kW) | ‘Based on Head Upto 100 [Utea low head Below 3 matre Mini Hyco "101-2000 Low head S40 metre ‘Small Hiya 2007-25000 Mediummigh head Boave 40 m ‘Major Components of Small Hydropower Projects (0) Diversion weir and intake : A diversion weiris used to divert river water to intake channel. The weir is constructed such that it diverts all the lean season flows and the structure stands safe during monsoon floods, The intake structure is provided with a gate to control the release of water in power canal Desilting tank : A desilting tank is constructed to remove pebbles and coarse suspended materials inorder to prevent erosion of turbine blades (ii) Water Conductor System : A water conductor system is designed to minimise head loss and water seepage. (iv) Forebay : A forebay is a large tank constructed with reinforced conorete and stone masonry. I is located at the end of the canal having sufficient capacity to provide water for small changes in generation (¥)_Penstock : A penstock is used to feed water to the generating machine in powerhouse. Penstock pipes are made of mild steel, fibre glass or PVC depending upon their diameter, thickness and water pressure plus transient pressure arising due to sudden load changes. (vl) Spillway : A spillway arrangement is provided at the penstock intake andit does not allow the water \evel to rise and flood the area during sudden load rejection. (vil) Powerhouse : In the powerhouse, the turbine, generator, control panels and auxiliary equipment are installed and operated. (ili) Tail race : A tal race is a water channel, usedto drain down the water discharged from the draft tube tothe river. From the hydraulic point of view, the water level should be maintained to keep the turbine and the draft tube submerged, otherwise the draft tube vacuurn may break and stop the turbine.10 Run-of-river Small Hydropower Plant Advantages of Hydro Energy Limitations of Hydro Energy General Studios & Basics of Energy and Environment Engineering Aptitude Fun-ot iver small hydropower plant isa type of hydoelectric generation plant whereby tle or no water storage is provided Inrun-of-iver small hydropower plant, a rock-flled damis constructed across the river with an overflow spillway in one abutment and turbines with generators installed opposite to the abutment ‘Some of the small hydroelectric projects in India are (Micro hydroelectric project in Lahaul and Spiti Valley, Himachal Pradesh. (i) Micro hyde project in Sonepat, Haryana. (ii) Western Yamuna canal hydro-electric project in Yarnunanagar, Haryana Hydro energy is @ renewable resource in which electricity can be generated constantly as long as sufficient water is available. Hydroelectric power plant produces no primary waste or pollution. Ithas low operating and maintenance cost. ‘Small hydropower projects have short gestation period Hydro power plants can only be installed in those areas where there is sufficient supply of water, The hydro power plants can induce tlooding or submerge large forests (if they have not been harvested). The resulting anaerobic decomposition of the carboniferous materials which release methane a greenhouse gas. ‘These plants rarely erected near load centers, requiring long transmission lines. Even during low-demand periods, it keeps producing electricity which leads to loss of power. tees en accra mannose ernest enn 2 development of small hydro resources in Himalayan and Sub: Himelayan ee 13.4 Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy is naturally occurring thermal energy found within rock formations of the earth and the fluid held in those formations. The Earth is a great reservoir of heat energy in the form of molten interior. Surface manifestation of this heat energy is indicated by hot water springs and geysers discovered at several places. In the inner core of the Earth, there is a layerof hot and molten rock called'magma’ Tubiee which has temperature as high as 4,000°C. Limitless heat content in magma plus the heat generated by radioactive decay of unstable elements such as K-40, TH-232 ‘and U-235 which are abundantin the interior of earth are forms of geothermal energy and considered as a renewable energy resource. 10 Geothermal Energy Conversion SystemIDE EASY Energy Resource : Conservation &Utilsation 1 mnt + In geothermal power plant, water to be seeping into the underground heat source over time which gains heat energy from the geothermal reservoirs. This water is heated and then sent through a steam turbine where the thermal energy (heat) is converted into electricity through a generator. The next step in the cycle is to coo! the fluid and send it back to the heat source. «The injection wells ensure that the water that is drawn up is to be returned to the geothermal reservoir ‘where it regains the thermal energy and this oycle continues, ‘Do You Know? Radial temperature gradient increases proportionally to depth in the earth ate rate of about 30°C per km. Structure of the Earth's Interior ‘The Earth consists of a series of concentric shells, Its internal structure can be divided into three parts, namely Crust, Mantle and Core. (i) Crust : The crust of the Earth is 70-100 km thick and can be divided into continental crust (20-65 km under the continents) and ocean crust (7 km under the ocean basins). The study of seismic waves has indicated that the Earth’s crust Zone separating eS Lower manta Outer Core underneath the continents is thicker than (Ligue) that undemeath the oceans as seismic — ‘waves travel faster in oceanic crust than in ("as\ 140+] |}-s0 continental crust. The oceanic crust SO BaD 2000 G00 Om consists of low-density rocks (basalt) whereas the continental crust largely contains the granite. (il) Mantle : The upper rigid partof the mantle extends up to 100 km below the crust and contains mainly iron and magnesium. The crust and upper mantie form the Lithosphere. The lower mantie extending Up to 2900 km below the Earth's surface is less rigid and hotter. This is known as the Asthenasphere and is capable of being deformed. The phenomena of plate tectonics, i.e. the movement of the Earth's crust is caused by the movement of the Lithosphere over the Asthenosphere. (iil) Core : It forms 33% of the Earth's mass and has a radius of about 3500 km. The outer core is in ‘molten of liquid state while the inner core is believed to contain nickel-iron alloy. The outer core is responsible for all the earthquakes and volcanic activities. Fig: 1.11 Half-cross section ofthe Earth Geothermal Resources Geothermal resources are of five types: (0) Hydrothermal (a) Hotwater (o) Wet steam (superheated water trom highly pressurized underground reservoirs) (i) Vapour dominated resource (ii) Hot dry rock resource (iv) Geopressured resource (v) Magma resource (i) Hydrothermal Resource: Hydrothermal resources are hot water or steam reservoirs that can be tapped by driling to deliver heat to the surface for thermal use or generation of electricity.12 Basics of Energy and Environment EERE _ Serer stctiese a - Engineering Aptitude {a) Hot Water Fields: At these locations, hot water below 100°C gushes out as hot spring. The geothermal aquifers being covered by confining layers keep the hot water under pressure. Generally, the geothermal water contains sulphur in colloidal form which is widely used as medicated curative water for skin diseases. (b) Wet Steam Fields: At these locations, the pressurized water is at more than 100°C and contains small quantities of steam and vapour in the geothermal reservoir in this formation, steam occurs inthe form of bubbles surrounded by liquid water. (ii) Vapour-dominated Resource: Vapour dominated reservoirs produce dry saturated steam above {he atmospheric pressure and at high temperature about 350°C. Water and steam co-exist, but steam isin dominant phase and regulates pressure in the reservoir, Geopressured Resource: Geopressured resources contain moderate temperature brines (160°C) Containing dissolved methane, These are trapped under high pressure (nearly 1000 bar) in a deep sedimentary formation sealed between impermeable layers of shale and clay at depths of 2-10 km, ‘Magma: Magma is a molten rock at temperature ranging from 700°C to 1600°C, This hot viscous liquid comes out at active volcanic vents and solicfies. it may form reservoirs at some depth fron the earth's surface. Poyou know? Sites where the steam escapes through cracksin the surface are called tumaroles. Geothermal Sites in the World * Mostof the world's valcanic activities and geothermal sites are located in the circum- pacific belt known as Ring of Fire. It starts from New Zealand, encompasses Philippines, Japan, West coasts of North America and Mexico. Another belt runs from Iceland touching the British isles, through Azores (autonomous region of Portugal) across the Alanticto the West Indies, witha branch running through the Mediterranean Sea, Fig: 1.12 Regions of geothermal sites, earthquakes and volcanicactivity * Geothermal sites are also found where collision of continental plates occurs like north-west area of Indian-Australian and Eurasian Plates. Geothermal Resources in India * Due tomost of its land is covered with mountains and, plateaus, India has huge potential for geothermal energy. