/\10ZAR1 A \II) OPERA BUIPA Il l
early eighteenth-century intermezzo was the contemporaneouc;
CHAPTER 5
M OZART AND O PERA BUFFA
T [ R..H NOLOGY A ' D DU· INIT I ON
he most defining characteri tics of opera buffa in the second half of the
T eJghteenth cent ury are Italian-language text, the u~e of recita tive ra ther
than spoken dialogue between the full mu~ical numbers, a (more or less)
contemporary :.etting, ch;1r acters from the middle and lo\~ cr ranks of society,
though there- may also be some nobles, and a licto ji11e (happy end).. .
"Opera buffa" was a term used in the eighteenth cen tury, usually rn ~lscu~­
siom of the genre as a whole. Howe\·er, manv of the individual .,_,·ork~ 1_n th1s
genre \vere designated "dramma gioco~o·· (comic play) or "commed1a per
mu,ica." 1 The other designation used at thi!. time was "intcrme77o," which
e.trher in the century tndicated a small-scale, u~ual l y two ac l, work intcrpo-
hlted between the three act.s of an opera seria. 13y the later part of the centu r)',
the mtermezzo was largely freed from its attachment to the higher genre, and
the title wa~ not uniformly meaningful, though the implica tion of two am
remained.
0 RJC.!, S
Operct buffa a5 a separate g nrc w~ in part a result of the purg1ng of opera
seria of its "impurities': That is to say, once the more m1xed gen res 0 ~ the
seventeenth century h3d their comic, bawd y, or lower-class clcmenb excrscd,
tho~c elements did not d1sappcar from opera, but rather were gath~n.d
together in various wayr;, or attached to a variety of previou5ly-cxisting ktnd.s
of comi mu~ka.l dram.1 to form their own ~ubgenres. As mentioned abow.
the intcrmeao was one of lht5e. 1 Often featuring the ~rvant charaders now
banned from opera "t:ria, they were played between the acts of opera scria, hut
011
abo between the acts of pia}:. (whether comic or serious), and eventually
theii own, el>peciaHy in the second half of the cen tury once ballet haJ beLom~
the favored mtcr-acl entertainment for opera scria.J A developmen t paralk
to tI1c " If d. .,
Neapoli lan commcdia per musica; a genre that was always se -sta n mg , o
to pea k• afl d t h•ll becnmc
' enormously popu lar in the smaller theaters
. of
.
aplcs in the 1720s and bcyond. 4 Thi kind of comic opera was typtcaJiy m
three acts rather than the intermeno's two; it had more characters than the
in termezzo's 1wo or three, and it alway had a range of social classes repre-
sen ted. Jt was also conspicuously local, both in it setting and in its usc of
language: many ea rly Neapoli tan comic operas were entirely in Neapolitan
dialect. Later on, and as the genre began to spread across Europe, the lower-
class characters would speak in dialect, while the aristocrat and other high-
ranked characters would speak in Tuscan, the high class literary language of
the whole Italian peninsula. 5
Both the intermelZO and the 1 eapolitan commedia per m usica derived
significant fea tures from the much older ItaJ ian dramatic tradition of
commedia dell'arte. This was a pan-Italian (and by the sixteenth and
eventeenth centuries, pan-Eu ropean ), largely improvised, comic tradition
featuring a set of stock characters in ea il y rccognizeablc masks and costumes,
and a series of highly conventional plot skeletons, arou nd which the actor
would invent dialogue and lazzi- es entially comic riffs, often with a lapsttck
or other visual element. 6 The character included Harlequin the wily sen.-ant,
Pulcinella the deformed le her, Pantalone the m1 erly merch..mt, his friend the
pompous Doctor, Scaramouche the braggart, a p.1ir of imwmorati (lovers},
and Columbine the clever maidservant of the female lover. These character!.
found their way into innumerable buffa operas throughout the etghteenth
century, incl uding Mozart' mature works. For example, Figaro and usann.1
in The Marriage of Figaro arc de cendan l of Harlequin and Columbine;
Don Alfonso in Cosi fan tutte 1 related to the Doctor; and Donna Anna and
Don Ottavio in Don Giova1111i arc the innamoratt.
G01 0 0 I AN D Till ~I::.N f'IM l NTAI
Although the librettos of Iale eighteenth-century opera buffa owe thctr fund a
mental principles to the intermezzo, the Neapolttan commcdia per muszca and
the commed1a dell 'artc, the more immed1,1te influence on the particular form
of thi5 genre at th i~ time wJs the em inent \ enet ian playwnght and ltbrettist,
Carlo C.oldoni (1707- 93 ). Goldoni ""anted h 1~ contribution to ltahan drama
(lllcl uding opera) to be the eradrcation (or at least scnou~ d1mmishment) of
the "abuses" of the wmmedia, whtch mduded both improbabthty and
l rudll)', and thee tabh hmen t of a kind of comedy th1t w.cd some ~ommcdi.1
chara~..ters, conventiom and e\en nits, hut that \\J'> more h.N:J 1n human
"truth," and th,Jt -.et \Cd a~ a more cffedi\'C ~c.hool of mann\."r~ th.1n the
o. trur '""'"'' ""'r'l f'r'\1\IC:C"C\/ATf'IDV 11RRARV'
 II! \RT \ :-\ 11 l.\Pl: R A B 'I f.\ \II.)Z.\R I ,\!'ill PI' I R \ At H \ II\

