Universität Tübingen

Seminar für Sprachwissenschaft

Phonetics k Phonology
Phonology
- Distinctive Features -
(Hall, Kapitel 4; Ladefoged, Chapter 11; Clark & Yallop, Appendix 2)

Christian Ebert
christian.ebert@uni-tuebingen.de
1
Distinctive Features
basics

the rules so far allow for correct derivations, but they do not
adquately describe the involved process

example: rule for voice assimilation of plosives in Plains Cree

/p t k/ > [b d g] / V __ V
„voiceless plosives become voiced between vowels“

but we cannot read off the rule that...

● the involved sounds form a natural class (like „the plosives
of the language“)
● it is an assimilation
2
Distinctive Features
basics

a natural class is a collection of sounds in a language that can be

described by a set of shared phonetic features

/p t k/ are consonantal, voiceless, obstruent (i.e. non-sonorant), etc.

and form a natural class in Plains Cree

the assimilation above is about such features: it changes the 'voiceless'

into 'voiced' but leaves all other features intact

in generative grammar phonological rules are stated w.r.t. to feature

bundles and not to single segments

3
Distinctive Features
basics
features are noted between brackets

example:
to indicate that a sound is voiced, one attribute the feature
[+voice] to it

to indicate that a sound is voiceless one would note [-voice]

there are many suggestions for feature systems

we will stick to the features of Chomsky & Halle (1968) „The Sound
Pattern of English“ as in their version of Hall, Chapter 4.

in Clark & Yallop, Appendix 2 there are overviews of other feature

systems
4
Distinctive Features
basics

another important feature next to [±voice] concerns the indication of

sonorance by [±sonorant] (or [±son] for short)

a sonorant sound will be marked for [+son], an obstruent for [−son]

hence the natural class of voiceless obstruents can be described by an

appropriate combination of features into a feature bundle or
feature matrix:

[-son, -voice] or
[ -son
]
-voice

the features are written either next to or on top of each other

5
Distinctive Features
basics
another important feature is [±continuant] ([±cont]), which indicates
whether the airflow through the oral cavity is continuous

if the air flows continuously over tongues and lips, the sound carries the
[+cont] feature, otherwise it is marked as [−cont]

with these features the following classes can be described

[-son] Non-Sonorants = obstruents = plosives & fricatives

e.g. in German [b p d t g k v f S s z C x h ?]

[-son, -cont] non-continuant obstruents = plosives

e.g. in German [b p d t g k ?]

[-son, -cont, voiceless non-continuant obstruents = voiceless plosives

-voice] e.g. in German [p t k ?]
6
Distinctive Features
basics
illustrated with a diagram (w.r.t. German sounds):
+son -son

a: j y z
+voice

O
I @ n d
E m b v
u: N g
w l

t
t
? k

+con
-con
S C
p
-voice

t
s
f
x
7
Distinctive Features
basics

the features themselves are universal means to describe sounds across

languages
which class of sound is actually described by a feature bundle depends on the
particular language under consideration
for instance, the class [-son,-cont,-voice] (voiceless plosives) in Plains
Cree comprises only [p t k] (German, in comparison: [p t k ?] since there
is no glottal plosive [?] in Plains Cree)
therefore we can change the rule for voice assimilation in Plains Cree
from above as follows:

[ ]
-son
-cont > [+voice] / V __ V
-voice
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Distinctive Features
basics

rules with feature matrices are to be read as follows:

on all sounds that carry the specified input features, the output
features are transformed as specified, if they occur in the given
environment

all features that are not mentioned in the rule are left
unchanged

the rule hence describes the desired change: voiceless plosives in

Plains Cree are changed into voiced ones between vowels

furthermore it is now clear that the input to the rule is a natural class
and not an arbitrary collection of sounds
9
Distinctive Features
basics
a feature, that makes the crucial difference between two phonemes of a
language is called distinctive (for this language)

stated differently: a feature is distinctive if there are two phonemes that

differ only in this feature

for instance, [±voice] is distinctive for German since the two phonemes /p/
and /b/ differ only in voicing

a feature for aspiration [±aspirated] is not distinctive for German:

although aspirated plosives as [p] occur they are allophonic (and not
distinctive/contrastive) to [p]

but [±aspirated] is distinctive in Hindi, which has the two phonemes /p/
and /p/.
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Distinctive Features
feature systems

a system of features must provide all distinctive features that are

necessary to describe the distinctive sounds of the worlds
languages

in the following we will focus on the system of Chomsky & Halle (1968)
in its variant given by Hall (2000)

as above, most features are binary, i.e. they have either the value +
or -

furthermore there are privative features, which are either present or

absent; the presence of other features may in turn depend on
the the presence of these privative features
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Distinctive Features
feature systems

features can be classified according to four categories:

major class features

capture large classes of segments, such as sonorants, etc.