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has estimated the capacity to produce ‘geothermal power in India is 10,600 MW. * MNRE has identified some potential geothermal energy sites in India, These are: (i) Puga valley (J&K)mae EASY Energy Resource : Conservation & Utilisation 13 (ii) Tattapani (Chhattisgarh) (ii) Godavari basin (iv). Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) (v)_ Bakreshwar (West Bengal) (vi) Tuwa (Gujarat) (vi) Unai (Gujarat) (vii) Jalgaon (Maharashtra) (i) Barren island (Andaman & Nicobar Islands) ig: 1.13 Geothermal provinces of India The potential geothermal areas in India have been divided in following provinces: (i) “a Himalaya Province: It is most promising province in the country and contains about 100 thermal springs with high surface temperature of 90°C, discharging more than 190 tonne/hour af thermal water Cambay Province: This province forms a part of Cambay basin, where 15 discharge sites are located with surtace temperatures varying from 40°C to 90°C14 Basics of Energy and Environment LESEPrelims Jy nee Se r Ail) West Coast Province: This province is located within Deccan flood basalts of Cretaceous age. West Coast province enjoys a thin ithosphero of 18 km thickness, thereby making this province a most promising sites for geothermal energy exploitation. (SONATA Province: This province extends from Cambay in the west to Bakreswar in the east with high geothermal gradient and encloses Tattapani geothermal province spread over an area of £80,000 say. Tattapani encloses 23 thermal discharge sites wth surface temperature varying between 60°C and 95°C and tow rate more than 4000 Limi. (¥)_ Bakreshwar Province: This province falls n West Bengal and Bihar and marks the junction between SONATA and Singhbhum shear zone, Helium gas is found inall thermal discharges (water and gases). () Godavari Province: Godavari valley in Andhra Pradesh consists 13 thermal discharges having range Of surface temperature between 50°C to 60°C. Itis estimated that 38 MW power can be generated trom this province. (41) The Barron Island: This province forms apart of the Andaman & Nicobar islands chain in the Bay of Bengal. In this zone, fumaralc discharge carry temperature between 100°C and 600°C. ‘Advantages of Geothermal Energy * Geothermal energy isthe most versatile and least polluting renewable energy source. *Iédelivers greater amount of net energy than other conventional or non-conventional eneray sources, * Within the electric supply system, geothermal sources could provide steady base load power with very low variable costs. * Geothermal energy is relatively inexpensive * No fuelisneeded, so recurring expenditure is small * Geothermal plants are modular, and can be installed in increments as required * Construction time is only 6 months for plants inthe range 0.5 MW to 10 MW, and as ite as 2 years for cluster of pants * Geothermal plants can be used both as baseline and peak power. Limitations of Geothermal Energy * Overall etfciency of power production is low which is about 15% compared to fossil fuel plants. * The withcrawal of large amounts of heat may result in surface subsidence. * The steam and! hot water gushing out of the earth may contain HS, CO, NH, and radon gas, ete I these gases are vented out, the air pollstion willbe a real hazard. These gases are to be removed by chemical action before they are discharged + Driling operation is noisy * Large areas are needed for extraction of geothermal energy. Utilisation of Geothermal Energy (Power generation (i) Space heating (i) Extraction and refining of borax and sulphur (i) Greenhouse heating (W) Refrigeration 13.5 OceanEnergy * Ocean energy is an indirect form of solar energy. The oceans and seas constitute about 70% of the earth's surface area, so they act asa large reservoir of solar energy. On an average, the 60 milion km? of topical seas absorb solar radiation equivalent to the heat content of 246 bilion harrels of ol1 mabe ERSY Energy Resource : Conservation & Utilisation 15 +The major oceanic sources of energy are wave energy, tidal energy and Ocean Thermal Energy Conversions (OTEC). However, the energy emanating from the surface water evaporation by solar heating, ie., hydrological cycle is also a form of ocean energy. © These oceanic sources of energy except tidal are the results of the absorption of solar radiation by ‘seas and oceans which cause wind, ocean currents and moderate temperature gradients from the water surface downward, especially in tropical water. Wave Energy © Tne endless motion of the sea surface in the form of waves constitutes a source of energy, which is, known as wave energy. Extraction of eneray from waves is more efficient than direct collection of power from wind, since the wave energy is concentrated through the interaction of thewind and the free ocean surface, © Waves are formed on the surface of water by the frictional action of the winds resulting in the radial depression of energy from the blowing winds in all directions. «Wave energy is defined as the rate at which itis transferred across one metreline at right angles to its diceetion P= 0.96 HET kWim of wave crest where His the wave height measured in metres and Tis the wave period in seconds. Floating turbine ‘Generator Motonot —chanber Wass, jnonct Cham ‘Gouan Floor Fig: 1.14 Wave Energy Conversion System + Themost common technique of harnessing wave energy sa turbine coupled withan electrical generator system, but the main problem in the system is its inability to produce electricity if airflow velocity increases beyond the designed value. «There are three major factors which govern the quantum of wave energy. The firsts the wind speed, ie. the higher the wind speed, the higher is the wave energy. The second factors the ‘effective fetch value’, .¢., the uninterrupted distance on the ocean over which the wind can blow before reaching the point of reference. The larger the distance, the higher the wave energy. This distance may vary from 5 ken to 45 km, The third factor is the depth of the sea water. The greater the depth of ocean water, the higher the wave velocity. ‘Wave Energy Potential of Indian Coast © Maximum concentration of wave energy is available between the latitudes 25° and $6° in both the hemispheres. Latitudes of around 20° are most suitable for hamessing wave energy. As there is low pressure around the Equator and high pressure near the tropics, the trade winds blow from the sub- tropical belts towards the Equator and create wave energy potential © India has a huge wave energy potential of about 90,000 MW along its 6000 km long coast. «© Toexpedite and identify high wave energy areas suitable for power development, the National institute of Oceanography, Goa has divided the Indian coastline into six zones, namely A, B,C, D, E and F16 Basics of Energy and Environment I Several stucies& Engineering Aptitude Wave Power Zones in India (The analysis o! the wave power availabilty indicates that in zone A, a minimum power of 2.69 kWim 'S available in October while @ maximum power of 38.57 kW is during July which isthe heavy monsoon period, (i) In zone B, a minimum of 2.24 kW/m is available in March while the maximum in July, i.e 27:04 kwim. (ii) The zone C isin indian Ocean where a minimum of 4.05 kWim is available during March and a maximum of 18,85 kW/m in June. Normally, the Zone Cis quite rich in wave power throughout the year, as this area is covered by both summer and winter monsoon winds. (iv) Wave power potential in zone D is a minimum of ‘3.30 kWim during March and a maximum of more than 14 kWim occurs during June, July and December () Zone Eis ofnormal pattern where a minimum of 1.69 kWim is during February and a maximum of Fig: 1.15 Wave powerzones in india 17.45 kim during July. : (™) Zone F clearly depicts wave power potential cf more than 11.90 kW/m from April to September whlle | during the remaining six months itis quite low, H Advantages of Wave Energy i + Itis a free, renewable and pollution free energy resource, 7 * The energy density of wave energy is greater than that of wind as well as solar | * Wave power devices do not require large land masses like solar or wind power devices, | * Wave energy is more concentrated compared to wind energy. tations of Wave Energy * With present state of technologies, wave power is expensive * Relative scarcity of accessible sites of large wave activity * Wave energy extraction equipment must be capable of operating in a marine environment and withstanding very severe stresses in storms * Marine mammal and sea bird population could also be affected by the physical presence of wave energy structures. * Energy available in ocean waves varies in diferent months and seasons. NOTE —_1.