..::Nnm dia. fnd~ ~d. in hi ~ preia e to a pnnh:d (. lit1on ot hi' pl.l\ II ,,·n·ill,rt·di , irtm•." f hc libretto abo indudl''- :-tod, figur ,; .1 p.1ir of ll1lbk loH'r' h
dtlt' pad. tlfli ITh ~ nant of n v ~1.l~t r' . ,, h~<.h \\,)', m !Jd \Hitt n ~~~r J conccrnl'tl wll h snd.II ~tJ n d111g "' \\ irh the true '-ond1tions of thor hc.lrb, ,,
l t'kbrated -:-ommediJ dcll'J rt~· actor and ' ' ·" mt,... t lik.t·h b:t~ d on .1 pn'' ious jc.1 1ou~ !~Inn girl. J ll honl'' t bumpkin, an d .1 b 1JM.1rt (hut '-\ nlp.tthc.:ud
Harlcqum pla~. GQJdom w.1 .11 pain to ' tn: ' h~:. t'\.rur~.ltion oi tht> "co.lr~t· Gcnn.lll o iJier who b .actu.dly tlw ~our'- c of thl• truth .lb~lut ( t.'\. .. h1n.1 ~
n~~~c!>" of the genre. At th .1mc tim~· ht> argued th.tt th ..• ,t>n.1nt\ n·m.uning birth.
tmpn,rriN ie · wen.' both nece: -..a n · t0 th pl.l~ .tnd ,l, rntnon not onh· m m.m~ t\ set b, i ·w lo Pic'-inni 111 1/t>O, La bz~t'"" ti.~lirwhl h.1J .1 plti.C~ m the
vmedic$ but also ew n in t rag ~e,. 17t>0 .111d '70:- ~ inu(Jr to th,lt of l;l'llll.lfO (·cdt•n~,.o\ ltl ~cn.l f•l.frp 111, ' I l \
The central i sue for Gold ni - at leJ,t a-.. it .1ppe.1r 111 th • p1<'1:1ce to hi~ GiO\·anni B.ttt i~ t .l Pergolc:.i in 17J3. !'hi!I \\ or!.. dct.nkJ the '' .n .1 de\ l'r .m,l
pia". and hbretto · - w.1 the.' mo1alit\ oi ho'' ing ' Kl' on , t,1ge. Hi-. b.1~ k po i- m.111ipul.1ti\'C.: sen·ing girl c:- t'lltl.tllv t1 1~l..ed hl·r m.l'>h.'r into 111.1rn m~ hl't, ,md
non wa that he sho,,· d only minor ' i e , and then onh 10 hold them Uf to fun t ioncd .1. the p.1radigm of opcr.1 bu ft~1 tM dt•\.,H.Il'. rhcrc,ath.·r. l'hl' dbt.H1\. •
riJi ule. ~o that audi nee m mber · \Hluld not be '-t''duceJ h' them. onwd). bet\\ Cen Pergoleioa':.. .nnbltaom min \. .111J l~o ldom\ .mJ l'HYIIllll\ ampMtuned
of cour.e. had .Uwav engag'--d in riJicult.> , and ~tall doe~. for th.11 mJtter). inno cnt i· precisd the Ji~t.llln: bt.>t\\ l.'t'n t:OillK 1ad1n1k .mJ 't' lltlm ntJI
What w.b n w with Goldoni (.md m thi he \\ J in hnr " ith litrr.m .111d identification, .111J it a the tiJ,t.tl lu! bc.:twl.'t'll tlw llpl' l,t bult.t ot tht• -.ulv
dr.1matk d~wlopment in England .tnd France) '' J:. lu intere!>t m thl' ~enti· middle o f tht• ei~ ht t'l'll t h l."t'n tur .md that of ~IO/Jrt\ taml'.
men t.tl. with it · oncomitant e ·p tJnon that the audien e would iJcn!lt)·
with the fet'lings of the har.tcter who d~served rmpathv. Hi dran1<1~ thu'
Tli l DRA,\1 \l it Al\11 ~ll '- It \ 1 \1\ l Ill Ill~ t)( ~lllllll'\'1 ,, 01'11{ \ Hlll•l \
had to make lear the dcsireJ audien "l' a tti tude to a 'Jrit'l \ of ' h.1radeh ,tnd
to do ~o in a way th3t ~mt.·d ' natural. Both the cl.mfkataon of the ~.hJrac-_ I he.: _Point h tl' is nor th.H in \\MI..~ lil..c.: I ,Lllllmltl Ji,r)lllll/11 t' \ l't> th.tr.adt'l '' ·"
ters' '"s:mpathr quotients'' and the need fllr the ,1ppcaranc.:- of Ol1lt" degn'l' ul ~ent•ment ,lllzetl, or C\ ~.· n .,, mp.llhctiL Itnhn, tlwrl' \\,1' J rJll~l' ol d1.1r.ldt' l,
plau~ihility were in ten:.ified by the fact that oldClni\ d1 amJs .10d hbretu, h~c t:omtht• uttt't h rid iualou . . to rlw po:.itl\'t'l} !>.l\.lh.HIIle, ,md ,, r.111g~.·ut tlll\\1.'11·
tho-~ of the Neapolitan amzmedia prr m usiu1, were . t in the prest'nt JJY, 111 l~<lnJ( toric-., \i tu.uwn ••mu mu~11.'.1l dt'\ k·t•, th.1t Wlllald d.aril~ .md .11 III.IJI.Itc
places that were oft n entirdy fam iliar to the audien.:c. The "..afet) net of J the
,
lV(>e"
, ,
wit hut til·1: O\ ·~.:1.1
• II 1·.ul~t·. I or t'\.Jillp1t', ' ' 1lt't1.'.l' (. l'tdllll.l opt·n~
l tt <. ln ll l s onet 1 ., 111 , 1 · 1 I
mr thologiwl or J!lt-gori~.:al sett ing" a thth un:n ailable. . • r • · ~lllg .1 s 101 t, ... unp t'. p.1stor.1 'l'ng ,thout tht• llo\\\.' r' ,flt• ,.,
1 I ~I
One of Goldoni's most influential bbrettos, L.1 lmCI'W [igliuoftl (1 he l·~ l
111 tentlmg the '>llobt 1 · •
, •• 1' l ' .1r'- Hone.,, luund.a' llr't .1ra,a I'> .111 opa.t 'l'ri,l likt.•
(,irl , \'a' ba<>ed on hi.s play Pamela, whiCh in tur n \\3~ bJ~ed on dw
14
~ 1
1
cl\t'r~ can m dlt.lrbrit. ml'lodit•, ,11\d \ Ot:JI .h.wb.l11 ... '· .111d tht• <_;l'llll.an 'tlldll'r
I R . 1 1rd on • fh( ag IJfc.:r ro h•.., th , t II ~ UHllll
- I -
nu,,.l of th ~ame name b) the' fngli h au thor SJmw.· 1c " ~ · IIOrt breJth• l 1.:·I } ('ll,l Ltllll )lllJtiOill)f ,1 b,1" \Oill', •ll1d .111,1\ \\ 1th
I' .tnt1 p.lltt'r stngmg.
no\'d, writlt'n in p i ~tolary fo rm, '-onc"rnli the :.te.J J t'I<l~tm· - s 0 f the ep<~ 1
111
l:l lllt lllll'~
. h . the f.lu: ll f hc hbrt'tlm ol ol' . t 11 1 II - .
mou' heroine, a \ Oung \\Oman o t rdJthdv Jo,\1} t)trl ' 111 · tl ll,l )ll ,1 ,1111 (,o I. Olllldlllt'd thl'> tt ...·nJ t'llltHIIUS<.'d
. . . II . PJllll 1.I' 11\ lllU'ill,l l \ .Irlt'l \ 111 ' I
tnat·a-.mgh· importunJt(' :ll)pro.Kh b) a noblem.m. L\dlfUa }· . • ,, 1 . h part l\ slludunng tlw tl'\h tor .tr 1.1!1 111 m.lll\' nwr4•
• t . -- d ht'l 1)\ 11J( •) 1 ·111 h.td tlw hb •tt 1 0 t '
de~·n\e (1[ h r ch.btitv and Ja.:k of mterc~t in the n h .., olkr~: 11 ata> h rt 'h '>l' IIOU' opt'l,l , .md 111 (\11 t b~ butlding an 'ltll·
• • 111 nu ,rn.a l n ~ I .at c,tlbl fo 1 · 1 1· 1 ·
n•>bletnan win hi~ heart, 'lllld they llMrry. 1\lany p.trodH.'~ o.~ros~:, , " 11 MJ \ 1 • '" t t'l ' .llll't\ ol kmJ, of l'\Pfl'"lllll. Ilw I\\'' 't.tnl.t
' . . . . J . ·e~ and 1lt r ,,
part I)e -JUlie Po1mda !> lt•tl<:r!> de<.atht• the noblem.w !' ·' 'Jnc 11 f
.til' • <-1 ,.l tapo~
, t lutt u . 0 I I
. I
rl ' ll.' 0\<.'l 111 opt•t.1 :>l.'n.I\'J' .,tJ!Iu,~.·d. hut it ,,,t, t\ p1·
1 01 1 ) ~!'~1 \ t:d lor tlw •
re-.po. nse~ in llllch derail th.tt th~.· novel's appeJl consi~n:d .t' k Jst ' s u~~
1 11
·
were ofi, . '>cn.t 111111 lllltlrtztr ~cntllnt•n t .tl durJdt't' .tnd uwmulh
·mtt•re~t m the '' av ~ she at tractl'd tht.• nobkm.lO·• dt te~ :t~ 0 J l t:n ga \ 1!11 ~hort t 1
prurtt'nl ~.: C\pCI.tlJI J i t' \1\ Will Ill> \.lllltf,hting 'l'lt1UI1\. ( \IIIIi\. dur,ldl.l'•
. . • . ~p(!\_ (Jt u1'1rh 0
l men 111 1 b
rJ tton for her nrtur:. P.trodic:. nOt\\ tthst.Uldmg, P.mteiJ \\J!I h t-, ' '
hJu l l'll1 1 hi ' l ump"u" ( \\ 1lll \HIt' u,u.tll~ pl.1vul h> h,1 , , ) ultrn
1

fi · ake the en1111 .tr" ,l } lunu text I I I I . .

'Uc.:es.. ul, taking Europe b~ ,torm. Goldoni's adaptatlt\11S Ill ,r ., ~10n or t1 l l l . r- ' " l i t l 11,\t<.'t J p.tll l rlllllf'Jldt.• 11r an~~r 111 u•ntu
. . ' . . , h ftJIJ;Hl Jl( 0 1 J ) ) lng Ill! ) B I I
now (ailed Cec hm.l, .t nohkwoman in dt~gUJS<.', becJ U~l t c . . ·s As O\ cr,1J1 tl , l ~ \. lh o Ill' ll'\.l '"-'II.' .thv,l\ \ll'fll'.llt'J 111 .. u,h '"·''·hut
- .. • L • flrt lJ ~h clf\l •
a bOUt marrtage Ot•tW'-'l'O th~· da~~es were difft'rcnt frolll lilt: f , tlll' ~ ~ tht ll'l<~rkcd' th1l. '' ord!> '" l·r. ' ~ung Irom Ilt'gllHllltg . to cnd, .md tlw l.'lhi lll tlh r \t
t:t'ndot th - ( 1•
Goldoni him~elf note:. in hh prc.•f,IL·c ro the pJJ}': "1 h n.' ''J'd 0 u r . but I 't·r~t.> 'n ~ tl . t: Jll.l un IM' Ill d.1 t.tpo h't 111 "lwr~.· thl u1d lll th fir, I
· o f ll1~: I··ngh!ih
aJm · author; SUl' h a purpose would p 1~::J'it •• 111c "i'rN L1)• r t)l I
J I kinu:. ) .
' w end ot rh . 1 .· 1l "~ \ 1 ·
t • 11• · Ill m Sl'lll'r .11, tlw (II' ru hull,, "'"\\ nthll\ rn
- J w the me11 ( 1 ill l.h''·''ln u~_,,,mg . . I~ l11 'd t Iw lt'\t .Ill th~.· \\,1\ thwugh.end111g ,Jt
would not Witnt the propriety oi the f.tmilr to be :.Jlrll"l'
114 :>.HlZARI A:\1> Ol'UH J\t;fi A l\IOZA RT .\ , J) (.) P!':R,\ RUFf\ IL5