laryngeal features
capture aspects pertaining to the glottis/vocal folds

manner of articulation features

describe different types of constrictions

place of articulation features

describe articulator & tongue position
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Distinctive Features
major class features

[±consonantal] ([±cons])
[+cons] are sounds that are produced with a major constriction
in the oral cavity

[+cons]: plosives such as /p b/, fricatives such as /f v/,

affricates such as /tþs/, nasals such as /m n/, laterals such
as /l/, trills such as /r/, flaps & taps such as /4/,
approximants such as /£ ²/

[-cons]: vowels and glides such as /j w/, laryngeal sounds such

as /h ?/ (here the constriction is located in the larynx and
not the oral cavity)
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Distinctive Features
major class features

[±sonorant] ([±son])
the articulatory difference is that the air pressure before and behind
the constriction of [+son] segments is roughly the same, while it
is different in the case of[-son] segments, since here an
increase in air pressure is caused by the constriction
this feature distinguishes sonorants ([+son]) from obstruents ([-son])
[-son]: plosives, affricates, fricatives, laryngeal sounds
[+son]: nasals, laterals, glides, vowels
[+son] sounds are produced with a vocal tract configuration in which
spontaneous voicing is possible
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Distinctive Features
major class features

[±syllabic] ([±syl])
the feature [±syllabic] indicates whether the segment can
function as a syllable peak
[+syllabic]: vowels
[-syllabic]: consonants and semi-vowels/glides

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Distinctive Features
major class features

the major class features can already distinguish important classes of

segments

obstruents nasals liquids laryngeals vowels glides

[±cons] + + + - - -
[±son] - + + - + +
[±syllabic] - - - - + -

(according to this definition, lateral and central approximants /l/ and /£ ²/ are liquids,
but not rhotic trills as /r ³/)

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Distinctive Features
laryngeal features

[±voice]
this feature indicates whether the sound is articulated with
vibrating vocal folds ([+voice]) or not ([-voice])
[+voice]: vowels, glides, sonorant consonats such as /m n l r/
and voiced obstruents such as /b d g v z/
[-voice] are voiceless obstruents such as /p t k f s/
in German [±voice] is distinctive only for obstruents; sonorants
are always [+voice]
in other languages there are also [-voice] sonorants such as /lß/
in Toda: [kalß] ('pearl') vs. [kal] ('to study')
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Distinctive Features
laryngeal features
[±spread] alternatively: [±aspirated] ([±asp])

indicates whether the glottis, i.e. the vocal folds are spread

[+spread]: aspirated sounds such as /p t/, the fricative /h/

[±constricted] ([±constr])

indicates whether the vocal folds are constricted, such that the glottis
is (nearly) closed

[+constriced]: ejectives, implosives, the glottal stop /?/

laryngealised sounds

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Distinctive Features
manner of articulation features

[±continuant] ([±cont])
[+cont] sounds allow for a continuous airflow through the oral
cavity

[+cont]: fricatives, glides, vowels

[-cont]: plosives, affricates, nasals (airflow is through the

nose!)

this feature distinguishes plosives ([-son,-cont]) from

fricatives ([-son,+cont])

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Distinctive Features
manner of articulation features
[±nasal] ([±nas])

[+nasal] sounds are articulated with a lowered velum

[+nasal]: nasal consonants and nasal vowels,

all other sounds are [-nasal]

[±lateral] ([±lat])

[+lateral] sounds are articulated with a central constriction of

the oral cavity by the tongue, which is lowered at the sides

[+lateral]: /l ¢ K ¡/

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Distinctive Features
manner of articulation features

[±strident]

sibilant sounds with a high degree of 'noisiness' (in particular at

high frequencies)

note that this is rather an auditive than articulatory motivated

feature

[+strident]: /s z S Z tþs tþS dþZ/

[-strident]: /T D C x/

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Distinctive Features
manner of articulation features
with these additional features one arrives at a more fine-grained
classification of segments
consonants
[+cons]

obstruents sonorants
[-son] [+son]

plosive fricative liquides nasals

[-cont] [+cont] [-nas] [+nas]

laterale trills
[+lat] [-lat]
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Distinctive Features
place of articulation features

place of articulation aspects of articulation cannot be adequately

described by binary features

for instance, one may use a binary feature [±labial] to distinguish

labial from non-labial sounds

so this would define two natural classes: the [+labial] sounds („the
labials“) and the [-labial] sounds („the non-labials“)

the problem is, that in no known language „the non-labials“

play any distinguished role, for instance as input to any process

hence there is no phonological evidence for such a class

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Distinctive Features
place of articulation features

for this reason one better uses privative features

privative features are present or absent, but they do not have the values +
or - and hence they do not define two classes but only one

privative features are noted with small caps e.g. [LABIAL]. The following
are used:

[LABIAL] one or both lips used for articulation

[CORONAL] tongue tip or blade used for articulation
[DORSAL] tongue back (dorsum) used for articulation
[RADICAL] tongue root (radix) used for articulation

each of these privative features introduces additional binary features to

specify the place of articulation in greater detail
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Distinctive Features
place of articulation features
[LABIAL] ([LAB]) [±round]

sounds with the [LAB] feature are articulated with involvement of

the lips

labial consonants are e.g. /p b f v m/, glides such as /w/ and rounded
vowels such as /y 2 o u/

depending on how the lips are involved, [LAB] sounds are

[+round] if the lips a rounded, e.g. /y 2 o u/ or

[-round] if the lips are unrounded, e.g. /p b f v m/

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Distinctive Features
place of articulation features
[CORONAL] ([COR]) [±anterior] ([±ant])
[±apical] ([±apic])
sounds with the [KOR] feature are articulated with involvement of the
tongue tip (apex) or the tongue blade (lamina)

these comprises dental, alveolar, postalveolar and retroflex sounds, as well

as palatal plosives, nasals, laterals and glides, but not palatal fricatives
such as /C/

[+ant] sounds are build in front or at the teeth ridge (e.g. /t d s z/)

[-ant] sounds are build behind the teeth ridge (e.g. /S Z/)

the [±ant] feature can hence distinguish dental and alveolar sounds from
postalveolar sounds 26
Distinctive Features
place of articulation features
[+apic] sounds are articulated by use of the tongue tip (apex),
[-apic] are articulated non-apical, i.e. laminal or dental
often one finds the feature [±distributed] (produced with a
constriction that extends for a considerable distance along the
direction of air flow), where [-distributed] = [+apical]
[+apic]: retroflex sounds such as [µ ´] and alveolar sounds [t]
[-apic]: postalveolar sounds as [S] and dental sounds as [tÏ]
[t ]Ï [t] [µ] [c]
[COR] ü ü ü ü
[±ant] + + - -
[±apic] - + + -
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Distinctive Features
place of articulation features
[DORSAL] ([DORS]) [±back]
[±high]
[±low]
[±tense]
sounds with the [DORS] feature are articulated with the tongue back
(dorsum)

this involves palatal fricatives, velare and uvular sounds, the glide /w/ as
well as all vowels

[+back] segments are articulated with retracted dorsum (e.g. back/central

vowels such as /u o a/, velar and uvular consonants as /k g x X ³/)
[-back] segments are articulated with the dorsum moved forward
(e.g. front vowels as /i y e/ or palatal fricatives /C/) 28
Distinctive Features
place of articulation features

[+high] sounds are articulated with raised dorsum

[+high]: high vowels such as /i y u/, palatal sounds such as
/C/, velar sounds /k g x N/
[-high]: uvular segments such as /X ³/, mid- and low vowels
such as /e o a/

[+low] sounds are articulated with lowered dorsum

[+low]: low vowels /{ a/

[-low]: all other vowels, palatal, velar and uvular consonants

29
Distinctive Features
place of articulation features

the following table illustrates the distinction between palatal, velar

and uvular fricatives:
/C/ /x/ /X/
[DORS] ü ü ü
[±back] - + +
[±high] + + -

by combination of the features [±high] and [±low] it is possible to

distinguish three vowel heights:
high: [+high, -low]
mid: [-high, -low]
low: [-high, +low] 30
Distinctive Features
place of articulation features

features of some vowels:

/i/ /y/ /u/ /e/ /2/ /o/ /a/
[DORS] ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
[±back] - - + - - + +
[±high] + + + - - - -
[±low] - - - - - - +
[LAB] ü ü ü ü
[±round] + + + +

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Distinctive Features
place of articulation features

[±tense]
[+tense] sounds are articulated with deliberate, accurate,
maximally distinct tongue gestures that involve
considerable muscle effort
[+tense]: vowels such as /i y e o u/

[-tense]: vowels such as /I Y E O U/

[RADICAL] ([RAD])
indicates articulation with involvement of the tongue root, as in
case of articulation of pharyngeal segments such as [ ¶]
32
Distinctive Features
features & rules

using features, we get a different view on segments

a segment can then be identified with a feature bundle

for instance, the following feature bundle characterizes /m/

+cons
+son
-syl
+voice
-constr
-cont
+nas
-lat
-strid
LAB
-round
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Distinctive Features
features & rules