__ Tho fit wave energy projectin India was Set up al Vizhinjam near Thituvananthapuamn | sy Kerala with the capacity of 150 MW. : ee 2. Department of OGean Development (OOD) is the nodal agency to harness wave ‘energy in India, : ; eae : Tidal Energy * Energy can be extracted from the tides which are formed due to the gravitational effect of the sun and moon on the Earth. This gravitational force causes a periodic rise and fall of the water level of sea which can be used to produce electric power. Such type of energy is known as tidal energy| mave EASY Energy Resource : Conservation & Utilisation W During the high tide, the height of the tide is above that of tidal basin “ial borage and the turbine unit operates and Corte cer — fe generates power. During low tides, eee menses the height of tide is fower than that of the tidal basin and water is allowed to flow out to ctive or propel the turbine unit. © Thetidal power plantrequires a great tidal ange and a suitable bay where ‘a dam can be construct which will Fig: 1.16 Tidal Energy Conversion System. store water and release it during low tides to run a turbine. Note: The ‘dal range’ is expressed as the difference in water levels between two consecutive high tides and Jow tides. The rise and fall of water level in the sea during tides can be represented by a sine ourve. Tidal Characteristics «The tides are caused by the combined attraction of the sun and the moon on the water af the ocean. ‘The gravitational effect of the moon is about 2.6 times more than that of the sun, influencing the tides of the oceans. Twice during a lunar day (i. within 24 hours 50 minutes) the water in oceans and seas rises and falls. * The amplitude of water level variations at different points on the Earth depends on the latitude and the nature of the shore, The roiation of the earth causes two high tides and two low tides to occur daily at any place. ‘© As the moon revolution takes about 28 days, the three bodies, i. the sun, the moon and the earth are in alignment every two weeks al new and full moon. During these periods, the sun and the moon actin combination to produce tides of maximum range. Fret quarter Woon) ic) Tid vaner |-17(a) Condition for spring tides Fig: 1.17(6) Condition for neap tides ‘© The solar pull comes in ine with the lunar pull at 'New Moon’ and ‘Full Moon’, causing greater flow and ebb, known as spring tides, On the other hand, if the two pulls act at right angles to each other, as at waxing and waning ‘Half Moons’, i. in the first and the third quarters, we get low tides called 'Neap Tides’' Basics of Energy and Environment z General Studies & 18 nergy and Enviro ae Important Components of a Tidal Power Plant + There are three important components of a tidat plant: () Abarrage (i) Sluice gates (ii) Apowerhouse Barrage (Dam or Dyke): Barrages for tidal power projects have to withstand the force of sea waves, 80 the design should be suilable to site conditions and to economic aspect of development. The rockiill dams or barrages are preferred due to their stability against flows Sluices: Tidal power piants operate on the continuously varying difference in level at which the basin : ‘must be filled from the sea or emptied to the sea, as required by the operating regime of the power Plant. This requires suitable sluice ways equipped with gates which can be operated quickly. Power House (Turbines, generators and auxliary equipments): The energy potential in tidal power development is exploited from low to very low heads, for which large size turbines are required, * Ifthe water head is more than 8 metres, a propeller type turbine is quite suitable because the angle of blades can be changed to obtained maximum efficiency while the water is falling. For low heads three 'ypes of turbines can be used; the selection is macle according to the suitability, These turbines are Bulb turbine, Tube turbine and Straight flow rim type turbine Advantages of Tidal Energy * Tidal energy isa pollution free source of energy, as it does not use any fuel and also does not produce any unhealthy waste * Tidal power plants do not require large areas of valuable land, as they are on the bay or estuaries. * Tidal energy is completely independent of the uncertainty of the precipitation (rainfall, ete.). Even if there is a continuous dry spell for many years, there will be no effect what so over on tidal power generation. + itis available all round the year, * Tidal power is predictable. * Tidal power when used in combination with a thermal plant can meet effectively the load demand, * After the capital cost of a tidal power scheme is paid off, the cost of power generated is very low. Limitations of Tidal Energy * Tidal power schemes require low-head turbines, which are larger and more expensive than high-head turbines of similar power production. Since, the tidal ranges are highly variable, therefore the turbines have to work on a wide range of head variation. * Tidal power plants hamper other natural uses of estuaries such as fishing, migration of marine organisms or navigation + Low power production * Complex design system, * Tidal power plant output varies with the variation in tidal range. * Tidal power supply is intermittent. * Siling of basins is a problem with tical power plants, Tidal Power Development in India * India has a long coastline of 6000 km and there are promising sites for setting up tidal power plants in West Bengal and Gujarat.jE EASY Energy Resource : Conservation &Utilisation 19 mat * In Sunderban area, there is a potential of 50 MW of tidal power + Kalpasar Multipurpose Tidal Project (Gujarat) is an extraordinary project which involves building a 64 km dam across the Gulf of Khambhat. The dam will rap the water from rivers that flow into the gulf namely, Narmada, Mahi, Sabarmati among others to create a huge fresh water lake. DoYouknow? The Central Electricity Althority (CEA) s he nodal agenoy for Selling Up tidal enorgy projects. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversions (OTEC) * Ocean thermal energy conversions make use of the temperature difference between the surface water of the oceans and the depth of the oceans, * The ocean thermal energy can be hamessed in tropical oceans where the temperature gradientis the highest around 28°C on top and about 5°C at the depth of 1000 meters. * The OTEC converts the thermal energy, available due to temperature difference between the warm ‘surface water and the cold deep water, into electricity. Power from the OTEC is renewable and eco- friendly. Qcean Surface | \ 4 ‘ Depth-1000 metres | Fig:1.18 Ocean ThermalEnergy Conversion (OTEC) System Principle of Working of OTEC Plant + The operation of OTEC plant is based upon thermodynamic principle in which if a heat source is available ata higher temperature and a heat sink at a lower temperature then the temperattre diference can be utilized to run a prime mover (e.g, turbine), which can convert part of the heat taken from source into mechanical energy. The residual heat is discharge to the sink at lower temperature. + Inocean, a temperature difference of about 20°C exist between the warm surface water and the cold deep water * The solar heat energy absorbed by ocean water can be explained by Lambert's Law of Absorption which states that the each water layer of identical thickness absorbs an equal fraction of ight that asses through it. Thus, the intensity of heat decreases with the increase in water depth. Due to large heat transfer al the ocean surface water, the highest temperature is attained just below the top surface. ‘+ The basic process of OTECis to bring the warm surface water and the cold water from a certain depth of the sea through pipes so as to act as heat source and heat sink for operating a heat engine.20 Basics of Energy and Environment ESET «Several stustes Engineering Aptitude Location of oTEC Plants | + Ite temperature citerence between te sufaceandthe deep ocean walerishigher. the ste becomes. | more suitable as it will increase the power output, consequently the per unit cost will reduce. Such sites are available in Torrid and Temperate Zone of the globe between latitudes 30°S and 30°N. * An OTEC plant can be either based on the land next to the sea, or placed on a floating platform. | | Development of OTEC in India ‘+ Asa tropical country with along coastline, India has tremendous ocean thermal energy potential. * India is fortunate to have its Exclusive Economic Zone (EZ) and continental shelf an ocean area comparable to its land area, India's OTEC resource potential is estimated at around 180,000 MW. * Some of the best sites for OTEC are situated along the coast of Tamil Nadu, Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Advantages of OTEC i * The OTECis continuous, renewable and pollution-tree. +A floating OTEC plant can generate power even at mid sea and can be used to provide power for operations like offshore mining and processing of manganese nodules. Limitations of OTEC + Itis very low grade solar thermal energy. Therefore, the efficiency of energy recovery is quite low. + Bio-fouling is one of the limitations of OTEC plants, * Energy from an OTEC can be converted into either electrical or chemical ar mechanical form. These plants may be combined with electrical energy intensive industries like ammonia, hydrogen or aluminimum production ‘+ Inanopen-cycle OTEC, seawater is used to generate steam which after operating the turbine, condenses