th<' end, cv"n if there were return:. Jnd rcpetitiom .1long the '' J)'. 1he overall
effect ot tbi-. practi e ,,~as to allow ari,l to progre" , ~:ithe t p~ychologi c.llly or
dram.'lttcally. or both. Theda c.1p0 aria!. of o pera ~eri.1 tert.linl deepened .md
nu.:m ed the audience'!~ sense of the (hat Jder :.inging, and in ten ificd or
complicated the audicn e':. rmpath> f, r, or adm iration of, him or her, but
theu O\"Crall eficct '' a more a temporary ~.ry.. t.1ililation of the plot th.m ::1 w.1y
to mmc it forward.
With the :.upport of the Goldoni.1n ltbrettu, mid-century opera buff.1 al o
derlo)'ed ensembles ( mu:-.icalnumbcrs in which -;ever.11 ch.1r.1 ters sing) much
more often thJn did opera ria. orne en embk'>, like the last-act low duct,
or the trio or quartet of fin.1J cclebr.ltion, had long been used in opcr.1 scri.t to
cement are olution of om«! ort, but opera buffa increasingly used ensemble
to express di~agre ment and difference between charJcters, or imply
dramatic e.ompltcation l t? Chapur 2). One of the fir t pbce en!)embles were
found to be effective in operJ buffa was th e finale- the~ ene or ollection of
scene~ at the end of Jn act in which 1he imbroglio i~ tigh tened or peeded up,
and characters confront themselves and each other with the (often unin-
tended) consequences of their actiom. Ensemble::. have little or no recitative;
ratht'r they typicalJr con ist of peech-likc statements and ections of dialogue
wrapped in a blanket of orchestral music that su ·t<tins the mood or the p.ICe
of the action; at tl1e end of ach ection of djalogue there i usually a moment
(or longer) where the ~.":haracters sing together and sum up the current !!tate
of the drama- often in collective statements like "What is to become of ll'•?"
or "What a ternble mess!"; but also ornetimes wi th words reflecting the
Stmultaneous but incompatible individual dilemmas at that moment. Fin.lle~
allowed both librettists and composers the flexibi lity to present both fast-
paced dramattc action and continuous music; as a re ult these segmen ts often
seem the most "natural" of these works, though in fa t the}' require the
great tart to write.
Coldom's libretros also made frequent and influential me of the rntro
·
dlltJont, an Introductory en emble whi h often la;s out bot h t h co ll•cti\C ~::
arena m winch the drama will take place and the drssati factiom or tc:nslor~s
that will anunatc the plot. Coldoni's intradw:ioni are rarely as dynamic '1s lm
Ensemble in opera buffa arc al o an C'l:ten ion of the notion that mu ical
numbers arc addressed as much or as frequently to the other charJdef'>
on tage a to the .llldicnce. vVherca in opera cria, the maiorit} of aria are-
more or lcs abstra t statements of an emotional or philosophJC.ll ptri tion,
even if thC)' arc sung in direct rc pon c to omcthing another charaLier h.1
~aid or done, in opcr<~ buffa, many .trias (particubrly tho c for the mo~t mmJC
or least noble charnctcrs) arc at.ldre sed directly to on, tagc interlocutors .tnt.!
demand some kind of gc tural re!)pon c from them. For exJmple, comi - old
men in Goldonian libretto often addrc s more th,m one per:.on Jt onct!
( ometime with ontradictory inform.1tion). u ·u.llly tying th msehe into
hopeless knot in the proce s. The ensemble acting ne e .tr~ for uch aria
connect na turally to en emblc inging; and incrca ingl}' through the !.1tter
half of the eighteenth centuq', duets, trio~. qu.1rtet , quintets, .md eH~n larger
ensembles wou ld erupt or co.1lc~ce in variou pl.lces throughout the ach of
the opera.
One important characteristi of opt'r.l buft:1 in the Golloni tr..1dition, then,
was an incrc.tsed "natural nc "ari ing from the genre' cwqday chJr.Kter·
and situ.1tion .•1 wider v.uicty of dramatic rhrthrn, .111d more immeJiate
inter- haractcr respom.e . Thi .1pparcnt naturalne i-, howl.'vcr, c0-1.'\ istetl
with, and was even dependent upon, .1 highly convcntion.lli7t'd l.lnguagc of
typ~· : char.Ktcr types, situ.1tion t}'pcs, plot type~. anJ mu:-.il-.11 type~ at J
va net of level ·. Tust •b in opera seria, predictability '' .1~ an mtcgr.1l pa rt ot the
'1e thetil., and it wa~ the variat ion~ on the prcdict..tblc clement:. th.tt prO\ rdcJ
thc.cntcrtainm ent. A~ noted .1 bove (p. Ill ) , commedi,1 J clrartc pro\ idcd the
ha~lc character types - sen .1nts from pert .1nu "ily to tcrmin.1lh dumb, t.•nt i-
mentallover!), pornpou~ 01 le hcrou., olJ men. and '-O on. I he t.t.>lllllll:dt.l .1!-.o
~)rovidt>d many of the plot ardwt\ pe .... The mo~t l'Ommon ploh tn t)pcra butl:t
mcludcd . the g u 11·tng o1· .tn o lJ m.1n - o ftt.•n .1 t.lthcr · -
ur gu.1rdr.1 n trgure tu
engtnecr ··1 ma 1nag~: · • l)Ctwcen true 1o,· r~ ; nw.t.1kcn . or \\\lh.h~:d iJ en tJtlc'
1
Jlrno~t lc:ld 1ng to the \\ rong lta1som; tdcntitle:. unkno\\ n to thc1r 1.l\\ ncr...:
l .l~s ten ·~ l on~· r~.:''LIt 1 1ng. t.rom m.1pprop11.llc . .
,tmowu~ dt.'' lfl'' • .md c\pet tnwnt-.
rn I1llll1.1n beh ,l\10111 . . l ,1\0Uiltl' . tOilllt. nth Ill opcr,l outl,l 1.11\ 0h l.'tf dr,glll' ,
p.lrtly-hc 1rd ·1 1
• 11l lOII ~cqut·nt h llll..,ltn< kr~tOlld t.llrl\ Cf~ati on,, ,tt.h i l c un
IY' • '

finales, partly b~:cause they often end with c1 chorus which may be a mu~ll •
11 a~<llr,ofthc h·
'( l:,lrt •·l1\ l h.IT.ILII:rs Ul1ClJU1ppt•d to J clrVt'l II. , Ull\\ Jrl.lllh.",l ,m,!
n:pca t of the opening :stat<.'ment, thus closing o ff the mtrod11zionc fro.m th~ llllll) IOU fl.'d \ •If . I d
·.1
.
~: 1.0n I t'lllt' on the p.ut Lll tht.ht' " 1th lltl ri~ht Ill 11 .md
rc~t of the opera. But they do emphnsJz the collectiVt:, od.1lly orrcn~c ·1Stucstothc i J ·· •. I ' . ' '
M . 'u ICill.t n.p .unmg wh,lle\l·r trtlh·n "1.1kmg pl.h.t'.
nature of opera huffa; th i~ contra~t s with opera seria, whosl! ovenvhelmtng ih , . .
ll~lt..J( I\ nc~ U\ ·J J
:t · l
l 111
ll.'qut•nt' . opl.'r.l I1utta. th.rtlughllllt tht lattt•r pJrt t•l
~1 reponderancc of ~lo nu mbers emphasi1cs by on<llogy the powl.'r of thf IJnt .
~.: t.~:nt ury llldu i. i tl • k . . .
t. ct. ~~ mo 't.'rt.l ,lfl,t m .1111.trl'h ltkt· tcmp\1; tht•p.111)Jt tt,
tndividual ruler1patron, anJ the powers of oratory or rhetorrc ( ncce~s.1rtl)' '1 l:llt , I 1lC butt0 f. l1
beg· .lrl,l or ·1" (dl.':-.dlht. d .1b11\ 1.', p. IJ); th · ' '"' t-tll! 1 .m,t,
!oolo undertaking! ratllt'r than the l.OIIcllivc encrgy of dr.lllmtic a<..tt Oll· lllOing ,Jm, h I I . J • • •
• Ill ~.: nu t nR '·"'· \\ IWt t' tht' t,1,t ' t'd lt'll t.tlulJ r,·prl''t.'llt t'lth ·r
116 tOZ RT l.:\11 Ol'lRA Btl lA

a de\.. 10n ~u w:~y of undercutting tht• fir.,t 'L'dll.lll, and the graceful ,hort
,tri-3 •o uall) for m.udM:nanb) with mtmm.ll but tflt:dtn vol .tl p.w.agc,,ork.
The on:he.tral accompantment 10 opera bufla l ' P uall\ 111 l Otntc arias -
'\\en• \Offie'\\hat more ge<.tural and mtcra<:tt\l \Hth the \OtLC than were ATT O
opera ena ac•ompanunents. and orchc~tral mtrodultton to Jria~ were
con 1derably abbr 'tated in order to allow for mo re plau,tbk stJgc Jetton. Fer. Q uanrlo volete.
Thi:. abbreviation also happened in opera !>Crta dunng the ~cconJ half of the D.A!. Intanto
century. Silenzio, c ubbidienza,
Fino a doman mattina.
Guil. S ia mo fol dat i , e a mia m Ia cifcrplina.
Stli<GLR!>
D . Al. O r b'ene: anda te ur1 poco
The singer of opera butTa in Mozart' ume overlapped to some extent with A d attendermi entrambi in _siardinctto,
those of opera eria. Female sopranos sang both, though orne, ltke t\tozan 's Cola vi maudero g li orciini miei.
~aocy torace, who prem1ereJ the role of Susanna m Tlu: Marrrage of Ftgaro, Guil. E d oggi non si mangia (
specia.liz.cd in the kind of acting more charactcri tic of opera buffa, and Fer. Cofa fcrve.
others, like Adnana Ferrarese, the fir t fiordtltgi m Cost few nlltc, a wdl as the A battaglia finita
second Susanna when Frsaro ''-as re,·i"ed in 1789, were more famous for their F ia la ccna per noi pin [; porita.
eria vocal abilitie . But basses sang almo t exdu tvely in opera buffa. there Un'aura amorofa
being no b.1 · role to speak of in the higher genre. And there were relatively I Del nofl1"o teforo
fe,, castrati m opera butfa, particularly as the century wore on. Occasionally-a Un dolce r illoro
castrato would sing the part of the noble IoYer in an opera buffa, but ~ 15 Al c o r porgcr\.
usually happened onlr tf a fa mous smger was pas ing through. The except~on Al cor che nudrito
with respect to castrati was Rome, where women were banned from appeanng Da fpeme, da Amore
· both sena · and buffa
on stage, and so castrati took aU the female roles m Di un'efca m iglrort=
operas. But the O\e-rlappmg of singers in the two genre!. had not only. to do Bif'o gno non ha. (Partvno.)
with the smgers' versatility but also v.rith the mcreasing imilarity 111 the
economic and diStnbution systems for the two genres. In the first couple of
. was more usuaJ for com ·tc operas to b e produced bv~
S C EN A Xlii.
decades of the century, It
peripatetic troupes traveling from one citv to another with engagemenu fo D. Alf folo poi Difpllla.
. . ' mallv "free
some months m each. The smgers 10 these troupes were not nor ·
" d · · · all h
agents, an so could not be engaged tndtvtdu y, w ereas or [l opera sena onev Oh Ia fa ria da poche
rid e re : ,c;i
of the main jobs of the theater impre!tario Wa!t to put together a compa~.' Son Je donne \ Ofinnti in qnelw m oudo,
inger ln singer, for each carnival season. Even once repertory theatershi;~ E q ui ve nc fo n due . . non f.1r1 nulla • •
comjc opera had been established in Wnic.e, Naples and Florence, " aJ J
V ieni ' ie ni r~wciu Jla ' e dimmi UJl J>OCO
had happened by the 1740s, peripatetic troupes were snU not unusu a oo,·e 1imo . e che fan Je tuc pa drone.
'evertbeless, by Mozart's time, there was a free market in the best opera bu ~
· · as there was in seria singers, and increasmg
smgers, lUSt · 1Y· ·tmp resano.s an DrJp.
patrom were l>imply looking for the best singers tout court.
~ -A J>agr from the 1790 prtntn l llhr<tto t 1
1
"" ''•cen rcutall\C a nd the ana ~Lin J UrJ •10

r;VJ rNnLAND CO c;
 U- d L 1 l ~,lltltll\ Ill !hC
2 vcmu u Bcllutto <.:ar.aletto A periormance of the bJIJel-pa ntom rme t' ttr ,
Buq;theatcr, \ 1cnna, Ii5 .
 A Stene from D011 GIO\annl
· .
as performed at th~ 1-.tnp I h~.llr~·. 1011 J,m' 1S.!O.
Th~K:ults""
4Han:. .\1.xgt, 1/utt'' A..-tllln al e ·MetropoIII em Opera, J 9 I 2. Dtrector: Anton Schertel '>d J e. •gnt r
6 View of the stage and wmgs of
lhe Burgtheater, 1785. EngraYmg
by ~ l.ul fdd.