hence the underlying representation is just a sequence of such feature

bundles

in this view, phonological rules transform certain features in these

bundles

example: final devoicing in German

/b d g v z Z/ > [p t k f s S] / __ #

„voiced obstruents become voiceless word-finally“

the input to the rule, i.e. the natural class of voiced obstruenst can be
specified by the feature bundle [-son, +voice] 34
Distinctive Features
features & rules
in the new format, the final devoicing rule looks as follows
[-son, +voice] > [-voice] / __ #
and this is what happens in case of the devoicing /ta:g/ > [ta:k]
+cons -cons +cons +cons -cons +cons
-son +son -son -son +son -son
-syl +syl -syl -syl +syl -syl
-voice +voice +voice -voice +voice -voice
-constr -constr -constr -constr -constr -constr
-cont +cont -cont -cont +cont -cont
-nas -nas -nas
#> -nas -nas -nas
-lat -lat -lat -lat -lat -lat
-strid -strid -strid -strid -strid -strid
COR DORS DORS COR DORS DORS
+ant +back +back +ant +back +back
-high +high -high +high
+low -low +low -low
-tense -tense -tense -tense 35
Distinctive Features
features & rules

actually the rule can yet be simplified as follows:

[-son] > [-voice] / __ #

„obstruents become voiceless word-finally“

obviously, this rule has the same effect as the one before:
[+voice] obstruents will change to [-voice] obstruents,
while [-voice] obstruents will remain as they are

36
Distinctive Features
features & rules
assimilations can be stated much more adequately with features
in the language Arabela (spoken in Peru) one finds a progressive
assimilation w.r.t. nasalization
all vowels, glides and laryngeal sounds following a nasalized consonant
will also be nasalized
/nuwa/ > [nu~w~a~] („partridge“)

the following segmental rule would describe this assimilation:

/i e o u a j w h/ > [i~ e~ o~ u~ a~ j~ w~ h~] / [m n] __ (iterative)

the qualification (iterative) behind the rule specifies that it must be

applied repeatedly
37
Distinctive Features
features & rules

with features the assimilation can be stated more adequately:

[-cons] > [+nas] /[+cons, +nas] __ (iterative)

„a non-consonant becomes nasalized after a nasal consonant“

One can now immediately read of the four paramters of the

assimilation:

1. targets: [-cons] (non-consonants)

2. triggers: [+cons, +nas] (nasal consonants)
3. feature: [+nas] (nasalization)
4. direction: progressive (coming from left environment)38
Distinctive Features
features & rules

example: vowel harmony in Hungarian

[te:rke:p+r2:l] „map“ [lA:J+ro:l] „girl“

[f2:ld+r2:l] „country“ [u:r+ro:l] „gentleman“
[y+r2:l] „business“ [fog+ro:l] „tooth“
[si:n+r2:l] „colour“

observation:
in the root all vowels are either [-back] or all vowels are
[+back]

the vowel of suffix have the same [±back] feature as the

vowel(s) of the root
39
Distinctive Features
features & rules

the needed place assimilation must take care that the vowel of the
suffix carries the same [±back] value as a root vowel (for
instance, the last one)
to indicate, that segments share the value for a feature, a greek letter
such as α („alpha“) is used as a variable
the rule for vowel harmony thus looks as follows

[-cons] > [αback] /[-cons, αback] C0 + C0 __ C0 #

„A vowel that occurs in the suffix (possibly between some consonants)

has the same value for the [±back] feature
as the last vowel of the root“
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Distinctive Features
German phonemes

the vowel phonemes of German are characterized by the following

distinctive feature (ignoring vowel length):

i: I y: Y e: E/E: 2: 9 u: U o: O a/a: @
[±cons] - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
[±back] - - - - - - - - + + + + + +
[±high] + + + + - - - - + + - - - -
[±low] - - - - - - - - - - - - + -
[LAB] ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
[±tense] + - + - + - + - + - + - - -

41
Distinctive Features
German phonemes
the consonant phonemes of German are characterized by the
following distinctive features:

[-voice] p t k f s S C h
[+voice] b d g v z Z m n N l ³ j
[±cons] + + + + + + + + + + + + - -
[±son] - - - - - - - + + + + + + +
[±cont] - - - + + + + - - - - + + +
[±nas] - - - - - - - + + + - - - -
[LAB] ü ü ü
[KOR] ü ü ü ü ü ü
[±ant] + -
[DORS] ü ü ü ü
42
Exercise

1) Consider the German „ich/ach“ alternation rule and underlying /C/

ignoring diphthongs:

/C/ > [x] / [u: U o: O a:] __

a) State the rule be means of features

b) What phonological process is this rule an instance of?

3) Describe the following natural classes of German using a minimal

number of distinctive features:
(a) /p b m/
(b) /m n N l/
(c) /k g/
43
Exercise

(d) /C k g N ³/
(e) /a a:/
(f) /i: I y: Y/
3) For each of the following segments, change the feature given to the
right. State the IPA symbol of the resulting sound.

(a) /u/ [±back]

(b) /m/ [±nas,±son]
(c) /d/ [±voice]
(d) /C/ [±cont]
(e) /t/ [±spread]
(f) /2/ [±tense,±back]
44