international Business & —_ mmm Engineering Consulting, S.A. | Arc Welding Processes | Presented By: Albert J. Moore Jr. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 1Power Supplies The welding process dictates the type of power supply used. The welding machine is classified as a constant current or constant potential (voltage) power supply. The relationship between the arc voltage and welding current, called slope, determines whether the machine is a CC or CP power supply. Manual welding processes, such as shielded metal arc and gas tungsten arc welding processes use constant current machines. Semiautomatic processes such as gas metal arc and flux core arc welding use the constant potential power supplies. ‘Some new inverter welding machines have the ability to switch between CC and CV. They are multi-process machines. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab 5 Welding Processes - 2Voltage & Amperage / — ~ | Arc voltage, as the name implies, is the actual voltage drop across | the welding arc. It is measured using a voltmeter. | The open circuit voltage is the voltage measured at the welding ' machine terminals when the welding machine is energized, but no | welding is being performed. | The shop inspector usually measures the arc voltage at the machine terminals when verifying the voltage. Consideration must be given to the voltage drop due to the length of the welding leads, condition of the connections, etc. Long cables and loose connections will cause voltage drops that must be considered. Field inspectors should measure the voltage at the electrode holder or welding gun and the work piece. The welding amperage is measured while the welding arc is “on”. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006: Welding Processes - 3Measuring Welding Parameters _/- Ne Ate Open Circuit Voge ‘Aro On - Are Voltage Fundamentals of Welding-Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 4Duty Cycle Welding machines produce heat. The transformers will overheat and be damaged if sufficient cooling is not provided. To reduce the chance of harming the transformer due to overheating, the machines are rated by their Duty Cycle. Duty cycle is the time the machine can be used at its rated amperage without over heating during any 10 minute interval. | 2 an rated T actual oe | x T rated actual Where: T is the duty cycle e@ lis amperage Problem: Given: Rated amperage = 200 amps Rated duty cycle = 100% Find the new duty cycle if the machine is to be operated at 300 amps. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; Tab5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 5e Max. Available Arc Voltage “Piet only do we concem ourselves with the amperage requirements | to weld with a certain electrode, but consideration must aiso be given to the arc voltage requirements and the voltage drop that occurs in | the welding leads, connectors, etc. Due consideration must be given | to the maximum dynamic arc voltage that can be delivered by the | power source. The following equation can be very helpful in | determining the size of the power source required. E = 20 +0.04I (200) £ = 28 E = arc voltage (under load) |= amperage Potential voltage loses: Loose connections and long welding leads (assume 2 volt drop per 33 meters for 210 welding cable. Problem: Required voltage under load — 30v Assume 2 volt drop in the leads and 1 volt drop in connections and welding gun. The welding machine is rated at 200 amps. What is the maximum voltage this machine can deliver under the stated conditions? Can this power supply be used for this applications? Fundamentals of Welding Technology . Tab5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 6Nameplate Information ! “The nameplate on the welder provides important information about | the power supply. It tells the inspector, welder, and electrician what » the input requirements are: | Voltage — 220, 240, 460 volts i Amperage — 100, 80, 60 amps | Phase (@) - single or three phase Cycles — 60 or 50 Hz It also provides information about the output. Max. OCV — 40, 60, 80 volts DC Rate Amperage — 200, 400, 600 amps Duty Cycles — 20%, 40% 100% Welding machines intended for light intermittent duty are usually rated at 20% duty cycle. Industrial welding machines are rated at 60% or 100% Duty Cycle. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 7_Common Features i The are several features common to all welding or brazing processes. They include: I + Source of energy | = Chemical or electrical | + Means of shielding the molten weld puddle | = Slag or gas * Source of filler metal when required = Manual or mechanized feeds, rods or spooled Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tap 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 8Consumable Electrode Processes A welding process that employs a consumable electrode is one in | which the end of the electrode is melted by the arc. The molten metal | is then transferred through the arc to the molten weld puddle. The electrode is the source of filler metal. Arc welding processes that | utilize a consumable electrode include: « SMAW =» SAW =» GMAW = FCAW « EGW « ESW Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore dr. - 2006 Tab5 Welding Processes - 9Nonconsumable b> | I Some welding processes utilize a nonconsumable electrode. Thatis, | | the arc is established between the electrode and the work piece, but i the electrode is not consumed, nor is metal transferred through the arc to the weld puddle. The electrode is not considered to be a filler metal. ' Typically processes included in this category are: « Gas Tungsten Arc Welding = Plasma Arc Welding = Carbon Arc Welding = Stud Welding (entire stud is not consumed) Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 10SMAW SMAW was one of the earliest economical welding processes developed for modern industry. SMAW began to see wide use as early as WWI. The system utilizes either an AC or DC constant current power supply. The arc is established between the end of the electrode and the work piece. The end of the electrode is melted by the heat of the arc and is deposited on or in the joint. Electrode Lead Work Lead Electrode Positive - Reverse Polarity Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 11| Elements of SMAW | ~ Metal Core Fumes y ‘Ecruded Fix ~~ coating Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 12Electrode The electrode is a metal core surrounded by a flux coating. | Extruded Flux Covering Wire Core The alloy of the electrode wire core is usually similar to the chemistry of the base metal e being welded. In some cases the chemistry may be adjusted to improve the characteristics of the weld. The final chemistry of the weld deposit is strongly influenced by the presence of various deoxidizers and alloys added to the flux coating. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tabs © Albert J. Moore dr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 13Specifications Electrodes are grouped into families based on the base metals to be welded. | a SFAS.1 Mild Steel Covered Electrodes | = SFAS.5 Low Alloy Stee! Covered Electrodes | = SFAS.4 Corrosion and Heat Resistant Covered Electrodes * SFAS.11 Nickel and Nickel Alloy Covered Electrodes Many base metals and their alloys can be joined using SMAW. Filler metal specifications are developed by the American Welding Society and adopted for use by the ASME. SFA specifications are the same as the AWS filler metal specifications. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 14Electrode Classification \ Filler metals are then grouped into classifications. The electrodes in | each classification has similar welding characteristics, strength, | ability to weld out of position, flux type, etc. The following system is i | used for carbon steel electrodes. i Electrode Classification . E7024 iL Flux Type and Current Position Tensile Strength Electrode ~ AL Position e ! g - Flot N Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 15Fluxes | Different covered electrodes use different flux systems. The last two ‘ digits provide information about the flux covering, welding positions, , and current requirement, i.e., alternating current or direct current. | Examples of flux systems used for carbon steel alloys: | + EXX10~ cellulose - sodium ~ DC + EXX11 — cellulose — potassium ~ AC/DC + EXX12 — rutile — potassium — AC/DC + EXX18 — low hydrogen — limestone — DC. + EXX24 — rutile — iron powder — AC/DC + EXX28 — low hydrogen ~ iron powder — limestone AC/DC. Position Designations: EXX1X ~ all positions EXX2X ~ flat groove welds and flat and horizontal filet welds EXX3X — 3 is not used EXX4X — downhill vertical progression. Use for cross country pipelines. Not sure if any company is currently producing the electrode. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 16Fluxes spb 7 Most electrode use one of three basic fluxing systems, cellulous, tutile, or limestone, however in each case the fluxes serve several | similar functions. The functions include: Shielding gases (CO, from decomposition of cellulous, rutile or limestone) Stabilize the arc (ionizing elements — sodium or potassium) Forms slag (rock and earth materials) « Deoxidizes (Al, Mn, Si) Adds alloying elements (Ni, Cr, Fe, Mo...) Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tabs © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 17Flux Elements nm Hydrogen Control E6010 Borcote Calcium Carbonate 3% SiO, Tale Bentonite FeSi Na,SiO, Moisture Coating - Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J, Moore Jr. - 2006 TiO, 13% FeMn 12% limenite 10% 3-6% 10 to 14% Hydrogen caco, CaF, Fe powder Potassium Silicate FeMn Tio, FeSi Clay Moisture Coating E7018 Controlled 20% 20% 24% 12% 10% 4% 0.3 - 0.5% 30 - 35% Tab 5 Welding Processes - 18AWS A5.5 is the specification for high strength low alloy steel covered electrodes. The system of electrode designation is similar to that used for the electrodes contained in AWS A5.1, however a suffix may be Major Elements 0.5% Molybdenum 0.5% Molybdenum |__& 0.5% Chromium _| 0.5% Molybdenum & 1.25% Chromium added to designate the alloy B3 1% Molybdenum addition contained in the flux & 2.25% Chromium coating. 1 2.5% Nickel Sete c2 3.5% Nickel 5% Nickel £8018-B2L c3 4% Nickel Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 19Common SMAW Electrodes : | Carbon Steel Corrosion and Heat Resistant Steels | E6010 £308-15,16, & 17 | E6011 E308L- 15,16, & 17 “5 | £6013 E309- 15,16, & 17 | 6022 E309L- 15,16, & 17 | E7014 E309Mo- 15,16, & 17 | £7016 E312- 15,16, & 17 : £7018 E316- 15,16, & 17 Ib 7018-41 E316L- 15,16, & 17 E7024 E316H- 15,16, & 17 E7028 E317- 15,16, & 17 £7048 ES17L- 15,16, & 17 E8018 E320/E347/E410 etc. 9 E8018-C18C28C3aW 18: DCEP, lime based £9018-B3L ~16: AC or DC, ia based, wi K -A7: AC oF DC, titania w/ silica -25 and -26, core of mild stee! Is this the proper way to store filler metals? Are they protected from the influences of the environment? Can the welder use the wrong filler metal because there is no oversight on what filler metal the welder takes? Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 20_Diffusible Hydrogen | AWS has recently added several suffixes to the low hydrogen, also known as controlled hydrogen, classification system. This only | applies to low hydrogen electrodes. E7018-H4 £7018-H8 £7018-H4R £7018-H8R The H4 and H8 indicated the diffusible ml of hydrogen per 100 g of weld deposit. The R indicates the flux covering is moisture resistance. The suffix R permits extended limits for atmospheric exposure. Low hydrogen electrodes are hygroscopic. The limestone flux will absorb moisture from the air. The low hydrogen electrodes must be stored in electrode holding ovens to prevent them from absorbing moisture. Typical storage temperatures are between 250°F and 300°F. Exposure to atmospheric conditions, ie., humidity, is limited by the AWS Structural Welding Code. £7018 —4 hours E8018 — 2 hours E9018 — 1 hour £10018 / £12018 — % hour (should be baked at 600°F for one hour before use) Electrodes must be discarded if they get wet or contaminated with grease or oil. Exposed electrodes can be rebaked at temperatures of 600°F to 800°F one time. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J, Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 21a = Numbers Both AWS D1.1 and ASME —_F4 B&PV Code, Section IX group . the electrode classifications iairinie rsauledtecceteaestehe base on their “ease of use”. The groups are assigned “F F2 numbers. The lower the EXX12, 13, 14, 13-X number, the easier itis touse. F3 7 7 EXX10, 11, 10-X, 11-X The F1 grouping contains “drag” or “Jet” rods that are fs used in the flat position. The EXX15, 16, 18, 15-X arc length is maintained by the F5 heavy flux covering. Austenitic Stainless Steel Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 22. Power Supply | Welding machines used to perform SMAW are called droopers. The characteristics of the power supply are such that the relationship | between the voltage and amperage under a static load produces a | drooping slope. Steep Slope Shallow Slope / e Are Voltage Steep Slope ~ ‘Small Variations t/a “~— Shallow Slope In Amperage Large Variations In Amperage ‘Arc Amperage Peres Tab 5 Fundamentals of Welding Technology Welding Processes - 23 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006e Capabilities Low capital investment Simple equipment requirements Good selection of electrodes No external'shielding gas or supplementary flux required Unaffected by wind or breezes Capable of all position welding Relatively easy to learn Portable Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 24Submerge Arc Welding : One of the major limitations of SMAW is the néed to change electrodes every several minutes. Therefore, optimum productivity is not achieved. SAW overcomes this difficulty by using a continuous wire as the electrode and a separate granular flux. The fat that the arc is “submerged” under a blanket of flux is the reason it is call SAW. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 25e u SAW System | | ‘Spool of Electrode a Flux Hopper — \ upply Work Piece Flux Blanket e The welding head can be moved over the stationary work piece or the work piece moved under the stationary welding head. ‘Seam welders used to make longitudinal butt joints in tanks mover the welding head along the joint. Circumferential butt joints, such as a head to shell joint, utilize a stationary welding head and roll the shell and head seam while the weld is made. In some installations the welding head is mounted on a tractor that moves the welding head along the joint as the weld id deposited. Tractors are used extensively in the fabrication of bridge girders. Fundamentals of Welding Technology 7 Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 26SAW Arc Details | "Flux Hopper Contact Ti [7 Unfused oN Flux — Sla < GaN Flux Bed -- Base Metal The granular flux can be fed by gravity or by an air delivery system. Portable SAW systems use a pressurized flux tank and a hand held gun. The gun is moved along the joint by the welder the same as would be done using a GMAW or FCAW torch. The flux is delivered to the torch by an air feed system and flows on to the weld joint through the torch nozzle. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 27_Electrode Specification / Classification The Specification for carbon steel electrode and flux is AWS A5.17. | Since SAW uses a flux that is separate from the electrode, the AWS classification system includes both a flux component and an electrode component. | AWS AS.23 is the specification for fluxes and electrodes used for low | alloy steels. The classifications system is similar to that used for low carbon steels. F7A6 - EM12K - H4 e eux —I alts Optional Diffusible Hydrogen 4mL/100g 70,000 psi Tensile Strength Silicon Killed Stee! As Welded 0.12% Carbon Content Notch Toughness of 20 ftibf @ -60°F Medium Manganese Reston ofp med Electrode Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 28_Flux Systems Submerged arc welding fluxes are classified as: = Active Fluxes * usually bonded + easy to add deoxidizers + easy to add alloys * are hygroscopic and may accumulate surface moisture + may become “dusty” + Used for single pass welds = Neutral Fluxes * usually fused + are not hygroscopic, but may have surface moisture * less sensitive to variations in voltage and current + less likely to become “dusty” + Used for multipass welds Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 29| Considerations = active flux - alloying additions | « is flux compatible and does it result in the proper chemical | balance? | | = does the flux - electrode combination provide the mechanical properties required? flux will influence the side wall wetting without undercut or overlap, ability to weld over rust, and ease of slag removal = Electrode chemistry influences deposited weld chemistry «= Flux selection influences mechanical properties, i.e., charpy impact strength Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore dr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 30_SAW Advantages / Disadvantages Advantages = high deposition process = provides a wide selection of flux - electrode combinations easily welds carbon steels and corrosion resistant steels High productivity good appearance litle or no smoke = no welding hood needed Disadvantages = limited to flat only can not be used to weld refractory or reactive metals welder can not see the weld while welding variations in welding parameters can result in unacceptable welds Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 31Gas Tungsten Arc Welding i Beg eee eee GTAW was introduced in the late 1930's. It's development was driven by the need to weld aluminum alloys faster, more reliably, and | more economically. The process employs a nonconsumable tungsten electrode to | establish an arc between the welding torch and the work piece. The | welding arc is the source of heat to facilitate the melting of the edges of the joint. Filler metal may be added or it. may be omitted, depending on the joint details and the alloys being joined. The temperature of the GTAW arc is approximately 11,000°F, which is about twice as hot as the 6000°F flame produced by the oxy- acetylene torch. Electrode Lead Work Lead Electrode Negative - Straight Polarity Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 32Regions ‘the Arc 000 avo tats wetrg Pa Fundamentals of Welc —_schnology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. 3 Welding Processes - 33e _GTAW Systems Optional accessories include: | high frequency oscillator i foot or hand amperage i controls | gas / water solenoids ' water cooled torches | gas preflow and post flow timers square wave generator wave balance control pulse generator timers gas lenses for torch cold and hot wire feeders Sources of information on gas tungsten arc welding incluée AWS 5.5 Recommended Practice for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, The Welding Hand Books, and the James F. Lincoin Welding Foundation guidebook Gas Tungsten Are Welding. Many of the major welding machine manufactures such as ESAB and Miller also publish guides that can be helpful. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 34Shielding Gases The system employs an inert shielding gas to displace atmospheric | gases, i.e., oxygen and nitrogen, and envelop the molten weld puddle in a gaseous atmosphere that does not react with the hot metal. | The shielding gases used include: | = Argon - heavier than air— inexpensive + 1.3X heavier than air * 10X heavier than helium « Helium - lighter than air — expensive * 2.5 times more expensive than argon « Used with DC = mixes of the two omer ae mare AWS A5.32 Specification for Welding ‘Specification for Shielding Gases contains useful ‘Welding Shielding information about shielding gases. Gases Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 35Inert Gases —— Inert gases are those gases that will not normally react with the | Melted base metal. There are several inert gases, but only argon and | helium are used for normal welding operations due to cost considerations. Argon Helium Xenon Krypton Neon Density Approx. Cost % of Air Per ft? e 130 $0.05 13 $0.13 $4.00 $20.00 $250.00 From Lincoln Electric Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 36Flow Meter A flow meter is used to regulate ee the flow of shielding gas to the J ran * torch. \ | The pressure is very low, it is ' flow, in ft/hr or liter/min., that is controlled. The sight gage must be positioned vertically to obtain an accurate reading. The flow regulator must be purchased for the gas to be metered. Some sight gages are calibrated for more than one gas. Be sure to read the correct gage for the gas being used. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 37Flow Rates pralechotshleeths The flow rate, typically expressed in cubic feet per hour, is dependent on the shielding gas being used, the welding position, and whether a gas lens is being used. ‘Argon Helium Nozzle Size jem en #4 57 20-25 #5 7-9 25-35 #6 912 30-40 #7 12-45 35-45 #8 15-18 40-50 The diameter of the gas nozzle is expressed in 1/16 inch increments. A number 4 cup is % inch in diameter. A number 8 cup is % inch in diameter. Excessive gas flow can result in turbulent flow, which can draw air into the gaseous envelop. The oxygen and nitrogen will react with the molten weld puddle to form porosity. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab 5 Welding Processes - 38Preflow / Postflow Preflow refers to the flow of shielding gas prior to the initiation of the welding arc. As the welder depresses the amperage control a solenoid opens and allows the shielding gas to flow for a preset time before the welding arc is initiated. The purpose is to purge the torch lines of any air that may be in the gas lines. + Postflow refers to the flow of shielding gas that floods the area of the solidifying weld puddle after the arc is terminated. The flow of shielding gas must be maintained to protect the weld puddle as it cools and solidifies. The flow of preflow and postflow shielding gas is controlled by a timer that can be adjusted to accommodate varying welding conditions. i Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 39e Ac or DC \ | ‘The welding output of the power supply may be AC or DC. | AC current is used to weld aluminum and magnesium. AC provides cathodic cleaning action that spalls the heavy oxides that may be present on the surface of the base metal. When AC is used, a high | frequency oscillator is used to stabilize the welding arc. About 50% of ' the energy is wasted through the tungsten when welding with AC. DC is typically used for welding most metals other than aluminum and magnesium. Most DC welding is done using straight polarity (DCEN). About 70% of the energy goes into the work. Very little welding is done using reverse polarity (DCEP), where about 70% of the energy is wasted through the tungsten electrode. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ‘ Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 40_Wave Forms Most power supplies allow the welder to select either AC or DC. The wave forms of DC (from a storage cell) or generator, single phase AC, and rectified AC are shown below. oe A VN ZN 7 ee Current Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Welding Processes - 41e Arc Instability 4- | i rina pope KA UK A YA Arc instability occurs when the voltage drops below the voltage required to ionize the shielding gas for a given arc length. The welding arc is extinguished as the voltage drops below the ionization e voltage required by the shielding gas. The ionization voltage for each gas, argon, helium, or mixes of each) are different. The arc voltage is also dependent of the arc length. Along arc length requires more voltage to *jump” the air gap. Short arc lengths require less voltage. Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 42High Frequency Oscillator The high frequency oscillator is used to superimpose a high frequency (kilocycles to megacycles) high voltage over the welding arc. The high frequency voltage is on the order of several thousand volts. It is enough to wake the welder up if he becomes part of the circuitry. However, one of the properties of HF is the “skin effect”. That is, the | current flows on the surface, i.e., the skin of the welder, and does not penetrate to cause permanent harm. High frequency is on continuously when welding with AC. It is usually used with DC to initiate the are, but then once the arc is established it switches off automatically. Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore dr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 43Square Wave GTAW | The square wave generator power supply switches the polarity | instantaneously thereby reducing the time when the voltage is below | that required to ionize the shielding gas. This minimizes the tendency | to extinguish the arc when the AC switches from one polarity to the other. ‘Arc Instability (arc Extinguished) Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Welding Processes - 44| Materials such as aluminum form | thick tenacious oxide layers that / are natural rectifiers. The oxide will cause an unbalance of the | AC wave form and will cause the transformer to overheat and the | arc to become unstable. Electronic controls, fixed or variable, are added to the circuitry to overcome the effects of self-rectification. The welder can use this feature to increase the cathodic cleaning action of the arc. The same controls can be used to increase the “heat” of the welding arc. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 I Unbalanced Wave (Ajo vedligicocto» ) Tab 5 Welding Processes - 45Drooping Voltage/Ampere 4——_——— | The GTAW power supply is classified as a constant current power | supply. As such the static volt ampere relationship is said to be | “drooping” or is sometimes referred to as a “Drooper’. Tong Are Length Normal Are Length ‘Short Arc Length Are Voltage A shallow slope gives the welder more control over the amperage by simply increasing or decreasing the arc length. As the arc length increase, the voltage increases and the amperage decreases. Decrease the arc length, the voltage drops and the amperage increases. Tab5 Fundamentals of Welding Technology Welding Processes - 46 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006Torch | The torch holds the tungsten electrode and directs the shielding gas around the electrode and to toward the weld joint. Asmall, light duty torch may be cooled by the flow of shielding gas. | Aheavy duty torch will require additional cooling capacity. An | integral water jacket around the collet assembly is required to carry | away the waste heat. The collet is used to secure the tungsten in place. A knob on the back of the torch head is loosed to insert or reposition the tungsten. Ceramic Gas Cup Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 47Cooling Water | The cooling passages around the head of the torch are small. They | can become blocked if the water is not clean or if there are elements | in the water that can precipitate out. | 5 | It is best to use recirculated water, that is, use a water cooler with | clean, filtered water instead of city water that flows continuously. Another problem that can be ‘encountered with a continuous flow of water is that of condensation in the gas cup and head of the torch on warm humid days. Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 48Tungsten —-g3 ' Tungsten is used as a nonconsumable electrode for a couple of reasons. They include: = high melting point - 6000°F; = good electron emitter (high thermionic emissivity) Pure tungsten is use to weld aluminum with AC. Zirconia can be added to improve the longevity of the electrode and to improve the thermionic emissivity of the tungsten. Other metallic oxides are added to pure tungsten when DC is to be used veces e —E: EE: Specification for Tungsten and Tungsten-Alloy Electrodes for Are Welding and Cutting Fundamentals of Welding Technology - Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 49Tungsten Electrodes ‘identification Characteristic | EWP (green) Pure tungsten, balled end when using AC | EWZr-1 (brown) Zirconium oxide (.25%), balled or hemispherical end when | using AC. EWTh-1 (yellow) Thorium oxide (1%), tapered end when using DC. EWTh-2 (red) Thorium oxide (2%), tapered end when using DC EWCe-2 (orange) Cerium oxide (2%), tapered end when using DC. EWLa-1 (black) Lanthanum oxide (1%),tapered end when using DC What type of tungsten is depicted in the photograph below? Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 50End Preparation Tapered wi Small Flat used w/ DCEN pS 30" toot —/ ___ 5+ Ad Hemispherical or Balled used with AC The small flat on the end of the tapered tungsten tends to concentrate the are in the weld puddle. A sharp point tends to allow the arc to form a larger cone and reduces the penetration obtained for a given amperage. The balled end preparation is used for pure tungsten and zerconiated tungsten when welding aluminum using AC. The tungsten will ball even if it starts with a tapered end when welding with AC. Thoriated tungsten does not form a balled end when welding with AC. Instead, the end of the thoriated tungsten will have a series of littie bumps on the end, not very conducive to making good quality welds. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 51Filler Metals i The filler metals used are of the same specification and classification as | | those used for GMAW. The filler metal is added to the leading edge of | the weld puddle manually or mechanically. Plain Carbon Steel A518 Copper AST Stainless Steel ASD ‘Aluminum 5.10 Tungsten Electrodes A512 Nickel A514 Specitication for Bare Stainless Stee! Welding Electrodes and @ Rods Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 52F. M. Classification | Each filler metal specification contains a number of electrode classifications. Different classifications are needed to provide matching filler metal — base metal mechanical and chemistries. ERZOS-2 Electrode Chemistry Deoxiizers Recommended Shielding Gas Rod Sold Wire TO ksi Tensile Strength The rods are either flag tagged or impression stamped with the appropriate classification or paint stripped for identification. The aerospace industry uses filler metals that meet AMS specifications. e welding rod with a flag tag identifying it as a nickel based alloy. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 ‘Welding Processes - 53e@ Pulsed | GTAW using pulsing power is as if the welder momentarily increased and then quickly decreased the welding amperage. The increased amperage increases the penetration and heat input momentarily. This is followed by a decrease in amperage, less penetration, and | less heat input. The weld puddle is allowed to cool during the low , power portion of the cycle. The pulser increases and decreases the amperage automatically once it is set. Frequency (pulses per second) . dali I : ' Pulse 7 Amperage & Duration Slop, Background if 7 (pulse wiath) ‘Amperage Time > | Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tabs © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 54Pulse Variables Geer | The welder must be aware of how each variable associated with a i pulsed GTAW power supply influences the welding operation. | « Pulse Frequency — number of times the amperage is | increased per second. | + Pulse Amperage — maximum amperage of each pulse. 1 * Pulse Width — the duration of each pulse. + Background Amperage — usually expressed as a percentage of the peak pulse amperage. + Up Slope — gradual increase in starting amperage. + Down Slope / Crater Fill — gradual decay of amperage when the welder terminates the weld. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 55Variable Polarity | Variable polarity was developed to weld aluminum alloys. The electrode negative (straight polarity) portion of the AC cycle provides | maximum heat input, greatest penetration. The electrode positive | (reverse polarity) portion of the AC cycle provides cathodic cleaning. | The variable polarity power supply allows the welder to optimize the | welding conditions to provide the best balance between cleaning and ' penetration. Amperage Time———»— Increased penetration, reduced cathodic cleaning. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab 5 Welding Processes - 56Gas Metal Arc Welding | GMAW enjoys the high productivity associated with a continuous | electrode with the added advantages of an external shielding gas. | GMAW was developed in the late 40's for welding aluminum. By the 60's it was in wide use by industries that were welding both _ aluminum and carbon steel. Originally the shielding gas was an inert gas, hence the name — Metal Inert Gas Welding or simply: MIG. It was discovered that certain gas mixes that react with the molten weld metal, i.e., carbon steel, improves the welding characteristics. The term MIG was no longer appropriate and the name of the process was changed to Gas Metal Arc Welding. AWS C5.6 Recommended Practice for Gas metal Arc Welding is a good source of information about GMAW. Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 57@ GMAW System Power Supply Wire Feeder $ Shielding Gas Work Lead e Tabs Fundamentals of Welding Technology ; © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 58Control Panel | The control panel on the power supply typically has a volt meter and an ammeter. Some machines have a control called “pinch effect”, and others will have variable slope and inductance. GMAW typically employs a constant potential, which is the same as a constant voltage, power supply. More elaborate systems employ an inverter with pulsing capabilities. Pulsers can utilize either constant tr current or constant potential power supplies. Pulser systems need additional controls such as frequency, duration, peak amperage, background amperage, voltage, slope, prepurge (preflow), post flow, etc. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 59_Wire Feeder | The wire feeder holds the spool of electrode. The feeder has a constant speed electrode motor that pull the electrode off the spool | and pushes it through the conduit to the gun. | The wire feeder has a contro! to vary the speed of the drive rolls that | feed the electrode through the conduit. Some wire feeders have a remove voltage control so the welder does not have to go back to the power supply to adjust the arc voltage. Fundamentals of Welding Technology F Tab § © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 ‘Welding Processes - 60Electrodes P | | | | A5.18 AS.9 A5.10 AS.14 AS.7 AS.16 Frequently used electrode specifications include: Carbon Steel Aust. Stain. Stl. Aluminum Nickel Copper Titanium ‘Specification for ‘Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes and Rods for Gas Shielded Are Welding Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tabs Welding Processes - 61Electrode Classification | Many of the same filler metals used for GTAW are used for GMAW. The difference is that the filler metal, now considered an electrode, is | supplied in spool form. Information such as the specification, | classification, diameter, etc. are on the spool. 1 Solid, cored, and composite electrodes for carbon steel are included in AWS AS.18. A legend of the classification system for carbon steel filler metal used by AWS A5.18 is shown below. ER70S-2 Electrode — Chemical Composition Rod Tensile Strength Electrode Tensile Strength Cored Wire (composite) Solid Wire E70C-3 M H4 Ll ‘Optional - Defusable Hydrogen Shielding Gas (S¢-AC-25) ‘Chemistry of Weld Deposit == if Present °N" indicates the electrode is formulated for special welds in the core belt region of nuclear reactors. | t t u, ‘Typical label on a carton containing spooled GMAW filler metal. If the filler metal meets the requirements of AWS and ASME filler metal standards, it must list the filler metal specification, classification, diameter, weight, and heat/lot number. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tabs © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 62Electrode Selection Electrode selection should be based on several considerations: = base metal being welded «= thickness and joint details | + single pass | + multipass = surface conditions + mill scale * rust + paint = service conditions * Notch toughness * abrasion «= shielding gas * CO, /Ar0./ArHe/ other mixes Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 63_Shielding Gases Shielding gases influence the final weld chemistry, mode of metal transfer, and mechanical properties. | Common shielding gases include inert, reactive, and mixed gases. | = CO, Ar = ArO, = He = ArHe and HeAr = CO,ArO, = ArCO,0, = ArCO, e Base Metal Gas Spray Mode Advantages Aluminum SGA SG-HeA-35, Up to 1 inch thick, stable arc, little spatter. ‘Over 1 inch, higher heat input, improved fusion Carbon Steel SG-AO-3 to 5 SG-AC- 5 to 10 Improved arc stability, fluid puddle, good bead shape. Less oxidation, improved penetration, improved wetting. Example of recommendations for proper shielding gas selection from AWS C5.6. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab 5 Welding Processes - 64AWS A5.32 Specification for Welding | @ Shielding Gases § | A relatively new AWS specification is available for shielding gases. | The specification includes requirements for purity, classification, | certification, dew point, i.e., moisture content, packaging, identification, | intended use, etc. | SG-B Single Gas SG-BX-% 2.Component Mix SG -B XY-%/% 3 Component Mic SG -BXYZ-%/%/% — aconponenttx go o8 38h 3 3G falyd eee Specification for Welding Shielding Gases Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 65e Purity of Shielding Gases | The term “welding grade” has long been used to specify the purity of the shielding gas. What is ‘welding grade"? One has to ask the question, | ‘what is the purity of welding grade gas? i | AWS AS.32 sets the standard that has to be met by the gas supplier. The standard also lists the various gas mixes and their suggested use. Minima — Maximum Aws Product Pity, Moisture_§ | cw coin "RAC" Mom eek aia as toca | ae igo sell oe ST gees eo on ces co eG igi ae Gaal ta Gea oe iw salam Ge = r a mt “Sti 680m ae tal none) st—ye 083 ien oe 5 5 = ae ee = tof eo Ot oe = 5 Nail GD tigi 93 Napeie e200 one Noes Notre cea an pam fal ps, oi yn ae ing neon Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Welding Processes - 68Shielding Gas Designations | The following table are examples of typical shielding gas designations. AWS Classification Typical Mix Gas ' SG-AC-25 75125 ‘Argon & CO? $G-AO-2 98/2 Argon & Oxygen SG-AHe-10 ‘Argon & Helium ‘SG-AH-5 ‘Argon & Hydrogen SG-HeA-25 Helium & Argon SG-HeAC-7.5/2.5 Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Helium, Argon & CO, Tab 5 Welding Processes - 67lonization Potential §-———- | Each gas has a certain ionization potential. As such, the selection of | Shielding gas will affect the total heat input and shape of the weld | deposit. oo? Argon Argon Helium Carbon Dioxide @ & Helium Q = _NxAx60 tS Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tabs © Albert J, Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 68Transfer Mode | The selection of shielding gas may determine the transfer mode. = Short circuiting - CO, > 70%, Ar < 70% + shallow penetration, all position «= Globular - CO, - 100% | + deep penetration, high travel speed, flat and horizontal (fillets) = Spray - Ar > 70%* + deep penetration, high travel speed, flat and horizontal (fillets) = Pulse - Ar > 70%* + deep penetration, high travel speed, all position *Recommend no less than 80% to insure a stable arc. 80% Ar required by some codes. Transfer Mode} Voltage] Amperage} Travel Speed Heat Input Short Circuiting| co, Low Globular co, High Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 69Pinch Effect _ | The pinch effect plays an important role during short circuiting transfer. As the electrode shorts against the workpiece, the arc voltage approaches zero volts, the amperage is limited only by the internal resistance of the welding machine and the welding leads. As the amperage goes up, the magnetic field around the electrode intensifies and causes the end of the electrode to drop away from the rest of the electrode. An arc is established and the voltage increases, the amperage decreases, meltoff rate decreases to the point where the electrode shorts out against the work piece again. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 € 2 5 3 Tab 5 Welding Processes - 70Voltage vs. Amperage i | Constant potential power supplies tend to self regulate, or correct the arc length while welding is underway. ‘Arc Voltage Amperage ‘Short arc length, low voltage, high current, high melt- off rate. Long arc length, high voltage, Low current, low melt-off rate Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 71Melt-off Rate | Melt-off is directly proportional to the amperage. All change in the | system that effects a change in resistance will change the amperage i and the melt-off rate. | A change in electrode extension will change the resistance, hence the | amperage. Therefore a change in electrode extension will change the melt-off rate. da Wore Be bao~ A popevet oad A dmnprrasé Resistance " Electrode Extension Increased extension = higher resistance Lower amperage = lower mett-off rate Decreased extension = lower resistance Higher amperage = higher melt-off rate Tab 5 Fundamentals of Welding Technology tee a lelding Processes - © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006Wire Feed Speed / Amperage 4 | The graph depicts the wire feed speed for various diameters of carbon steel | electrode. The values are based on 98% Ar and 2% O,. The graph represents one of several graphs included in AWS C5.6 Recommended Practice for Gas Metal Arc Welding. The information contained in the recommended practice can be used to set up a new GMAW procedure or to check a WPS that been submitted for review. WFS / Amps for Carbon Steel Electrode 0.030 inch 0.035 inch Short 0.045 inch Circuiting Wire Feed Speed (ipm) 0.062 inch Welding Current (amps - DCEP) Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J, Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 73GMAW Gun (Torch) The GMAW torch directs the electrode and shielding gas toward the weld joint. It is where the electrode is energized as it passes through the contact | tip inside the torch’s gas nozzle. The contact tip is made of a copper alloy and should be considered to be a consumable that must be replaced once it is worn. Burn back occurs when the melt-off rate is greater than the wire feed speed. The arc burns back to the copper contact tip and melts the end of the contact tip. § ‘ The filler metal should slide through the contact tip easily, but without being loose. Contact tips should be changed when they are worn or when the electrode hangs up and no longer slides freely. Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 74Nomenclature ot i Contact Tube Setback a __ Stickout~ Electrode — 1 — Extension Standoff T ~~ Distance Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tabs © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 75| GMAW produces a small quantity of smoke or fumes for | the weld deposited when compared to processes such as SMAW. The arc is very bright and ' produces intense white light, ultraviolet and infrared radiation. The welder is exposed to increased amount of non-ionizing radiation due to the absence of smoke and fumes. Tab5 Fundamentals of Welding Technology Welding Processes - 76 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006GMAW welding does not use flux to produce a shielding gas or to form : a Slag blanket over the weld. The elements silicon, manganese, zirconium, etc., are added to the electrode to act as a deoxidizer. Islands of silicon oxide form and float | to the surface of the weld when the silicon combines with the free oxygen. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Welding Processes - 77e@ Flux Cored Arc Welding Flux cored arc welding is similar to GMAW, but it uses a tubular electrode. The equipment used for FCAW is the same as that used | for GMAW. Power Supply Work Lead. Electrode Positive - Reverse Polarity Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 78Electrodes The flux cored electrodes are tubular, i.e., hollow. The fluxing components are placed inside the tubular electrode. The flux provides deoxidizers and gas shielding. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 79Electrode Specification | FCAW electrode specifications include filler metals for the carbon steel, stainless steel, and other base metals (not included are refractory or | reactive base metals). i A5.20 Carbon Steel Electrodes | A5.29 Low Alloy Steel Electrodes ' 5.22 Stainless Steel Electrodes AS.34 Nickel Based Electrodes SFA specifications are those AWS filler metal specifications that have been adopted by ASME Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 80Electrode Designation + : | The FCAW electrode classification designation is as follows: | E7OT-4 Electrode =| L Chemistry Deoxidizers Recommended Shielding Gas 70ksi Tensile Strength oe Tubular Wire Position Characteristics e CO; s primary gas, additional argon will improve operating characteristics with increased Mn and Si in weld deposit. Similar to EXXT-1 with increased Mn and Si Self shielded, single pass, thin base metal (<3/16) Self shielded, globular, flat and horizontal, multipass SG-A ot SG-CA-X, improved notch toughness, globutar Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tabs © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 81Transfer Mode She | Unlike GMAW, the transfer mode of FCAW is primarily a function of | the flux. The shielding gas, if used, plays a secondary roll in * determining the transfer mode. Amperage and voltage play a lesser | roll in determining the mode of transfer. | CO, is the primary shielding gas used with FCAW. CO, typically | promotes globular transfer with rutile type fluxes. The introduction of argon in mixed gases will promote spray transfer and will reduce spatter. Spatter can be a problem when high amperages are used. Lower amperages, pulsing, and the introduction of argon will reduce the amount of spatter produced. Increased inductance may also reduce spatter by reducing the rate of pinch effect. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 82Parameters \ Both GMAW and FCAW require close'control over the welding parameters. The parameters to list on the WPS include the following: + Arc Voltage | * Wire Feed Speed i + Electrode Extension (electrical stick-out or contact to work distance) Wire feed speed determines the amperage provided the other variables are held constant. Pulsing parameters must be addressed if a pulsing power supply is used for either GMAW or FCAW processes. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 83e _FCAW Pros / Cons | Advantages: i « No external gas shielding necessary i = improved deoxidation « higher deposition rates i = small diameter electrodes are able to weld out of position «= wide selection of electrode diameters (0.030 through 5/32) can be automated Disadvantages: = can generate large amounts of smoke and particulate = may require external shielding gas. «= sensitive to variations in wire feed speeds and arc voltage Tab 5 Fundamentals of Welding Technology Welding Processes - 84 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006_ Fumes e Both self-shielded and gas shielded flux cored electrodes produce great quantities of smoke and fumes. Self-shielded electrodes, i.e., no external shielding gas required, produce the greatest quantities of fumes. Still, the quantity of fumes produced is still less then those produced by SMAW when based on the deposition rate. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 85 ee Stud Welding Stud welding is a system used to weld attachments such as a threaded fastener, hook, nail pins for securing insulation to pressure vessels, or head shear connectors to beams and plate. | The system uses a power supply with a timer mechanism connected to a “stud gun” which hold the stud. The stud is positioned against the surface to which it is being welded. The operator pulls a trigger on the gun which activates the welding cycle. An arc is initiated between the end of the stud and the “plate”. After a short period of time both the end of the stud and the base metal is melted. The timer terminates the flow of current and the stud is thrust into the molten pool of metal and held until it freezes. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 86Components - Stud Welding | There are several variations of the stud welding system. Primarily i the variations have to do with the power supply. Small systems use i a capacitor storage system to “store” the power until it’s needed, | larger units used in the field employ very large diesel driven | generators. Regardless of the power supply, the remaining components are necessary. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 87Stud Types There are numerous stud types used by industry. Some are threaded fasteners, hooks, nail, eye, headed shear connectors, etc. There is one application where the stud is made of an abrasion resistant steel and is used as a means of applying a wear surface to large excavation buckets and dragline buckets. In general, they all work the same. An arc is established between the end of the stud and the workpiece. Both the end of the stud and the area immediately beneath the stud is melted. The stud is then thrust into the molten pool and held momentarily until the molten poo! is solidified. A ceramic ferrule is placed around the base of the stud to preventing the molten metal from being expelled when the stud is thrust into the molten pool. Fundamentals of Welding Technology f Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 88Brazing & Soldering | Brazing and soldering are joining processes in which the base metal is heated to a temperature below its melting point and the filler metal | is heated above its melting point. The molten filler metal is “pulled” into the joint by capillary action. Brazing is performed at temperatures above 840°F (450°C), but below the melting temperature of the base metals. Soldering is performed at temperatures below 840°F. Both processes typically use “lap” type joints. The scarf joint can be used, but to a limited extent. Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Welding Processes - 89Lap Joint (Socket Joint) eee eee : | The socket joint, Xx used to join two ee | lengths of tubing, is ~ ‘really a lap joint. | The length of the y lap increases the | Wetted surface area to produce a joint that is as strong as the tubular structure. Clearance Voids within the joint are normal, but must be controlled. 20% is usually the max. allowed. Fundamentals of Welding Technology H Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 90Capillary Action Capillary action draws the molten filler metal into the joint. In order for soldering or brazing to be successful the joint must be able to wet the surfaces to be joined. They must be clean and free of oxides, oils, etc, the clearance between the faying surfaces must be controlled and on the order of 0.001 to 0.005 inches. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 91Cleaning Proper and through cleaning A is essential to the success of ing process. This is especially true when soldering or brazing. Alll surface dirt, grease, oils, oxides, etc. must be removed before applying the flux to the joint. Flux will prevent surface oxidation during heating, but will not remove oxides or dirt. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 92Flux | The purpose of applying a flux to the joint is to prevent the oxidation of the base metals as they are heated to the brazing temperature. It | can not be over emphasized that flux does not clean the joint. Different base metal/filler metals combinations require different | fluxes. A key factor is the melting temperature of the flux. The melting | temperature must be lower then that of the filler metal, but not too low ' that it burns. Examples of Different Fluxes AWS Classifications Classification Filler Metal Temperature Range (°F) e FB3-A Paste BAg & BCuP 1050-1600 FB3-C Paste BAg & BCuP 1050-1700 FB3-F Powder BAg & BCuP 1200-1600 FB3-K Liquid Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 BAg & RBCuZn 1400-2000 Tab § Welding Processes - 93_ Heating Both brazing and soldering require the application of heat to the parts being joined, The proper amount of heat is | determined by the size of the parts and the melting temperature of the filler metal. Flux, when required, must match the melting temperature of the filler metal being used. Fundamentals of Welding Technology f Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 94Sources of Heat | There are several sources of heating available for heating the base . metal, flux, and filler metal to the proper brazing temperature, The | source of heating is part of the brazing nomenclature. i + TB —torch brazing : + FB — furnace brazing + IB —induction brazing + RB — resistance brazing + DB —dip brazing + IRB — infrared brazing Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tabs © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Welding Processes - 95_ Application of Heat The parts being joined must be heated above the melting point temperature of the filler metal. The filler | metal is melted by the heat of the joint, i.e., the flame is not played on the filler metal, and is drawn into the joint by capillary action. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 96_ Face Feed In the case of manual brazing and soldering, the face feed method is typically used. The filler metal is rubbed against the heated joint and is melted by the heat of the joint, not the torch flame. Capillary action will draw the molten filler metal into the joint regardless of the position of the joint. The brazing operation should be completed as rapidly as practical to minimize the formation of “skull”. The high and low melting point constituents of the filler metal can separate if they are held at temperature for a long period of time. Tab 5 Fundamentals of Welding Technology Welding Processes - 97 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006@ Filler Metal | The selection of filler metal can be very involved. The filler metal , Must be compatible with the base metal, i.e., it must not form _ intermetallic compounds and it must be compatible with the environmental conditions, i.e., temperature, corrosion, toxicity, etc. | The filler metal can be a rod that is face fed into the joint, it can be a ! foil that is preplaced in the joint, it can be a ring that is preplaced on or in the joint, or it can be a paste applied to the joint. Fundamentals of Welding Technology : Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 98Thermal Cutting p | AWS recognizes a number of thermal cutting processes. The more common cutting processes include: + Oxy-fuel cutting * Air carbon arc cutting i « Plasma arc cutting + Laser cutting Less common cutting processes include: * Shielded metal arc cutting + Oxygen arc cutting + Gas metal arc cutting Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J, Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 99@ _Oxy-Fuel Cutting * Oxy-fuel cutting uses a cutting ' torch to sever metals, primarily carbon steels and HSLA steels. The fuel gas may be acetylene, MAPP, natural gas, propane, even | gasoline. The metal is heated to its kindling temperature (cherry ted), then a jet of pure oxygen is. directed toward the metal to facilitate the cut. The cutting action is the result of an exothermic reaction between the carbon steel and the oxygen. Useful information can be found in AWS C4.2 Operator's Manual for Oxyfuel Gas Cutting. Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Operator’s Manual tor Oxytuel Gas Cutting Tab 5 Welding Processes - 100Air Carbon Arc Cutting | CAC-A, often referred to as carbon arc gouging, is very versatile. It can be used to cut both ferrous and nonferrous metals. It most frequent use is for the removal of weld deposit and preparing grooves and backgouging. The CAC-A process uses a consumable carbon electrode as a source of heat to melt the metal to be removed. A jet of compressed air is then used to blast the molten metal from the end of the carbon electrode. AWS C5.3 Recommended Practice for Air Carbon Are Gouging and Cutting can be helpful if you don't have experience with CAC-A. ey Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Welding Processes - 101Equipment | | The basic CAC-A torch has | an adapter to connect to the | welding lead and a connector | to hook in to a compressed j air line. i | The torch polarity is dependent on the materials being cut. « Steel-DCEP Amperage is dependent on electrode . Cast lron— DCEN diameter. . Nickel - eon b 5/32 @ 90 — 150 amps 'e air pressure should be UD 200 — 400 amps between 80 — 100 psi. 318 @ 350 — 600 amps Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 102CAC-A in Action “The CAC-A torch will remove metal at a rapid rate. The removal rate is dependent on the electrode diameter, amperage used, and the volume of compressed air available. Keep in mind that the molten metal can be thrown a considerable distance and present a fire hazard. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 103,Round, copper flashed, carbon Fiat, copper flashed, carbon electrode. Most popular for general _ electrode. Used for removing large purpose gouging. amounts of metal. Useful for preparing U-grooves and back gouges. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 5 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Welding Processes - 104i Abbreviations Shielded Metal Arc Welding “[smaw SAW Submerged Arc Welding GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding FCAW Flux Cored Are Welding GMAW-P Gas Metal Arc Welding - Pulsed GMAW-S: Gas Metal Arc Welding - Short Circuiting ESw Electrosiag Welding EBW Electron Beam Welding LBW Laser Beam Welding PAW Plasma Arc Welding OAC CAC-A Oxy-Acetylene Cutting Air Carbon Are Cut Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Tab 5 Welding Processes - 105° IBEC Intemational Business & mmm mmm Engineering Consulting, S.A. Common Construction Codes | Presented By: Albert J. Moore Jr. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 20068 Codes - 4Common Codes “ There are two organizations that are responsible for the majority of the welding codes that are predominant in today’s construction industry. » AWS - welded structures * Buildings * Bridges + Machinery = ASME - fabricated vessels and piping * Boilers * Pressure Vessels * Associated Piping « API — oil storage tanks, pipeline, in-service inspection and maintenance Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 2; Code Philosophy There are major differences in the philosophy between _ the AWS and ASME. = AWS - “how to” philosophy + includes basic instructions or rules to follow that will produce predictable results. + includes very few mathematical calculations. « ASME - “end product” philosophy + includes numerous calculations to determine the safe working stresses. + no instructions on “how to” fabricate, i.e., “don't care how you get there as long as you get there’. = API-—follows the “how to” philosophy Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2008 Codes - 3The AWS welding codes follow a philosophy of providing the design engineer, fabricator, inspector, and erector with the ' information and the “how to” instructions necessary to provide a welded structure that will perform in a predicable manner. “Recommended Practices” are “best industry practices” and are a useful tool when setting up new processes. All AWS publications, codes, standards, recommended practices, etc., are developed by committees that consist of unpaid volunteers. These volunteers travel to attend committee meetings aaaattezere dging, and meals. The committees ,ership to have equal representation fmm; -anufacturers, testing laboratories, ee Recommended Practices for Gas Shielded Arc Welding of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy a - Pipe Recommended Practices for ‘Welding Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Stee! Piping and Tubing Reet) Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 4Prequalification Several AWS welding codes utilize the concept of prequalified base metals, welding processes, joint details, etc. which is based on the premise that industry has had a long successful history of using those materials, processes, etc. There is no need to reinvent the “wheel” when certain conditions are met. {801.101 snh2002 ‘An American Natal Sana REESE Structural Welding Code Steel ("tion ay, — Rey @&® Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 5Conditions of Prequalification “The concept of prequalification is valid only if the fabricator (manufacturer, erector, installer, etc.) incorporates all the “good” | practices included in the applicable AWS welding code. = Those concepts include: 7 + use of low carbon, high strength low alloy, and stainless steels for which there is a history of successful use. + use of approved welding processes, such as: SMAW, FCAW, SMAW, GMAW + use of matching filler metals and when necessary, sufficient preheat to prevent cracking Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 6Conditions of Prequal. cont. + use of prequalified weld joint details, For example, AWS D1.1 | Structural Welding Code/Steel includes approximately 120 joint designs. use of prequalified welding techniques, ie, use of backing, extension tabs, backgouge, etc. ‘+ meeting certain workmanship standards. + Perform a specified minimum level of inspection (examination) to provide assurance the requirements of the applicable code are met. + writing and following written welding procedure specifications that provides the welder with sufficient information to meet. the requirements of the applicable welding code. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes -7AWS Welding Codes The AWS has a number of welding codes that include the minimum _ requirements that must be met when fabricating welded structures. | These codes only address welding requirements. Few design calculations, if any, are addressed. = AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code/Steel (prequalified WPS) = AWS D1.2 Structural Welding Code/Aluminum « AWS D1.3 Structural Welding Code/Sheet Steel = AWS D1.4 Structural Welding Code/Reinforcing Steel = AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code (limited prequalified WPS) = AWS D1.6 Structural Welding Code/Stainless Steel (prequalified WPS) = AWS D9.1 Sheet Metal Welding Code Not all AWS Codes include prequalified procedures @ cundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 8ASME The ASME is very careful not to tell the manufacturer “how to” or “what to” build. Their position is the! result of a lawsuit initiated against the ASME when the “Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code” was. first published. A disgruntled manufacturer initiated an Antitrust Action based on his objection to the ASME “telling” him how to build a boiler. The suit was based on the premise that the ASME Committee was setting itself up to monopolize the boiler industry. All ASME codes are developed by committees comprised of ™ prs, manufacturers, academics, Jake holders. Teena case Pe vant me 4 Halil aU ett a AN AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD Fundamentals of Welding Technology © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 9Using ASME Products fabricated in accordance with the requirements of the ASME Codes are complex in their nature and design. They include design issues, materials selection, manufacturing issues. These complexities have resulted in code requirements that can not be condensed into a single unified code. When the vessel is not covered by a federal, state, or local statue, the owner, engineer, or manufacturer is forced to investigate the requirements of several code sections and select the one code section that is most suitable for their application. Fundamentals of Welding Technology Tab 6 © Albert J. Moore Jr. - 2006 Codes - 10