8 "!:>treet Scene" from the Drott mngholm Ca~tle rho:atrc:.

 t.ll IZAH I A II Ul'l I{ A Ill l FA 117

() PI ItA II l ii I A I N ~ CH II I Y

Wlu H .t ~ o pc 1, 1 \~·n.1 w.1., mm t , tronj.!ly ,t'>~Oti.Jil'd wit h,, p.trti~ul.tr sc.t on.
IJ ,llJH.'Iy (,lJll iV.l l (the Jlll I ('Il l JH'I 1(){1), OJH.'t.J b uft.l \\,1~ cvcrrwhcre tl more
y~.·.n rou nd ~~ nrc. In u t u.·, w1th "' w r.tl th tJ tu,, l•k \ullle, ~i!p~c.'i .tnd Rome,
tht• J. gt:~t ,1nd 111 m t p lt''>l lgtoll'> rlJl<.' w,J'> dcdJ tJ IHito opcrJ scrt.J, anJ one or
11
rc .,m.dkr ont'' would moun t opcr.t huff,, througlwut the tCM wtth the
1110
frequent cxt cpl ion of tht '>li JTtnl<. r. In pl.ttt'~ w1th o nly one thc.ttcr,li~r \.lti.Jn,
that th~.·.He• would dtvidt the yc.1r hdwct 11 .,tr ht .tnJ bull,! produ~uon , ollt.n
111
tt'J' Pl' l ,cd w ll h ">pokcn J rJ rnJ .111 J bJ llet. By Mo~otrt '~ time, opera bull.t wa'
,t p.tn hiiOJX',tll plwnonwnon, .111 J '>tort.:s .111d hha ttu~ drtul:ucJ (often hy
mc.t n~ of ' ingcr\) fro m o ne p l.tn: to tht• next. L'n!Jkt· sctJ.l oper.ts, whos~
nw" ' \\ ,t \ typi, ,tlly compmt•J for J 'mgk ott."ton Jnd not rtpl'Jtcd, though
the ttxh vva r 1epc.llcdly 1c \Ct, hu ff~t opcr,h w<.re tr.ut~portc.·d ~hole from one
plJ<.C to .mothu, wit h thl' "onglll.tl" worlr dottorcd to v.tnou' Jq.:rc:c~ to fit
the new ' i " um~t.lllCI.'~, hu t not t.ompk tdy rc <.ompmcJ. I h•~ tontnhutc.·d to
the ~hcJpm ss of o p<. r.l b ulf.t l o mp.nt•d 10 opt•r,t .,c.·ri.t. "lome bultJ 'in{'(~;r'i
were t henper than ~on11.: ~~.n.1 mw~. tom •' opcr." wt:rc .tllllo'>t never 1. 'P""t
vt hiclr' for one or two !>U Jl<.r'>l.tr\, tht• '''h .wJ CO\Ili 11H.''> were lt.>\!1 d.thor.ttc,
and the 11111 !>pen t le,lrnJng role.·, \v-.t' r~dllled when singe.·!'> c.·~~t:nttJlly
•ctw.HcJ them in o ne t tl ) .tftcr Jnothcr.
'I he 'oc.i.1l , t ,ll u~ of oper.t hu ll,! \\ t,, by !\1ot.trt\ time, vcr} tompar.tblc to
thJ t of o p e 1.1 ~U J J. Although c.•.u litr in the c.~.·ntury 'omc.• thcJtn,,IJke thc.· S.lll
9 '/ /,,• \.f,.rrlt•£•'j•/ 1-tgam MctruJ"'ht.tn Opera. 1~ 1" I n cda Jlempel 01~ ~u .. ,mnJ, <...eraldmt• l Jrrar
c ht·rubmo. Giu!.tppe D1 l.uc;t a~ T•garn C.l ~\t a n o in Ve nt~:c, ' J'Clt.tlllt'd tn ,, lt: pc.·•torv not likd) to ,tppc.tl to the 1110\l
ll'~pcll .lblt: cl ,t\\t',, the ( ,oldonl,\11 \CllttnH:nt.tlll.lt Jon of the Sl'IHc .tnJ ih
~uh't·qu ~.· n t d t"cmtn.ltto n .1u m' tht• cnt irt'l} of luropt: hJd m,tdc.• 11 a\ likely
to ht• ftt•quc.•ntt.:d I>} .H t-.tou.ll' t ) h)' Jm,cr-r.nlh·d pn>pl~.·. 'J lw '}~lclll otlung-
term rc ntt~l or pur• h.l'i. o l boxc' h} the .ut~tou .tl)' "'·'' ·" prn.tkllt in bufl.t
th .It er~ "" 111 '>l'IIJ onl',, .111d t h ~ dq;rtl' of .tile. nllon the .tuJit'JH.t' p.tid to c1nr
~tvcn P" form.utte w,,., w mp.tr,tblt•. 'I he h•ghly tOII\'1.'1\ItonJlitcJ l.mgu.lgt• ol
t. h,lr.tlla, plot, ,11\d lllll \ll tl 1\ JK' u:r t.tinh ·'"i'll'd .tuJkntc mcmhl r' 111
nHkt ng ~tn ~c of \\-O I kl> to \\-I Ill h 1hq wuc.· p.tyi ng lllll'fl\\11 kut ,tltent ion.
Nc~lrthdc~,, fo r tc tl .lJJI l l' lt llloru,tl Ol\.J'tion~. roy.tl 11r ,llhto~.r.lti..., opcr.1
'>Cn ,t rem.ttncd the prc.•krt l•d gl tll l, .tnd dLu tng thl· 1790s 111 ')01\H: pl.tc.t'' (tll.lt
1'• after the I rtnch Rt\ •llutton ) •lriOU' opl'r.t- now tlllgl·d with el~mt•nts ot

(,Ju.kt.tn rdorm .llld l lt'llt h hnt' t J .Igc.•rl~- hq~.lll olle~LIIgCil\.C, I lmvc\a, the
end uf-H·ntur> works W( n• pl.t) cd fot u lc ) lOmpi~. uoml) l>tr.tttftcd .tutltcnlc
Wtth moralullllt' nt Otkr pt.tl\(' of llt.trtt tl ltdclih' l th.tt ''nuld .tppe.tl to rh:
~PJWr nuddlc d,,.,, c.. , .m d \\ ith ,, Jr.un,tllt v.IIJt'l}' Jlld n.ttur.tlnt s dcrt\lllS
rom Opt: rJ hull.t.

10 l'cttr ~ h.tfll-r llluslrJIJ<Jillw Ad II s, rot Ill o l 'IIJe M< l!{lc. Hill<' ( 179 5)
111 \ h.?. o\RT ,'. D Ol'ERA Bl' FF.'\ LA FI.'ITA SF.MPLTCF. 119

M 07AIU ""'n OPU.A D rH
.'\bout a third of Mozart' opera!> .tre bufT.1 orerac;, and three of the c. nlt'
M.<mugc of Figar£\, Don GiomP111f. and Cos1 f.m tw tr, are a m ong ht<. mo:.t ..:ele-
brattd ma,terrtc~es. '1,.. o of th ~t thfl-e - figaro and Co.l - were written for
t~e ..-~urt ~heater m Vtenna, \\lull" Don Cta\ 'u111li ''a w ritte n o n ginallv for the
o~uu \- .1t10nall Theater in Prague, and then performed the next vear at the
wurt the.1tet m \'tenna.. When Mozart m o"ed to the im pen.tl ca pital in ,-s 1,
Gennan opera \'1 as the genre ponsored by the court, but by 1783 the Gem1an
troupe was di~banded, and o pera buffa w~ rein ta ted as the reign in g o peratic
genre. llhna rt' h'Orl..s in this genre! were p rofoundly intl uen ccd by the
Vknnt: e onte<tt. The orche tra there wa~ ~izeable and h ad a rema rkably
1
talented and stable group of wind players, includ mg clarinet ; thi clearly
allO\\·t.-d Moz.art to wnte nchlr orche-;trated mu~ic with some confidence that
it ' '-ould come aero effecti\·ely. The pnnd p.U ingcrs were recruited from
hat~ . and v. ere int~mat1onal tars, scouted, to begm ,, ith, eYen b) the Emperor
lo eph him:.elf.l!
Perhap e' en more im portant than the-e re:.ources wa the context
provided b~ the \ 'iennese rq>ertory. which in clud ed ,,orks by the best opera
buffa compo ers of the dav, played on the sam e ~tage and in the same seasons
<~s :-.iuurt'~- To wm the audience· comprehen~ion and approval, Mozart had
to work ";thm the genaal idtom provided by these wo rks. For hi O\,-n saus-
factton, he eem.s to have needed to exceed them m quality and complexity.
and aho to make the comparisom evident, at Jea:.t to the initiated. TJrr
Mamage of Figaro, for eu.mple, tS based on the !. a ndalous fren ch p lay Lt
marri.7~ .tc Figaro by Beaum archatS; but more sJiiendy in this context, it
~:'\ • a ~uel to Cio,·anni Pai-.ieUo's Jl barl1iert di Swiglia. That opera.
\Hitten in 17~2. wa ba:.ed o n u barbier tl~ Sb•dk , lk'.tum3rchais':. " prequel"
t() l ~ mamage de Figaro, in ~hich the Count woos and win<. Rosina de:.pite the
obie.:tion \.l( her lustful ~:trdian Bartolo, and Figaro i th~ ,,tlv en:aot on h o
makt.: 11 happen. Th~ not-~·happy l.!ter state of that marriage is o ne of t~e
c~.ntral j,,ues lll Tht! .a.-tarriage of figt1ro. PJisieUo's opera '"as vastly pop~lar
10
dc/11'0 and Coca tll'i Cmro) are 1ncomplete becau e no oppo rtun it\ aro c to
''age them , not be~;.ause ~1ot.ut thought better of them . There i~ no C\ Jd ence
in the fam 1l) corre~pondcncc tlut he had J 5tro ng prefe rence fo r th as genre.
~ lol.lrt\ two early buffa works (1 a {i11ta sempllce of 1768-9 and lA ji11t•1
guml tt11cm of 1775) arc q u1te conventio nal in their plo t , dramatiC rhythm~.
and mean of characteri7atio n. In contrast, the ma ture trio of b u ffa work:. o n
text b)' Lorenzo Da Ponte use the deep!) ing rained h.tbit o f the genre m
dazzling a nd profou ndly affect mg \-...tys to e\ o kc complex wo rlds of :.ocial
pre ~ures a nd individ ua l re~po mes. 1 ho'e tozartean world could never h.tve
h.1ppencd withou t the background of Goldoni\ libretti and their p rcd ece o rs
and imitato rs; at the ~arne time, ~loz.art'~ marriage of a ch aracteri~tically
l tahanate co m bination of wit and swcet ne~s to a more Germamc rich ne ~
o f harmo ny and orche,tr.Hton resulted m wo rks \\ hich have rem.tmeJ
meaningful for 0\Cr two hundred year,.
U: Jinta semplice (The Fc1g11cd ~1111plt-to11 Dramma g10.. oso per mu:.H..il.
L1bretto by Carlo Goldom, adapted b~ ~ l.1r..:o Coltdlini. \\'nttcn for \ tcnna
but not performed then!. Fir:.t performance tn alLburg, An.:hb1-.hop, p.1la\.e,
ca. I May J 769.
Clt AR A Tr RS
Fraca~so, Hung.trian c.tpt.ltn Tenor
Rmma, b.tronc''· ~l!>ter o f I r.K.t"o;
the o ne who pretend~ to bt -.tmpk ~opr.tno
Giacint.t, ,,.,tcr of Do n c.,.,, ,mJ r~> a nd Don Pohdorl> ~ k1 ·~> ~upr.mo
1\:int:tta, \.hambt•r m a1J \opr.mo
Don Polidoro.~..r.lL} gentlcm.tn, brother of Ca,,,mJro lcm>r
Don Ca~andrn, ~..ru~ gcntlrm.m anJ .1 mbcr, brother
oi Plllidoro
Simone, the l'apt.un':. lwutenant