to deliver resh water, I | i Application of OTEC | NOTE Theraw ocean water which is pampedin lor evaporalor and Gondensar contains micro-organisms “hich stick on the water side of both the heat exchangers. This biological impurity of sea water that deposits and grows on the evaporator and condenser metal surfaces, creating thermal resistance for heat transfer. It is known as ‘bio-fouling’. This creates @ serious problem for heat transfor, consequently recucing the efficiency of the OTEC pant. 1.3.6 Biomass Energy ‘* Biomass refers to solid carbonaceous material derived from plants and animals, These include residues of agriculture and forestry, animal waste and discarded material from food processing plants. Biomass being organic matter from terrestrial and marine vegetation, renews naturally in a short span of time, thus, classified as a renewable source of energy. © Biomass does not add CO, to the atmosphere as it absorbs the same amount of carbon in growing the plants, as it releases when consumed as fuel. it is a superior fuel as the energy produced from biomassis in carbon neutral cyole. © Agricuture products rich in starch and sugar like wheat, maize, sugarcane can be fermented to produce ethanol (CH,OH), Methanol (CH,OH) is also produced by distillation of biomass that contains cellulose like wood and bagasse. Both these alechol can be used to fuel vehicles and can be mixed with diesel to make biodieselthem into a fuel by certain mioro-organisms when they digest them in the absence of air. They produce either alcohol or methane gas, which themselves give energy on combustion. Itis a derivative of solar energy as plants grow by the process of photosynthesis by absorbing CO, from the atmosphere to form glucose, expressed by the reaction 6CO, +12 HO StH + Gg + 60, +6H,0 Since, biomass is obtained through the process of photosynthesis, therefore it is considered to be another form of indirect use of solar energy. Interesting Fact: The Biomass Research Centre, Lucknow found the ‘Kubabull ree thal grows well on saline and rocky soils and provides wood of high calorific value (4500 kcal’kg). mane EASY Energy Resource : Conservation & Utilisation 21 * Biomass energy refers to the direct burning of wood, waste paper, manure, agriculture or converting t : Biomass Resources Biomass resources for energy production are widely available in forest areas, rural farms, urban and organic waste from agro-industries Biomass i | 1 Enorgy cope Natural vegetation Organic wastes | torests) ‘ard vsidues, SEER 1 Forest Agia Animal Urban waste Indust residue crop waste ‘waste residues — Muncpal Sewage soldwaste liquid waste Fig: 1.19 Classification of Biomass Forests : Forests are a rich source of timber, fuel wood, charcoal and raw material for paper mills and other industries, Agricultural crop residues: These are available in abundance as the natural resources. These are rice husk, wheat straw, corn cobs, cotton sticks, sugarcane bagasse, groundnut and coconut shells, (iii) Energy crops: Eneray farming refers to the cultivation of energy crops which supply fuel wood, biomass that can be converted into gaseous and liquid fuel like biogas, vegetable oil and alcohol (lv) Vegetable oil crops: Oil can be extracted from crops such as, sunflower, cotton seed, groundnut, rapeseed, palm and coconut, These oils after purification can be blended with diesel oil suitable as engine fuel (v) Aquatic crop: Aquatic crops constitute three water plants, namely algae, water hyacinth and sea weed, These plants grow abundantly in water bodies and provide organic matter for biogas plants. (vi) Animal waste: Animal waste, an organic material with comoustible property, is a rich source of fuel Dung cakes prepared with animal waste are used for cooking in rural and semi-urban areas. Itis also a raw material for biogas plants. (vil) Urban waste ; Urban waste is of two types, namely municipal solid waste which includes human ‘excreta, household garbage, and liquid waste from domestic sewage and effluents from institutional activities. As per MNRE estimate, about 42 milion tonnes of solid waste and 6000 million cubic metres of liquid waste are generated every year in urban areas,Basics of Energy and Environment SEDI , Cores! staciese _ Engineering Aptitude (vil) Industrial waste: Industral waste projects are developed for waste derived from Pulp andi paper industry effluent, starch and glucose industry waste, palm oll industry, and dlistilery waste and tanneries waste. (x) Biofuels: Around 40% of the total energy consumed in India comes from wood, crop residues, cow dung, ete for cooking and various domestic uses. To harness fuel value, technologies are required to corivert biomass into a high quality usable solid, liquid and gaseous fuels called biofuels. (%) Charcoal: Charcoal is a smokeless dry solid fuel with high energy density. It contains 75-80% carbon andi useful as a compact fue. Itcan be burntto provide heat for domestic, commercial and industrial applications. NOTE. Biomass briquetting is {he densification of loose biomass into a high density solid (uel. Biomass of any form Such as cotton sticks, rice husk, coconut shells, saw dust and wood chips ean be 2 ‘converted into briquets, It reduces the volurne-to-weight ratio, thus making transportation easy for efficient commercial and industrial use. Its calorific valle is about 3600 kcallkg Biomass Power Conversion Technology «Biomass power conversion technology convert renewable biomass fuels to heat and electricity using processes similar to those employed for fossil fuels, Al present, the primary approach for generating ‘electricity from biomass is combustion i., directfring, and the combustion systems of this power plant aro similar to most fossi-uel fired power plants. Fig: 1.20 Biomass Power Conversion Technology ‘The parts label in the picture depict: 4. Energy from the sun is transferred and stored in plants, When the plants are cut or die, wood chips, straw and other plant matter is delivered to the bunker. 2. This is burned to heat the water ina boiler to release stearn. “The eneray/power from the steam is directed to turbines with pipes, 4, The steam turns @ qumber of blades in the turbine and generators, which are made of coils and magnets. 5, The charged magnetic fields produce electricity, which is sent to homes by cables0s, nd | mane EASY Energy Resource : Conservation &Utlsation 23 Biomass material rom a variety of sources can be utlised optimally by adopting efficient and state-of-the: art conversion technologies such as () Densification of biomass (i) Combustion and incineration Gi) Thermo-chemical conversion (iv) Bio-chemical conversion (i) Densification: Bulky biomass is reduced to a better volume-to-weight ratio by compressing in a die at ahigh temperature and pressure, (ii) Combustion: Direct combustion is the main process adopted for utlizing biomass energy. Blomass is bbumtto produce heat which is utlised for cooking, space heating, industrial processes and for electricity generation Incineration: Incineration is the process of burning completely the solid biomass to ashes by high temperature oxidation. In this process, the dry Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is incinerated to reduce the volume of solid refuse (up to 90%) and to produce heat, steam and electricity Thermo-chemical conversion: Thermo-chemical conversion is a process to decompose biomass with various combinations of temperatures and pressures. It includes pyrolysis and gasification, (a) Pyrolysis + In this process, biomass is heated in absence of oxygen, or partially combusted in a limited oxygen supply to produce hydrocarbon which is rich in gas mixture, an oillike liquid and a carbon rich solid residue (charcoal) 4 _Inthis process, there is no waste product. The conversion efficiency is high (@bout 62%) depending ‘upon the feedstock used, the process temperature in reactor and the fuel ratio during combustion (b) Gasification * Gasification is conversion of a solid biomass at a high temperature with controlled air into a ‘gaseous fuel. The output gas is known as producer gas or synthesis gas. * The producer gas is more versatile than the solid biomass. It can be bumt to produce heat and steam, or used in internal combustion engines or gas turbines to generate electricity. (c) Liquefaction * Liquefaction of biomass can be processed through pyrolystic oll which is a dark brown liquil of low viscosity and a mixture of hydrocarbons. It is @ good substitute for heating oi. * Synthesis gas which is produced from gasification of biomass contains a mixture of H, and CO. is purified by adjusting the hydrogen and carbon monoxide composition. This purified gas is subjected to liquefaction process and converted to methanol over a zine chromium catalyst (iv) Biochemical Conversion There are two forms of biochemical conversions: Anaerobic digestion and Ethanol fermentation (a) Anaerobic Digestion (Anaerobic Fermentation) * This process converts the caitle dung, human wastes and other organic waste with high moisture Content into biogas (gobar gas) through anaerobic fermentation in absence of ar. ‘© Fermentation occurs in a sealed tank called ‘digester’ where the sludge left behind is used as enriched tertizer.24 Basics of Energy and Environment TY Soret stations Engineering Aptitude (b) Ethanol Fermentation «Ethanol canbe produced by decomposition of biomass containing sugar like sugarcane, cassava, west sorghum, beet, polalo, corn, grape, etc. into sugar molecules such as glucose (CyH,,0,) and sucrose (C.Hp,01) ‘© Ethanol fermentation involves biological conversion of sugar into ethanol and CO, CgHaaOs +H,0 AH CatypOy —EBmEt 20, 10H +260, «Ethanol has emerged as the major alcohol fuel and is blended with petrol + Biomass reduce air pollution by being a part of carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is nature's way of moving carbon around to suppor life on the earth, Plant photosynthesis breaks CO, into carbon which form carbohydrates and oxygen which releases into air. When a plantis burnt, it gives its carbon back to air, which is re-absorbed by other plants. On the other hand, when fossil fuels are burnt, there is no ‘extra plant o absorb thal carbon, so, the cyole becomes out of balance. Example 1. Ans. (a) Consider the following statements regarding the generation of biomass energy: 1. {tls generated from organic material, plant or animal waste. 