\ tt-nna. and playt.'d in the .:.amc sea~on as the pn·miere of J11e Marnagr of The upl'ra t..tke!> p i.JLc 111 and arounJ the little Lountr} hou)e of l >on
ls~ara. It i:> thu not urpri~ing that Mozart embedded a number of referenc.cs ca~s.tndro .1nd Oun Polidoro
to that oper:a in llis own." (~~~jan tutU al'o includes referenct:s to other
worh re(:entlr S(>t'O on the Vienne::.c stage. a.
~P1t ~ h'1 evt'd ~:nt tnve
• tml·nt in the Viennest' opera buffa ce nc"and th~
Sl' ~IM AR\

wtpreced~nted brilhano:e of hts aenne~ works in thb genre, ~ome ..:rcdit for r\s \\ith lh.JO\ hl IffJ o pa.1s t11
1 · lllll' hll.lt'l'" on the ~ulling of an .tpp.trenth
wbtch has to ~oto hi hbrettbt, Loren7.o OJ Pl)Ote. Morart wrote opt:r:l b~~a1 o bdurate
. man of ~~)ml. ~ t .llu' h ) h'1~ .. tn!cnm-,
. , : \\0111<'11 .md -,en .tnt-, .tnd the
mudt ~ he wrote opera st"ria .tnd 'm"~pid· 0 • that i • in rc:;pon:.<.'
10
..p.:-d '
. (1<1, ac h ~~h:mcnt of d ~\Ire
. J anul .. uu.t - II y .1ppmpr1.1tl' \\t'd,lmg,. In thh .. a,e, I >on

commuwons and oppvrtunitio. 1'he two in..:omplcte buffa opera~ 1[tJ ~r ·

----~~----------------------L------~
NE"W ENGLAND CONSERVATORY LIBRARY
t~O ~H\ZAifl 'ND 01' 1 R ;\ lH )II A,

In an rlltlln ln.lll'd wum .tt ni~ht, l'ohdtHO pn''"l'" hb .. uit .lg.tin , .md R{l\lll.l
, ,1 , lw -;till h.t-. to \H)O 11{'1 h~ '>lnglll~ 111 tht• l rl•nch m.1nnu \t ( ,1.,,,mdro\
JIIC'h.• nJ drunk ,1111\ .11 'hl' ,,,n . tw \\ ,\llh enou gh ~P"" It) h•n c h.lt. k- up!> if
.. \NOll h nr~.e,-.,,n•, "ln~h l-\o,1d-. C.l\\,llld m 11110 t hn J ll' l11n~ her. C.,lw t lwn t~.·-.t~ him b '
h .wtn~ hi1n ~.o nllll\l llll .lll' to huon!} 111 'lf n'>, \\llll.h \t.' rHh hun to ,Jct.>p. \\'htl ~
Ad I b gim in J g.ud ·n. ll em~.·tgc. th,\t lt ,H..t,,o Jod <..t.l\.1111 ..1 \\.lnttn lll.llll, he\ ,lS ll' t'P '> hi..' put:-. tht• 11 ng h.td. on h1' fm~~r. \\ hit.h ht.• f.uh to nntk~ lie J IH.I
JS d.o Nuwtta and Simone. rh~ l..tdu: n~l'\l to ~ct p~tll11'•'10n fto 111 1>(111 t-r.1 ·' ""n almm t tOIIH' to .t dtH.•I .tftt' l C..l\s,mdw ~.onlronl\ Fr.1 1..l\ ~O ..1bout the
Ca santlro, Gt.tdnt.t\ oldc~t h tolhcr ..md Nm~_·tt,\\ (•mploH'r. He, howe\ t'r, "·" \tokn 1ing, h ut l ·,,,,,IIHIIn know' ht.•\ no m .ttdt fo1 Fr.\l',t,, o \ pu~dl\t i('
no pJticn~.:e fl)t women or marriJgl!. 1octt.t p10mi"e' th.tt -.he '' illnl.tke Dnn c pr rtiw ..tnd ''it'' tn w1 it-~~lt.· out of h~ htin ~. lut.ktl} Rmm.1 inlet ruph th~.·m .
•a '>Jndrn fall in love, whtch :.hould gn:.,,~ th '' hed~ for cn•a) one t•l,t·\ Fr ,1 (.1 ~'>0 ,,nd (;i,tt int .l, .md ~i n wne .111d Nin ctt.l \\,lrt to h,\l('h" pl.u1 to l'' (•lPl'
p\Jn!>. rra .l.S. o\ ~iskr Ro inn l!> -.hortlv lO arri\C, Jntl -;he i~ dll)Sl'll J~ tlw tog the1 ' (l tlt.tt (~i.tdnt.l l.tn ,1\ntd the \\r,Hh ollwr hrotlwr,, hut th1.., plm j,
objt'ct \,)f Don a 'andro' affc~.o t ion . \ \l'rit.•:o. of Jna' d ..tbol.llt'' on the dw · ~hc h cd ro. till' \t.'cond ,I l l lm.lk , "Itt' I I.' Ro .. in.t ~.o<Hllll\\ll' \ ttl h t• ( 0~ .lbnut
actcr ' po'll tons: <.,iJtinla want .1 m.1lleahle m ..m. l·ral.l' \0 i~ perledh h.1pp) \d11ch bro the• ~>he ' ll (.h<H>'>t'.
to marq her. but 1 not smitlcn, Jnd "'J' .mJro, l\!> pred~~:tcd, would IJlht•t
hJvc nothmg to do "ith \\Omen. \\ lwn 1 r.K ..l'> l) announce-; Ro<.in,,'s .un, ,tl, Ad Ill ti c\ up th ·loo't' end ... Ro,ul.lt.onfnlllh Polidoro \\ ith hi-. i mpl'~.un iou-.
Las,andro 1 not pleased, but i \\ tlltng to nnpte"" Ro-;ma wtth hi, da'>'>K•tl ~l tll.Hitlll (.t!> a youn~c1 h1otlwr ht· h.t, no c..,t.tlt.' ,\1\d no 11\Ulilll'l; ,, , .1 b.tnllll's'
learning and or-atonc ..tl skt.ll . she would lind th t'> imuppnrt.1hk In the IJn,tk, hm' t'\l'r, 'ht• ~.-ont i nHl'' '''
ln a lrttle room in Cas~andro'!> holl'-c, R(NJU ;Jnnoun<.r-. her phiiP'>oph} nf tc:.l\e Polido1o by Jlll' lcnd 1ng to ntll r hun lwt h.md, l'H ll ,,, ,ht: .lr tu.tllv
lnve (to m.ll cyervone fall m lo\'c with her but to love only one rn rt'turn). e\t r nlb i~ to ~.1\s,tndlo. llw tl'lll,llnln~ o..:oupll•.., un itt: .111d ,Ill~ tht• p r.Ji..,~·., o.t
rem,1It' tnc kt:ry ,md .,p 11 it.
Nmt·tta ~t\·cc; her her ta k, and warn'> her about Don Polidoro, the uglv ami
Ullkt mpt hut htghly 3010rous rounger brother. frue to form, PolidotO propO\l'
all oon as he M!e<i Ro~in.1, but she !..t)~ he h.ls to ~.-nu rt her 111 tht• h emh t~antler:
\vith gtfts and letters - tht• IJtter a problem bc~.au~c Polidoro cannot wntr.liH
tlr l inten1cw bem·c~.:n Rosina and ('.b'-;mdro I'> qu 1tc suct:e~!>ful from he 1 p(llnl
or \ tCW She pretends to be qUi•te tuptd, WtiiC t... I I
1 1C la e~
k il!> ~ hJrll'llll~ lllllll t
. ~ , . I h ' . n 1\1.' 'in g. Ht t H' ll
ccnce, though he~ !>U ptctous enough not to gtvt• 1er IS t xpc , k
I hiS ma~tt r ~ \II•
compares him -;elf to .1 dog caught bet\-\ ecn t I1e meat o1m · ' •It
R0 ~m t re\'•'·' 1) 1H'r't ,
natur .Ulv hc'll~.oh()ose the mtat, de ptt1.' the t.on cque oc~' ' • ktt~ r
.l N' ·tt >t lHl' '"nttdt,1
un urprisingi)', as .1 manipulJtJ\.l rnmx. ~k.un"h 1 e. 1m ' . ·t ·od t•l
for Polidoro - to g1w to Rosm.l, ll1. tht: fimae,I I'·rJL...ts~o ·and ( ,t.tont.l I* . t 11 the
, ~ f 1wne)' Ro,II1J. I
take oiTcnse both J.t the letter and at Pol! d oro s gu t 0 1 • t<'n 1nd
. . I · ' he has wnt ..
llh',\Ohmc, fbttct~ ( .aso,;~ndro by gtvtng hun .t \;tt~:r ~
pt..'t -.u.tdc:. hun to gi\'e her hi:. rmg, ju 1 tcmpor:lrtl)'.
. her nerd
. I . cttl •ts.,r t tmg
A t 11 opens on a ten Jo..:l! in C.1ssandro\ hou!>c, wtl 1 Ill ' · kc ·r) 11 1n1 f{·d
to mantpulatc men, and Stmone · 1U'> d cs1re
· 10rr .1 '
, ire who ' ·1" !{o""'''
l
.tnt1
I 0 bl ow~ met
,
< ~,s,andro .md Polido ro ha'c CVIO<'I l l y ~.omc I . ' · • lot h'•'~ 11'
h •I l Pn!Jdorn p I
~t.l!>c;,md10 has gottl•n drunk to boot. GtaCtntJ c I ' . in }u\'C I' 11 1
cal h Ro<.ina, .md Rosma rcv~...1b pn\atdy th.tt -;he 1 ~ r~·' th.1t ,Jw )tl"'
11
J
( , J~s.mdro, though she mamhum
· · pu11
' 11. 1y un t'' l thc nry \;ll

them equally.
 I Zl M07 ·\RT A~ l> OP LRt. IH Fl"
noting that 1t would be a full-length (t, o- to th ree-hour) work til .
. . , at It would
be a comtc oper.l bcCJu ~c p r.1 ena ''a out of t ·lc in icnna 1 . • b
. • • nu CCJU)C
there were no M'na mger~ to hand, though the bu ffa inger wer~ ·
· , tr • t: c Important
artLL , and finally that \\o •gang •arne would gro'' cxponent 1aJI}' 'f h, h
. ' I c Jd a
Viennese opera on'' hat we would no" all hts re. umc. In anv event th
. l I • e opera
\o\.71~ start J b . fare h, and m a at r ctt r to Ha~>enaucr Leopold · d
r::> • urnu,e
that the O~'l{"ra. ould be done by June, to celebrate }Ol>eph II' r tu rn fr om a
dipIomattc tn p east.
unforrunatd the opera wa nc\'Cr p rform d in ViCIUlJ. Leopold' letter
home and hi letter o f .::ompbint to Jo eph II - the be t our ·es we hJ\e _
claim that the operati cstab!Lhment in Vienna had spread rumor~ that the
wor.k ·was mcompetent or un ingabte, and/or that it was not Wolfgang' own
work. The first claim i absurd, but the ond ,,-a und rstandable giwn
MoZ4!rt's :outh and Leopold's m~ical C>.."Perti e; indeed, the autograph ~>how~
that Leopold offered corrections in the s tting of th Italian, and also in
mu, ical matter~. The ingers also evidently demanded hanges to their own
pan-.' 5
The diffi uJties evidently tarted right aw-.1y with Coltellim being low in
making his adaptation . but continued with Affli io as the hief villain,
arranging the cbedule o there was no rehearsal of a finale until the orchestra
was pre ent, at which point the singers could not sing it, and in ulting
Leopold :md Wolfga ng by repeatedly cheduling other operas ahead of La
fi11ta sempli c. The musicians claimed to Leopold ' face that they admired th
music, and that administrati,·e deci ions were Afflisio' alone; at the same
time, Aflli 'io r peatedly reported to the Mozarts that the mu, idans had
des..:ribed the opera as unperformable. Leopold also describes the oppo ition
of the most important composer in \ 'ienna at the time: Christoph \\'illibald
Gluck. Ho\,·e,er the famous Jjbrettist Metastasio (the imperial court poet) and
his close a ociate the composer Johann Adolf Ha e evident!}' supported
!\1oz.art. Leopold was also at pain to demo n trate Wolfgang's compositional
independence by having him set, in public and at sight, a randomly-selected
text of Metasta io. 16 Afflisio trung the Mozarts along for months, perhaps
hoping that Leopold would get the message but fi nalh• told them that be
' ' [i the
could not mount the opera, after which Wolfgang compo~d a mas:. or
dedication of the foundling-house church on the Rennweg.
The fa mily . r turned to Salzburg in January 1769, an d t he opera )cern:>
. to
L--
have ~n performed there around the beginning of May. le Tl pnnc1pa 1 r e bo~ agam looked ba k w1th much archness and began five or .,ix
'de ~
evt nee 10r such a performance i a printed libretto, w ose .
h title pagef
...a-.....:L __ ·L -
U£M.nua utc opm~ as havmg been performed by order o t e
f h Archbishop o
r m
~1..4..••- · h · Jso came. .ro
----&> m w ose court Leopold was employed. The smgers a 111
the Artbbisbop's court, and if the Viennese plan and Leopold's situauon
LA F / NTA ~EA1 Pl1Cf. 12J
·atzburg are any guide, Wo.lfgang might have di re ted the perfo rr~w~ce: prob-
ably from the kC)•board, and Leopold co uld hav~ piJycd ,v1~ltn. tn. ~~e
orchestra. The alzburg prod uction was the only one 1n Moza rt ltfetJm.c, l1ke
Mo1 •1rt's other early opera La fintn scmplice wa out of the repertory 111 the
nineteenth and c.u ly twen tieth centu ries, although it was a su bje t of sc~oi ­
Jrly interest ,1 ea rl y as the 1840s, 17 and ertain ly by tl.' e c~ rly twentieth
century. It ha , however, enjO)'Cd relativel y regular productiOn smce 1956, the
centenary o( Moza rt's birth, when a do tored version WJ · given at the
alLburg birthday celeb r;~tion .' 8
Ln jinrn scmplicc i not .1 transcendentally great work. For modern taste the
plot is too inconseq uential, the arias and recitative follow each other in too
regul.t r a rhythm , the absence of ensembles make the drama les engaging,
and the range of cxpre ion in the arias is, on the who le, rather narrow.
e ertheles , it i a remarkable mirror of the prevailing norms in 1760 opera
buffa. Thi is not altogether surpr ising: arlo Goldoni, the o riginal libretti t,
cs entiall y laid the groundwork for the late eighteenth-centu ry flore cence of
this genre; and lozart's capacity to ab~orb musical tyle and to gra p the
musi al conventions as ociated with a variety of operatic te t was evident
from his earl ic t child hood. The most triking evidence of th i come fro m
Dr. Daines Barrington's de cription o ( hi "exam ination" of the nine-year old
Moza rt in London, in 1765. Barrington relate :
I said to the boy, that I hould be glad to hear an extemporary Love ong,
such as his frie nd Manzoli [Italia n ca trato Giovanni J\Lanzuoli, visiting
London for the 1764-5 sea on! might choo e in an opera.
The boy on thi (who continued to it at hi harp ichord ) looked b.1ck
wit!1 ~ uch archne s, and immediately began five or ix line of a jargo n
recttat1ve proper to introduce a love song.
He then played a symphony which might orrespond with an ai r
composed to the ingle word, Affctto.
It had a first and second part, which, together " ith the ymphon ies, wa~
~f the length that opera ong generally Ia t: if this c\ temporary compo.,i-
uon wa not an~az ingl y apital, yet 1t was reall y .1bove mediocrity, and
showed extraordmar)' rc.1dine of imcntion.
hj~inding that he wa~ in humour, and as it were inspired, 1 then desired
T~o compos~ a ong of Rage, ~ch a m1ght be proper for the opera l>tage.
tn~~f a Jargon recitati-.e proper to pre ede a o11g of Anger. .
. ts lasted also about the same time with the on<• o1 Love -1nd 1·n tl
mtddie 0 f · h h d .:. •• 1e
. 1t, e a worked h 1m~elf up to such ·' pth. h that he b t 1 ·
harpstchord l'k . ' i.1 H~
J e •' per, on pos ·es ed, r"tng sometimel> m h1s ~.hair.'"~