2, Itis easily available. 3, Biomass boilers are less expensive than gas or oil boilers. Which of the above statements are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (0) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2and3 [Sample Question for ESE 2017 : Released by UPSC] Biomass Energy Programmes in In ‘The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has taken up following programmes for meeting the tural energy needs: Biogas Development Programme National Programme on Improved Chulhas. Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP) Village Energy Security Programme (VESP) Remote Vilage Electrification Programme (RVEP) Uriagram, 1. Biogas Development Programme The programme consists of: National Project on Biogas Development (NP8D) This project was started in 1981-82 with the following objectives: (i) Mitigating the drudgery of rural women. (i) Providing fuel to rural household for cooking purpose. (ii) Organic manure for application in agricultural fields. (iv) Reducing the pressure on forest. {w) Recycling human waste by linking toilets with biogas plants, thereby improving sanitation.e | mane easy Energy Resource : Conservation &Utisation 25 ‘The Community and Institutional Biogas Plants Programme This programme was started in 1982-83 with the following objectives: (0) To provide benefits of biogas technology to weaker section of the society. (i) To recycle organic wastes for harnessing fuel-gas at community andinstitutional levels for various usages. Research and Development in Biogas Sector This project includes minimizing the capital cost of biogas plants, development of materials and techniques, which are amenable for local level fabrication to reduce the time of installation. It provide studies in the field of microbiology, biochemistry and engineering for increasing the biogas field by at least a factor of two, especially at low and high temperatures. 2. National Programme on Improved Chulha This programme was started in the year 1986-87 with the following objectives: () Conversion of fuel wood and other biomass. (i) Check on deforestation, andl environmental protection, (i) Recluction of health hazard and cooking tine and provides employment opportunities torural people. {iv) More than 30 models of durable fixed with chimneys and portable improved chulhas are available for family communities and commercial applications ene een ees Ee 3. Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP) ‘The programme was conceptualized during 6" Five Year Plan and launched as centrally sponsored scheme in the 7" Five Year Plan with the following abjectives: (i) Provision of the most cost effective mix of various energy sources and options for meeting the requirements of sustainable agriculture and rural development by giving due weightage to environmental consideration (i). Development of capabilities in States / UTs for proparation and implementation of Block level eneray plans and projects "4, Village Energy Security Programme (VESP) + The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has started the Village Energy Security Programme for vilages which do not have access to grid connectivity + In this programme, all energy needs of vilagers such as domestic, commercial, agricultural, and industrial sector will be met by local available biomass sources of eneray. * MNRE provides Central Financial Assistance (CFA) of € 20000) per hausehold for 50-400 households | ina village. * This programme is run by implementing agency such as forest departments, department of rural development, reputed and recognized NGOs, and cooperatives societies. 5. Remote Village Electrification Programme ‘+ The Remote Vilage Electritication Programme (RVEP) aims to provide basic facilites of lighting electricity in those remote unelectified census villages where grid connectivity is either not feasible or not cost effective + Theneedof electtification to be fulfilled through various renewable energy sources including biomass | 6 Urjagram + Urjagram is a project which aims to make remote and far flung rural areas self sufficient in energy through locally available renewable energy resources such as solar energy. biomass energy, wind energy ete26 Basics of Energy and Environment EET Coro Stesiese Engineering Aptitude * The energy produced can be used not only for domestic needs but also for agriculture operations, cottage industry, ele. In Urjagram, a community biogas plant may be there, Note: The leading states for biomass projects are Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu. Biogas * Biogas is a renewable energy derived from organic wastes such as cattle dung, human waste, eto, Left-over digested sluny is used as enriched manure in agriculture lands. * Biogas can be produced by digestion of animal, plant and human waste. Digestion is a biological process thal takes place ina digester with anaerobic organism in absence of oxygen ata temperature between 35°C and 70°C. In rural areas, household biogas plants operate from cow and buffalo dung which provide gas for cooking and lighting + Biogas is a mixture of CH, (55% to 65%). CO, (30% to 40%), valle between 5000 and $500 kcallkg. ln HS and N, (< 10%) having a calorific Biogas Technology Biogas is produced from wet biomass through a biological conversion process that involves bacterial breakdown of organic matter by micro-organisms to mainly produce CH,,CO, and H,O. The process is known as anaerobic digestion which proceeds in folowing three steps: (0 Hydrolysis (i) Acid formation {i Methane formation Hydrolysis: Organic waste of animal and plants contains carbohydratesin the form of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, A group of anaerobic micro-organisms breaks down complex organic material into simple and soluble organic components, primarily acetates, The rate of hydrolysis depends on bacterial concentration, quality of substrate, pH (between 6and 7) and temperature (30°C - 40°C) of digester contents Acid formation: Decomposed simple organic material is acted upon by acetogenic bacteria and converted into simple acetic acid, Methane formation: Acetic acid becomes the substrate strictly for anaerobic methanogenic bacteria, which ferment acetic acid to methane and CO,. The methane content of biogas is about 60% which provides a high calorific value to find use in cooking, lighting and power generation, Factors Affecting Biogas Production ‘There are eight major factors which affect the quality ancl quantity of biogas: (i) Solid-to-water ratio: Cattle dung contains about 18% solid matter and the remaining 82% is water. Anaerobic fermentation proceeds ata taster rate ifthe slurry contains about 9% solid matter. (ii) Volumetric loading rate : It is expressed as the quantity of organic waste fed into the digester per day per unit volume. In general, the municipal sewage treatment plants operate at a loading rate of 1.010 1.5 kgimMlday (ii) Temperature : Temperature affects bacterial activity. The formation of methiane is optimum in the temperature range 35°-38°C, Biogas production decreases below 20°C and stops al 8°C. (iv) Seeding : Cattle dung contains both acid forming bacteria and methane forming bacteria. Acid forming bacteria mutiply fast, while the methane forming bacteria grow slowly. To start and accelerate fermentation, seeding of methane forming bacteria is required. (v) pH value : Measure of pH value indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions. For optimum biogas production, pH can be varied between 6.8 and 7.85 mabe ERSY Energy Resource : Conservation &Utilisation 27 . (vi). Carbon-to-nitrogen (CIN) ratio : Methanogenic bacteria needs carbon and nitrogen for its survival. Carbonis required for eneray while nitrogen for building cell protein. The consumption of carbon is 30 . 0.35 times faster than that of nitrogen. A favourable ratio of C = N can be taken as 30 : 1 (vil) Retention time : The period for which the biomass slurry is retained inside the digester is called retention time. It refers to the volume of digester divided by the volume of slurry added per day. ‘Thus, a 120 litre digester which is fed at 5 litres per day would have a retention time of 24 days. (vii) Stirring digester contents : Stiring the contents of the digester is necessary to mix the bacteria rich fluid in the slurry to provide better contact between micro-organisms and uniform distribution of al solids in the slurry. Producer gas is obtained by partial combustion of wood or any cell plant origin. 1t is a mixture of a few gases and its constituents are CO, (19%), CH, (1%), H (18%); CO (11%) and N, (45-65%), It can be used in bole, ‘ICengines,rigaton pumps, and gas turbines for power generation. Power Generation from Landfill Gas Recycling o city garbage and municipal solid waste (MSW) poses a serious problem duet its enormous, uantily. Its sanitary disposal through lanl is a sucessful method to mitigate the problem. A large pit at the outskirts of city is prepared and a pipe system for gas collection is laid down before the waste is filled MSW is buried for anaerobic digestion, eventually the gas produced does not escape into the almosphere, After 2-3 months, depending on the olimate, landfill gas can be extracted by inserting perforated pipes into the landfill ‘Cogeneration is defined as the sequential general single primary energy source, typically mechani in India uses bagasse-based cogeneration for achi Be og B Ethanol from Biomass ‘* Ethanol or ethyl alcoho! (C,H,OH) is a colourless and flammable liquid. tis a renewable energy source which can substitute petroleum products. It can be produced from a variety of biomass materials, containing sugar, starch and cellulose. The best-known feedstock under three categories are ter | (i) Sugar : Sugarcane, sugar beet, sweet sorghum, grapes, molasses, etc. } (ii) Starches : Maize, wheat, barley, potatoes, cassava, rice, etc. a (Starch crops constitute grains which are rich in carbohydrates, Starch has a complicated structure a having many glucose molecules linked together in a long chain called disaccharide forms of sugar) td (iii) Cellulose : Wood, straw, steams of grasses, bamboo, sugarcane bagasse, etc. eal (Cellulose contained in wood, grasses and crop residue contain a long chain of sugars and lignin | available in plants which hinders hydrolysis to sugars. This complex material is called | polysaccharides.) a ' + Ethanol being a high octane fuel raises the octane rating ofthe mixture. Octane rating is the measurement ofthe quality of the fuel. It increases antiknock property1.4 141 142 of Energy and Environment EERE ee taiona Engineering Aptitude 7, Sweet ruts ike ripe grape, mangoes, elc., contain glucose in natural form. Juice containing sugar can easily be fermented into ethanol by adding yeast. 2. Yeasts are micro-organisms called Saccharomyoes Cerevisiae which produce enzymes, that convert sugar to ethanol. gH ,20, 88 20,H,OH+ 200, Hie “Hs s Advantages of Biomass Energy + The biomass power plants ensure a continuous supply of energy due to their continuous growth, ‘© The cost of obtaining biomass energy through energy plantation is less than the cost of obtaining energy from fossil fuel. + Energy produced by biomass can be easily stored, * These units can be established easily in rural areas. Limitations of Biomass Energy Relatively low concentration of biomass per unit area of land © Collection and transportation of biomass is expensive due to high moisture content. © Cost of energy production in urban areas is high with the centralized power generation stations, ‘+ Relatively large land area is required, hence this method cannot be used in areas where land cost is very high. Biofuels + Biofuels are liquid fuels that have been derived from agricultural crops including conventional food plants and special energy crops. It may also be derived from forestry, agricultural or fishery products or municipal wastes, as well as from agro-industry, food industry and food service by-products and wastes. * Biofuels provide a strategic advantage to promote sustainable development and to supplement conventional energy sources to meet the rapidly increasing demand for transportation fuels associated with high economic growth as well as in meeting the huge energy demand * List of Biofuel Crops () Pongamia (i) Jatropha (i) Euphorbia (iv) Camelina (W) Neem (vi) Maize (vil) Sugarcane (will) Soyabean Types of Biofuels (I) Primary Biofuels: These are used in an unprocessed form such as fuel wood, wood chips and pellets. Primarily biofuels are used for heating, cooking and electricity production, (li) Secondary Biofuels: These materials result from processing of biomass. Example: Liquid fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel. Generations of Biofuels «First Generation Biofuels: The first generation bio-fuels ate conventional biofuels made from sugar, starch or vegetable. These are produced directly from food crops by abstracting the oils for use in biodiesel or producing bioethanol through fermentation. ‘+ Second Generation: Second Generation biofuels are produced from non-food crops such as wood, ‘organic waste, food crop waste and specific biomass crops.ad ts nt ad pe ERSY Energy Resource : Conservation &Utlisation 29 mau + Third Generation: They are specifically engineered crops such as algae as the energy source. These algae are grown and harvested to extract oil from ther. ‘+ Fourth Generation: Fourth generation biofuels are created using petroleum ike hydro-processing or advanced biochemistry, These are derived from specially engineered plants or biomass that may have higher energy yields or ower barriers to cellulosic breakdown or are able to be grown on non-agricultural land or bodies of water. They are carbon-negative ie. ittakes away more carton dioxide than itproduces. 143. Biodiesel Biodiesel s aliquid fuel produced from non-edible oil seeds such as Jatropha, Pongamia pinnata (Karanja) etc. which can be grown on wasteland, However, the oil extracted from these seeds has high viscosity (20 times that of diesel) which causes serious lubrication, oil contamination and injector choking problems. These problems are solved through trans-esterfication, a process where the raw vegetables ols are treated with alcohol (methanol or ethanol with a catalyst) to form methyl or ethyl esters. The monoesters produced by transesterifying vegetable oil are called biodiesel which are having law fuel viscosity with high octane number and heating value. The advantages of biodiesel as engine fuel are : () Itis biodegradable and produces 80% less CO, and 100% less SO, emissions, (i) Ithas higher Octane Number (i) can be used as neat fuel (100% biodiesel) or mixed in any ratio with petrol-diese! (iv) Ithas a higher flash point, making it safe to transport. Production of Biodiesel from Jatropha + First, cl is extracted from Jatropha seeds in an oil press, then itis treated with methanol (CH,OH) to produce three methyl ester molecules and one glycerol molecule. + Alkalis ike NaOH or KOH are used to catalyze the reaction having the following constituents: Jatropha, oil (1000 litre) + CH,OH (400 litre) + catalyst (10 litre). The reaction process is completed rapidly, glycerol is separated and methyl ester is obtained as biodiesel. Codes used for biodiesel which is mixed in conventional diésel According to Biodiesel Policy of India, ratio of Biodiesel in conventional diesel can range between 20 20% {) 2% Biodiesel + 98% Diesel = B2 (il) 5% Biodiesel + 95% Diesel = BS (il) 20% Biodiesel + 80% Diese! = B20 (iv) 100% Biodiesel + 0% Diesel = B100 National Policy on Biofuel, 2009 The policy endeavours to facilitate and bring optimal develapment and utilisation of indigenous biomass feedstocks for production of biofuels. Salient Features of Policy: + Bio-diesel production will be taken up fram non-edible oilseeds in wasteldegraded/marginal lands. + Anindicative target of blending of 205 bio-uels, both for bio-diesel and bio-ethanol by 2017 has been proposed, © Minimum support price fornon-editble oilseeds would be announced with periodic revision to support failing price.30 NOTE 145 15 Basics of Energy and Environment (Sa _ Corer Stoic Engineering Aptitude + Minimum Purchase Price (MPP) for purchase of bio-ethanol and bio-diesel could be announced with, periodic revision, + Major thrust will be given to research, development and demonstration with focus on plantations, processing and production of bio-fuels, Including second generation bioluels. + Financial incentives, including subsidies and grants, may be considered for second generation bio- fuels, IFit becomes necessary, a national bio-fuel fund could be considered + A\National Biofuel Coordination Comrnittee headed by the Prime Minister, will be set up to provide policy guidance and coordination. + Biofuel Steering Committee chaired by Cabinet Secretary, willbe set up to oversee implementation of the policy. The Union Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas Is framing a new