I hts ~otory infMm~ m about Mo;.art 's a toni , hinu "
im irat1vc 1-' lOW"~ ~ ~. but aso 1
abo ut the hv•hly convcntton.ll mustcal languJgc of opera 10 th,1t pC'riod !'he
I0\ 1.' and rage :trM type that B.trrington reque tcJ were more lrkcly in \eria
than huU~ Mylc, hut the two gcnn.: )> shared many styli .. tiL feature\, and the
~lory rer:tans th pertmem.t for the composition of i Al fln ta semplrcc. Ju 1 a\ 10
npere~ cria, where a n :b typically t>xpound~J on .1 \ inglc Afjckr, or emot 1on,
omctimes inrrnduci ng a w ntr:t~ tm g ~cn ti m ent in ,, middk ~t..·c t ion, opt?ra
buffa <JriJs of thi penod aho typi .lily set up a ">inglt' J r.un,lf lc or cmotJOn.ll
~ itUiil H>O .J.OU elaborated o n it th roughout. Till! the lieutenant S1 mone's
~>C\..Ond act .tria "'Con ccne pcrsone vuol rs.. er baston\.'," ('' C>ne nt>ed~ a ~lick
w1th (.('rt,un p ople" ) keeps a s tc<~.d y triple 1 hythrn thro ughout, ancl JllernJtcs
p.H tcr { ~pt: dJJy-Jccl.umcd words, oftc·n on the SJml' no te) wi th d slower, rnorc
pompous modt.• of ded Jr.1t1on o\."t'r rnp kt!> in the accom paniment. This
particular aria is an ext remely coht>rent exprc..sron of ma culmc bombast. It
h also :m en tirely t)'pkal example of a corni ha ..s ariJ of the umc. Mozart's
audr('n t: wuuld have gr~pcd imt.mll y "'hJt kind of .lrJJ rt WJS, ,1 n <.l would not
h ne looked for uhtlt1ies of mt>anlllg or nuJn<.c'> of e>.prc sion jn it.
Mf> t of the adas rn LA fima <cmphcr .1re of thr~ onc:-Affd... t type, though
some han• a bit more variety in the way the Afjck t is enacted. Ne\'ertheless, this
optra 1~ not.lhlc fo r the number of aria whkh altern~lle bcrwe,·n ~J(,wer and
fa.:.ter mu~ic. the fast t.ccond and fourth st:ction'i often underc.:uttrng or
explaining the sentiment nf the ~low tint and th rrd one~. Thu~ Hosina's firbt·
act ariJ · ~~ntr l\·w" ( You hear the c ho''J begins with a gorgeou~ly illustra·
{1\·e pa toral e"llon in which she de cribe\ the lover listening fur an echo, and
tlwn bWttchc~ to~ cutely comic section m which c,hc tells l rac.t~S<I (and th~
udic11c.e) th. I thi i'> the· way to spcaL to men in ordt'r to get rour way, Jn
· h ,, receive>. These
t I1at m f(lvc one should, l1ke the echo, never gtvc m01 c I an on... f he
. I . I . I t n the content o t 1
t¥.C> tempe) Jfli.IS mo>t y exprt'!>S a sw ru.: re atum )e wc:e
d ( Jf13) \'\ 1)I( 1
low M:~;t iiJJl!> a nd that of the fast, but they contain the sec s 0 • . trr
. {j I ·n J\fo7.tr1 5 1a
pn1gr<: dr.~-matJ~ II y and p~ychologJCall y, su~;h a ~ we JOt 1 • Jn
h·1I pcdl: tnJn
0~1( t.t . Mot rt'~ finult:) in J..a fmra srmplic , though ltOillCW ' thly
. . d 90 are ~moo
,,,mpan;on tn tho~r in the great work.s ol the 17HOts an '>. nt 1n
t 1 he molllt'
compo!>t·d. -with .t good <;en~ o! both conunuiry .1nd con tras · , .. Jrtdro
. l ·nns ,as~
.Jl 11111
the· th1rd Jll fi 11JI£.' whcr Gia<.mta cxplairH to the '>II " H h JJ i.Jt'
J thus s ou
th.n he htlpC'd Jmtiy,ate the imbrogiJo hccause o f lov~ • .Jll d 11e voo l
f<Jtglven - a rnl)rncnr wher<- the trmpt~ suddenly ~lows do~n ,Incr~s of dus
P rt ~.-hall!'t'~ lnm1 p Ltt>r to untahtle - 1 , ag.un, , ommon op hJdoW~
111
· h' 0 f irlorc:s
~ort, bu1 Mo.t::lrt\ pte adoleJ>ccut abiiJiy to nlJkt.·t>omet tng . 0.r /·i,•rlt(J.
· ~"
th<' a Lo•w.hmg monwfll of forg•vcne ~ ul th( t·nd o/· ! Iu• Marmtge J ' 1, rruth~
" h · · · tt> tdl u ce
<~ nt· 11uld not t·xl' d rht> charat tcr 111 th•s op<'ru
1 . nr jntt:r ·
about tl.c human wndr~i<1n, or to cenl p~y~hr,log~c.tlly w fliP C\
!.A FIN7A r.lAJW!NIFRA l l S
csting. J-ven m the grea test buffa opera~ of the m id-eighteen th century it h_the
interactions between the characlers and the situation 1n which they tmd
thcmselve.<. that animate the operas, rather than the in ner rnotivJtiOm or
truggles of the ind 1vidual themselves. On the other hand, the cha rJder~ in
La Jinta se111pltcc, like those in Goldon i's o ther comic libretti, do exemplify
some of the most salient social issues of their 11 me. The right of women to
marry for love r.tther th.tn fc1m ily politics, the fi nancial Sttuation of younger
brothers, and the relations between the .<.exe.<. in marriage, were all pertinen t
question s in a Europe moving from the rural, basically feudal arr.m gcmcnts
thai form the backd rop to th is opera, to a more en trepreneurial, bourgeoi
world. The fact that La Jin ta scmpl1cc- lt ke so many works of 1h ilk - mocks
the attempts of women to exert more con trol and offer no sol ut 10ns for
impoverished yo unger brothers doc~ not mean that the comedy did not help
keep those issue alive.
La finta giardiniera ( The False Gardener Girl) Dr.1mm.1 gioc.:oso. Libretto
anonymous: G i u ~epp1: Petro cll ini i' J po'>Siblc Juthor. J irsr pcrform.trlu!
Munich, Salvatorth cater, I 3 )JnuMy 1775.
C HARACTER
Don Anch i~c. Mayor o f I ag<m~: r o, in love w1th '>and rina ·r<.· nor
Tht> MJrchioness Violanr,•, lover of the Cont1no Bclfwrt·,
believed dead , going under the nam e ol ),1ndrin.1.md
disguised a\ a gardener Soprano
Tht• Cont ino Belfiore, m 1gln.tl ly the lonr of Violanll: and
now of Arminda 'J(; nor
Arminda, MiJ,1ncsc gcntll·womJn, on ~ 1n .t!Jy th\.' belon:d of
, . the C tval ier Ramm1, now bctrot hl'd to the Contino Bdfioa· "io n.tno
I ht Cavalier R.amiro, lowr of !\ rrn111d.1, .uH.l ab.111dom·d bv ha "opr.uw
Serpctt.t, the m.1yor\ ch.1mbu m,ud, in lm c \' 1th him . ~oprano
Hohcno, Violante\ :.er vant, p1l'tl nding to bt.. '-.Jrdo, hl·r wu~in,
drc)~cd a~ .1 g.trdl'J1l'r; unn·quit l•d lo\'u of '>u pl'tta
SUMM ~ J(Y
ilcdforle}he plot brgiJI\, thl' ( ontuw bJ, ~t.1hhcJ Violante in a lit of Jcalomy
111
a · e.t her fo r (ICJ.<1 I Jlt..}' ' ' 111 lo \ ~' om· ,muthct, ho\\c:H:r· thu'> w/11 11 he
'
, · t.':.l.ltt to 1It' tlt'lrothl·d tu th<.' ,\la\Or.., llll'l.l
' Armlllt.IJ h
r l rJvcs at tht• Ma}Or!>
ccoKnlle) and wa · ' t:
n ts to n·unnc: wttlt Vrol.tnte/'lt~ ndrllla dc:~pitc: h r !tempt
I\IFW ENGl AtJD CONSI:::RVATORY LIBRARY.
126 !07.ART :'.:-.:D PER.A Bl' FF.\
to r~main in(O£nito. The opera is :.pent unra\ eling thi knot and pointin th
other character~ in the o pera tow rd.:. their rightful mat -,
v ·op 1.
Act I b gin in a pretty garden with a t ai r~.--ase lead1ng into it from the ~faym'
house.. The Mavo r. Ramiro, rpetm., '' drina~ and ~ardo r tote u;
th~
lovely day, e."qlO e the f: uJt lines in thdr rdationship wtth ea h other and
return to praising the day. Ra nuro regrets the lo of :\rmmda. · rpetta and
0:ardo are sent, um..illingh·, to prepare for the sepuate arri\ al· of the Contino
and Arminda. Left alone, the Mayo r pre hi smt ,.,i th andnna, who
demurs on the grounds of their difference in rank. The Mavor tt>U her hm'
much he loves her by comparing his heart to an orch tra. Sandrina .tdmJts to
·ardo that she till loves the Contino and cannot play along wi th the ~ lavor.
Ramiro interrupt them and he- and Sandnna di cuss whether men or ,,·omen
are more to blame for amorous unhappine.s. he ings an ari.1 about the
rmserie· of womanhood. Ramiro wishes Arminda dead, .md Kardo, left alone,
complains about ~rpetta's hardheartedness, generalizing that to all women.
In a portlco the Ma~'Qr gret-ts his n iece Arminda. "' ho rapidly prows to be
arrogant and demanding. The Contino arrh , offering extrava gant complt-
m~t to Arminda almost befort! he h as laid eves on her. Although the
Mayor is emhusia tic to conclude the match, Arminda i:.les taken with ~e
Conuno, and Jnnounces that he w 1U be callin~ the hots in this rdationshlp.
The Contino takes this aU in stride and in an a~ria attributes his high-mindt'<i
temperament to hlS improbablv long and noble lineage. The noble ch.u-Jcters
· . ·d lara
leave, and Serpetta arrives, complainmg about her \-."Ork; h~ dee~ es to_P h
tricl- on ·ardo by inging a lo\e song, by which he is of co ur e taken m. e
ends the scene w ith an aria d escribing the \\-ay he handl~ men. f about the need to m.lntpul.lte nwn with del"ett.
l n a hanging garden, Sandrin a ings an aria about the tu rde do\-e fJr ~rn
. d mnounc.e)
horne who arou e'!> symp<tthy in others. Arminda comes Ul an the
that ~he is about to be betrothed to the Contino Belfiore. San drina f:untf Jl ter
. t h~ orn
new . The Contino a rrives to he-lp and the first act Finale begJ.O~ J.) co~-
. , . . . d AI .nJJ also re •
1mer :s re, ogmze one another. Rarntro arn ves and h e an ml d not
. h The I\1Jr or oe
mze one another. The'· all remark on their astoni ment. hen th~
u nderstand wbv the four former lovers are so thund er tru k, d ~\· to the
30
. . ' · deOIC~
two o ngtnal pam lea\ e together, be is q uite unha ppy. Sandnn_a d"aJ ue and
Contino that ~e is Violante as the other ch ara ters wa tch their
1 l\yo lov •
og
respond from their own situations. The act ends in coofu:,ion.
. d Armindl
Act ll begms in an atrium of the M.:l~or's palal"e , wh ere Ranuro_an · te .tfter
• 1 • • , 10 J sra
quarrel Jhout her abandonment of him. T he Contmo arn\es,
haYing r~ognr•ed .:'Jndrina. wh Kh ArrmndJ t.lkt'S ,b a r r onru in ult.
_erre;t.l ad,~i:>c: the o n tmo .1bout th pn..1per b ha,·iour with a ra~ ·ng
woman; h • ~~ not intere ted. 1 ·ardo pine for ... rpena; ·he i- me.1n Jnd t'"len
pretend he' intert>:..ted, telling h1m to woo her w ith .1 for 1~n ari.1 . • '.1rdo
obhge , in the llali.m and the FretK h tyles, .md ' erp tta begin to be mter-
e· ted. Jnd nna .1nd the Contino meet, and ~he a ' l"U e · him oi heartlc: , nc ' ·
hut then clJ im he i quoting a text r.1ther than peiling for herself. Th
Contino ing J IO\·e ong to her, ob· erved b\ the ~Ia\- r, who inl"he.s do era.:.
the ong goe. on. t the end, .lS the Contino re.1cht:' out to : Jndrin.1'· hJnd,
the one he a tuallr touches i the ~ l.Imr' . The ~ Lnor i · furiou' J t th
Contino's infidelity to hi niece (.md al ·o at his inter st in the ~ lan_)r's o wn
object of affection). The .\l,tyor attem pt to otTer :.1n drina hi · O\\ n h.1nd. but
' he refu!>es him, hoping that he wtll continue to ~lat~·ct ion and p itY for her
when he under tand ho" unhappv he i_. Th~ ~l.wor a.nd Arnund.1 commi · -
erate; he urge her uncle to proceed with the weddmg , "hen R.1miro comes
in with a letter from r · latives in .\ til.m de::. -nhing th' ontino a.:. a murda •r.
The ~ layor i thoroughlr co nli.1 ·ed .tbout the prop ·r cour~' of .1 · tton . R.1miro
trie again to reco,·er Armind .1 but she " ill han • none of it . .1nd he ~ing .IbtlUt
the temp tatio n of hope. ~
In a grand room, the ~l.lvor .1::-k~ the Contmo .1bout thi:- repu t •J ~.· rune.
De pite Arm inda' prom pting:-, the ' ontmo .tlmo:.t .1dmit:- to It when
andrina bur t in to defend him . : h ' 1dent1tle::- her df .\S the ~ l,1rch10n , he
i suppo ed to ha,·e killed . .1nd point out th.1t , he i::. .tlin .•. Once the~ [ann h.1 ~
le~ Jnd the ontino tri - to ki:.-~ her h.1nd, she on -e ag.tin dcm ~ that ::.he 1s
Ytolante, saying th.tt she on I) pretende l m order to :-JH' htm. The \mtino left
alone, i mLerable .md confu ed until h ·th ink:. he l'e~ the Eh :-i.m tleld . Th ,
01_ h er chara teT::. d i:. ·o\ er th.n ... .mdrin,t h.t::. tle-d, .md rt' .ld \ .1now.h. Sapett.1
llll feel~ two wa'r - apou '- t ,, ' ' JrJ o, .1n d tliKe ,tgJm pronoun..:c~ her philo oph
~ ln a deserted and mo untJinou' pl.h.t'. '' ith ruml.'d .1q u ·Ju~.t .mJ ,1 pr.Id t
cable grotto, Jndrma I d i, tO\"ered DC\\ .tiling her t.ltc.'. rhc.' Ad 11 tin lk b ' ' I
as the other ·h ,. - ' ~g n::.
. t JrJd ..: t:., ntl\\ m the d .lrKnl.',,, .trrnc , cpJr,ltch· to find h ,
Th ere IS confu Jd b cr.
. to n ·' 11 t·~ ~l! ,1 o ut thetr tdentitlt''• but" h •n thcsl' .1re , 0 rt 1
out, Armtda berate th • l ' · h ' , '-
"' d ' c l)ntlno, t l' ,,\.1\llr her.tte" , .1ndrin1 '-.t•rtvttl 111. 1
'"ar o quarr I· . h .I . ,,, t ~ , ' u
'- -t· · In t e mtt ~ t tll tlw,, the.' l'l' lllmo .md , .mdrin.1 b ·com·· 1 ·n 111 •
ve tevmg the , . , ...
'-haracLI.'rs T~ .tre II\ ,\ _PJ,~Ot.l.l Jram.t .lnd th.lt thl \ ,\re tlw nn tholllf_i~..-.11
'r~~~~ .md _lo n . \\ htlt> Ch'nonl.' t+•t' l.lmenh th~.•tr '>itu.ltwn, the
crs are ' lull~ . 1t delu dt•dh, h.tpp\ .
Act III begins in a Ct)ll r t I 1, '
afl"'"t \ .lr~ • ' ' \trc , .\~ ~l.'r pc.'tl .t<.Oilttnuc~ to nl \\ "tth I
.... ton the Cont" I t • .trl o..,
• tno \\ ,\1\l e r~ 11\, ~ttlll,r.ltlllg It!...~,• ,\ 111} tholngl~.-.ll~.h.tr.t...tcr
lUI MOV..RT A. D OP'ER.:\ Bt: FF·\
LA FISTA Gli!RDINIERA 129