national policy on biofuel which will have objectives to reduce depending on import of crude oll, savings in foreign exchange, provide beter remuneration for the framers and address environmental conoem raised at COP21, held in Paris in 2015. is Benefits of Biofuel Crops © Water pollution is reduced, as litle fertilizers and pesticides are used to grow energy crops. ‘© High-yield food crops pull nutrients from the soil, while energy crops improve soil quality. © Biofuel crops create better wildlife habitat than food crops, reduced and farmers get money for their products. Difference between Renewable Energy and Green Energy Table 1.3: Renewable Energy vs. Green Energy ; ‘Groen Enoroy a Renewable Energy. sources that restore themselves over short periods of time and do not ciminish Examples: Sun, wind, moving ‘water, organic plant and waste material (lamas), and the ath shea (geotharma). + Although the impacts are smal, some renewable energy {ecinolagles can have an impact on the environment. For exampe, large hydroclctic resouross can have ‘environmental lade-offs on such issuesas fisheries and land use. Non-renewable Energy Resources + Renewable energy includes resources that rly on fuol | + Green enetgy is @ eubsel of renewable energy and represents those renewable energy resources that provide the highest environmental benefit end do not Impact environment Green power isthe electty producod from sos, wind, ‘geothermal, biogas, biomass, and low-impact small fydrosloctc sources. + Non-renewable energy sources are fossiifuel sources that are found within the top layer of the Earth's rust. They range from volatile materials with low cartoon-hydrogen ratio ike methane to non-volatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal, etc. + tis generally accepted that they are formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years, Thisis known as the biogenic theory and was first introduced by Georgius Agricola in 1556. + Fossilfuels are non-renewable resources because they take milions of years to form and reserves are} depleted much faster than the formation of new resources. These are also known as exhaustible sources of energy. ‘+ Biofuel crops offer economic and energy security benefits. By growing out fuel at home, oil import is, 116.1 1.6.2 ns | tie | sby, 1.6.3 vas are| cos. mape EASY Energy Resource : Conservation & Uilisation 31 +The production and use of fossil fuels raises environmental concerns. A global movement towards the generation of renewable energy is therefore underway to meet increased eneray demands. Coal + Since the beginning of industrialization, coal has been the most common source of energy. Itisa solid {ossil fuel formed in several stages as buried remains of plants that lived 300 to 400 milion years ago which were subjected to intense heat and pressure over many millions of years. Itis mainly composed ‘of cartoon (98%). It also contains hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and other elements in small quantities. * Coal has low calorific value compare to other non-renewable eneray resources and high transportation cost. Further, itis highly pollutant and when burnt it produces CO, and CO. * Coal provides about 21% of the world’s commercial energy. Itis burned to generate 62% of the world electricity «USA and China are the major coal producing countries and claim about 50% of the world production of coal. ‘+ India too has vast reserves of coal (7% of world’s coal reserves; Srd largest in the world after USA and China). According to the rough estimate, total recoverable coal in India is 75 billion tons. * Coalis the prime source of energy in india and accounts for 56% of commercial eneray requirement ‘According to a recent Geological Survey of India report (As of 2017), India has total coal reserves of 315,148.81 milion tonnes. Of this, 73% is of non-coking quality which is used for power generation and the balance 27% is the coking variety suitable for metallurgical processes. * Atpresent, India's energy security is based on coal, asi is the primary source of fuel. The present per capita primary energy consumption in India is 22.042 kJiyear, which is quite low, Petroleum ‘* Petroleum isa thick liquid consisting of hundreds of combustible hydrocarbons along with small amount of sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen impurities. ‘+ Ibis produced by decomposition of dead organic matter from plants and animals that were buried under lake and ocean sediments millions years ago and subjected to high temperatures and pressures as part of the carbon oycle. * Crude oil is extracted from oil production wells, crilled either on-shore or off-shore. Its then refined in refineries to obtain petrol, diesel, kerosene, furnace oil, lubricating oil, paraffins, asphalt, tar, etc. In addition, fuel gases like butane, propane, methane, LPG, LNG are also the important products, + Petroleum is used as both an energy source and industrial raw material in petrochemical industry. Almost 40% of the energy needs of the world are meet by petroleum © Asof2015, the oil consumption of India stood at 4,159,000 (barrel/day). As of 2016, crude oil production in India stood at 36.95 MTs. India produced 231.92 MTs of petroleum products in 2015-16, recording a growth of 4.88% over the previous year * India is the world's third largest energy consumer (As of 2017) Natural Gas # Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon mixture consisting primatily of methane. Itis formed \when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure supplied for over millions of years. * Natural gas is found either free in drilled wells or in association with crude oil, The extraction rate of associated gas depends on the rate of orude oil production,32 Basics of Energy and Environment General Studies & ‘ey nme IE es sincering Aptitude '* Recoverable natural gas reservesin India during 2015-16 were 1489 billion cubic metres (BCM). » Inthe present scene of power shortage, natural gas isa preferred fuel due to recent gas discoveries in India and also the import of gas is cheaper than the import of oil to generate energy. © Reliance industries discovered gas in Krishna Godavari basin 150 km off the Andhra Coast and Gulf of Camibay, Caimn Energy in Barmer district of Rajasthan and Gulf of Khambhat (Gujarat), and Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Shale Gas ‘© Shale gas is natural gas that is found within shale formations. It is also known as parent rock gas or schist gas. «tis colourless, odourless and lighter than air. It is an unconventional source of methane. «Shale gasis now increasingly used in the United States and is being considered to be used in Europe also. Note! Hiydraullo fracturing oF fracking is a technique in which water pumped at high pressure into the rock to “create narrow fractures to allow the gas to flow into the well bore to be captured, . 1.64 Nuclear Energy «The energy released by a nuclear reaction especially by fission o fusion is known as nuclear energy. Ithas the ability to produce electricity without greentiouse gas emissions. Nuclear eneray is cleaner than many other forms of energy production. Essentially, nuclear power ‘would be “carbon-zero” if the uranium is mined and transported in a more efficient way. * Nuclear reactors make use of uranium as fuel and produces huge amounts of energy from small ‘amounts of it. Moreover, other radioactive fuels like thorium are also available for power generation, Nuclear energy represents only 15% of the electricity produced worldwide. Though in France, about 75% of electricity production is from nuclear energy and more than one-fourth of electricity in Europe ‘comes fromnuclear energy. {sof 2016, India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation in 8 nuclear power plants, having a total installed capacity of 6,780 MW. Besides, six more reactors are under construction with a combined generation capacity of 4,300 MW, Nuclear Fission Iti the process of breaking a heavy nucleus into two or more fragment which leads to liberation of large amount of energy. Annuclear fission chain reaction can be carried out using uranium isotope U5. Naturally ocourring Uranium contains three isotopes, U®* (0.008%), U(0.711%) and U®**(99.283%). Among these isotopes only U2* is the fissile, ie, very unstable, which undergoes spontaneous fission when bombarded by slow neutrons. The other isotope U2 isa fertile material which requires fast (high energy} neutrons to splitthe stable nucleus. The number of neutrons released in U22* js too small to trigger a chain reaction. Hence for nuclear fission, U238 neads conversion into a fissile material, ‘The fission reaction of L225 when bombarded by slow neutrons releases fission products, neutrons and large quantity of heat energy (8.2 x 10” kJ per gramof U™), The released neutrons are able to fission more uranium atoms. The speed of neutrons is reduced to a critical value by amoderator (graphite or heavy water) for sustained chain reaction. Besides U®®, there is another naturally occurring fertile material Thorlum (Th?), Both the fertile materials (U3 and Th can be converted to fissile material Plutonium (Pu) and Uranium (U**) respectively by neutron bombardmentmabe EASY Energy Resource : Conservation &Utisation 33 oe ——+ ©)Newton + Eneray . ©) Nowvon Fig: 1.21 Nuclear Fission Reaction Nuclear Fusion temperatures. At present, the nuclear fusion energy is available as a result of the natural thermonuclear ‘ + Fusion is a process where two light nuclei combine to form a single heavier nuclei under very high a i reaction in the interior of the sun, where two hydrogen atoms ({H) fuse to form an atom of deuterium W (7H) which further fuses with another hydrogen atom to form an isotope of helium (3H) that in turn ut fuses with another helium isotope to form a helium ator and two hydrogen atoms. The by-product of de this continuing process is the release of huge amounts of energy which reaches to us in the form of ‘solar radiations. ad a | | . of a i : by | — bie 8 | . faceees and ion re ials ybyGeneral Studies & Basics of Energy and Environment Ean 34 2 Engineering Aptitude Table 1.4: Difference Between Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion SN, ‘Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion 1. | tts the process of breaking a heavy nucleusinto we ar | tis the process of using two fight ruck into a single nore lghttrogmeni ith te iberaton ofalarge amount | nucleus wth the iberation of alarge amount of eneray fener. 2 | This process rests in the emission of racoactve rays | This process des nat emit ay kindof radioactive ray. The tke, By cacioactverays end product thispocess is hollum which shares 3. | This processtakasploos at ordinary temperature “Tis process tekes places at very high temperate (ie, pearly atabout>10°K}. 4. | This process givesrisetochainreacton. ‘This procoae doesnot give isto chain reaction. 5: | inthis process nauronsare mite. inthis process, postrens are omitted Advantages of Nuclear Energy * Less amount of fuel offers more energy. +The cost of nuclear fuel is 20% of the cost of energy generated. * The production of electric energy is continuous. + Non-polluting type of energy source Limitations of Nuclear Energy © Safety is major concern. «Difficulty in the management of nuclear waste. It takes many years to eliminate its radioactivity and risks. + Nuclear plants have a limited lie. + The investment for the construction of a nuclear plant is very high. [NOTE Tnlemallonal Thermonuciear Experimental Reacior (ITER) is a nuclear fusion research project WA located in France. The project is funded and run by seven-member entities namely the European Union, India, Japan, China, Russia, South Korea and United States. Chemical Sources of Energy Production of electricity, water and heat through reaction between hydrogen and oxygan are the main objectives of the chemical sources of energy. Fuel Cells «Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel directly and very efficiently into electricity (Direct Current) and heat. © Hydrogen is the primary fue! for fuel cells. © Due to modular nature of fuel cells, they are ideally suited for distributed and decentralized power generation. Itcan be used in industries, surface transportation, residential applications, etc. Principle of Operation of a Fuel cell «Ina fuelcell, the hydrogen and oxygen gases combine in an electrochemical cell to generate electricity and water.mabe EASY Energy Resource : Conservation&Utitsation 35 ind } | | | | a | | an rain very wer) azo sicity ‘© Fuel cal electrodes are made porous in order to provide alarge number of pockets where the gas, the electrolyte and the electrode are in contact for chemical faction. * A fue! cell ike any other battery consists of two electrodes and an electrolyte. However, a fuel cell differs roma battery in the sense that both the reactants (.e, hydrogen and oxygen) are not permanently contained the electrochemical cell, but are fed into it om an external supply, when electric power is required, + Infuelcolls, platinum coated spectal graphite vont plates are used as the electrortes, separated | by an electrolyte. The fuel hydragen gas is supplied at the anode side where the Anode 2° hydrogen molecules are effectively reduced a to hydrogen ions which move on into the ary Electrotte (oad electrolyte Catode © Electrochemical reactions coupled with . = Currant 1120, + 2H + 26° HO Tmovement of hydrogen ions through the electrolyte generate an electric potential, LT which causes electric current to flow through Oviant a ee the load, Fig: 1.23 Fuelcell operation 2H, +0, —fa"*"_5 211.0 + Electric energy generated + Heat Energy released * This reaction is exothermic, which results in heating up the cell. A stream of air is circulated on the cathode side of the cell which absorbs enough heat tomaintain outlet air and steam at 180°C which is optimum for best performance of the cell Advantages of Fuel Cell Power Plants ‘+ Fuel cell power plants are eco-friendly, noiseless, carry no rotating components. © Itisa decentralized plant and can be operated in isolation for military installations and hospitals where noise and smoke are prohibited. Besides, no power is wasted in transmission and distribution. ‘* Fuel cell power sources attain a high efficiency up to $5% whereas conventional thermal plants operate at 30% efficiency, ‘* There is a wide choice of fuels for fuel cells. These can be operated with natural gas, ethanol, methanol, LPG and biogas supplied from local biomass. All these are hydrogen rich materials and hydrogen gas can be produced by using fuel reformers. * Fuel cells can operate at landfills and wastewater treatment plants. © Inaddition to electric power, fuel cell plants also supply hot water, space heat and steam. Fuel cells have cogeneration capabilities L.e., it can be effectively installed in sugar mills, paper mills, cotton, industries, Iron and steel piants, ete. © Potential areas of cogeneration systems where fuel cells can be effectively installed are sugar, paper, cotton textile, caustic soda, iron and steel mills and refineries which will enhance system efficiency and reduce demand on gti. Hydrogen ‘+ Atpresent, most of the world’s energy demand (about 70%) is met by fossil fuels because of their availabilty and convenient use. However, fossil fuels (i.e. petroleum, natural gas and coal) are being depleted rapidly. Also, their combustion products cause global problems, such as the greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion, acid rains and pollution which pose danger to our environment36 Basics of Energy and Environment (ETE, Ooreotstustese Engineering Aptitude © The solution to ail these global problemsis to replace Table 1.5: Hydrogen contents of fuels, the existing, fossil fuel system with the Hydrogen ail which is an efficient and clean fuel. It has minimum carbon context compared to other fuels, Bie * A carbon-tich fuel produces more CO, which Coal ; contributes to global warming, By adopting aleaner ol 4:2 ‘carbon and richer hydrogen content, itis a step Notural gas 14 towards better environment-friendly sources of fuel ‘+ Hydrogen has proven to provide clean, reliable and sustainable energy supply and has the potential fo replace liquid fossil fuels in the future and thereby provide clean energy security to India, National Hydrogen Energy Road Map + The erstwhile Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) had set up the National Hydrogen Energy Board in 2003 to guide the implementation of National Hydrogen Energy Programme. ‘+ The National Hydrogen Energy Fload Map was prepared by a steering committee under Ratan Tata in October 2003 and was approved in 2006, * This road map has identitied two major intiatives: (), Green initiative for Future Transport (GIFT) and (i) Green initiative for Power generation (GIP). ‘+ With preparation of road map, India has joined selected group of advanced countries including USA, Canada, loeland, European Union, China , Germany, etc, who have their own road map. ‘Though hydrogen fas the highest energy content iis volumeie dens low which makes dificultior packing, storage Content 10 be con: Characteristics and Applications of Hydrogen ‘+ Hydrogen as a fuel has @ huge potential for use by individual consumers and in industrial sectors. Itis a clean burning fuel superior to other fuels, i.., petrol, methane, methanol and ethanol. + Itcarries a high specific energy per unit weight, therefore, itis very useful for surface vehicles and ‘aeroplanes which carry their fuel over along distance before replenishing, * Its heat of combustion is twice compared to fossil fuels, six times of methanol and four times of ethanol. + Itutization efficiency is high as hydrogen can be converted to the desired energy form more efficiently than other fuels. ‘Note: The utilisalion efficiency factor is defined as the fossil fuel utilisation efficiency divided by the hydrogen utilisation efficiency. Gas Hydrate Gas hydrates are naturally occurring ice-tke compounds of methane and are water formed under low temperature and pressure conditions, These ice formations consists of water molecules that have trapped gas molecules in a cage-tke structure, and found at varying depths in areas of low temperature