Sandrina joins hi m, also still hallucinating, and offering the Contino her
Members of the Mozart fa mily' circle in aJzburg al o made the dar-long
h:md. ::-\ardo trie to jog them out of this mode by pointing out a "duel" 21
freezing journey from alzburg to Munich. • •• •
between the sun and the moon. They depart, ter rified. The Mayor tells The opera was tran latcd into German a Dte verstcllte Gartnenn and
erpetta that the way to solve this i for Arminda to be left pouse-less and for performed in Augsburg in 1780; the German ver ion ~njoye~ J . m od e l
h im to marry Sandrina. Serpena tries unsucce fully to remind him of her succe s, being played in Frankfurt in 1782 and 1789, and m Mamz m 178_9.
intere t in him, but he rejects her. Arminda and Ramiro arrive to remind the The Italian versio n was le s popular, appearing, as far as we know, o nly m
Mayor of hi duty: Ram iro 'IN<mts him to force Arm inda to marry him; Prague in 1796. 22 The opera largely d isappeared from the tage in the nine-
Arminda wants to m arry the Contin o, or so it seems. T he Mayor is confused teenth century, and was the subject of very little commentar y. The fi rst
and disgusted. Arminda tells Ram iro he will never love him. modern revival was in German, in Vienna in 1891; thereafter the German
In a garden, Sandr ina and the Contino are discovered a Jeep. V\'hen they ver ion wa performed, with spoken dialogue rather than the recit.1tives, unriJ
\,·ake, they go through the usuaJ deceit but in the course of a d uct agree that the ources fo r the Italian ver ion were discovered in the 1970s.
they love each other a the bird do. fn the last scene, lardo tells the Mayor La Jinta giardiniera belong to a type of comic oper.1 qUJte popuJ,1r in the
that the lovers have been reconciled; neither he nor Arminda is plea ed at the second third of the eighteenth century. uch opera center on a scntimentaJ
news. \\!hen the happy couple enter, the other couples fall into place: Arminda heroine, often a noblewoman in disgui e, who is importuned by ina ppropri.ttc
takes Ramiro, and Serpetta gets Nardo. The opera end with prai e of the suitors and per ecuted by other character until a denouement which usually
"gardener-girl's" fidelity. clarifie her social station, prove her virtue or con tJncy, and allow her to
marry the man she loves. Th i plot type o riginated in the literary world:
Samuel Richard on' novel Pamela ( 1740) i perhap the signal exam ple. Here
C OM M.ENTAR\'
the saucy but unimpeachably virtuo u heroine is rclentle sly importuned bv
It is not entirely clear who commissioned La finta giardiniera. It seems likely the lustful Mr. B_ _. Her stolid refusal to submi t de pile the wid,edc&t of
that Count Secau, the thea ter intenda nt for the £lector of Bavaria, was the schemes turn Mr. B__ • heart, and he eventually marries her. f he novel
proximate so urce of the comm ission, but it is a}su possible that Sceau \~ includes no question of mi~>ta ken identity, but when the lt,dian d ran1.1ti~t
encou raged to ask Mozart by Count Ferdinand Christoph \Valdburg-Zell, Jr!o >Oldoni Jdaptcd the novel as a play (also entitled Pamelo), the heroine
·
BiShop of Ch1. emsee, and a longstandmg .
patron o f Moza rt. !0 Th e libretto
. for
b, was turned into a noblcwom,l n abandoned at birth o she d id not know her
the Munich performance is no longer extant, but the text of the versiOn set } proper status. That way, once the heroine's origim were revealed, the
Pasquale Anfo si for Rome in 1774 exists, and it was quite d early the s~u~~e nobleman co uld marry someone of his own station, which wa , as Goldom
15
for thh work. Mozart's setting differs remarkably litrle from that text, "h'c. noted, nece:.sary on the ltali,m stage at that time. Goldom .1dapted h1s pl.ly JS
surpnstng. . gtven . h'1s Iater hab'1ts o f extcns1.ve mter,erenc
. c c l·n the construcuon a libretto, La buona fig liuo/a, and the 1760 etting by iccolo PlCCIIUH was .1
runa~"·1 )' succe'> all over Europe, chiefly because of the tou~hing figure ot the
of the text. . ·h re
As usual, Moz.art traveled a couple of months tn . ad va nce to the . City w de10 herotn~, now d gardener girl <.JIIed Cecch in,\. ln this vcr-.ion the Marquis del1.1
Conch_18m I" 1·~ ·m l O\ c w1· th the hcro111e,
· . clas!> con ~io u ., si~tcr and her
the opera was to be mo un ted, in o rder to fit it to the part icular 51nger<> an ce~ but h1s
bt- on hand for the rehear!>als and the ini tial perfo rmances. e
Th perfomlan
d his ~nobh1~h lover threaten all kind!> of havoc if he marrie-. her; two pitc!ful
m earsy 1775 wen~ an eno rmous success, accordmg to ot 1 Wolfgang an
• 1 • b 1 hough ~~ale servant and .1 van cty of misundeNanJings that forc.:c her to flee and
11 . a leep, CAhausted, aha} from the imbroglio. rortun.1tel} .1 Cerrn,m soldter
father, who had accompanied h im on this visit. Unfortunately, a httlr d tscovers a doc..u 11 · .
"-1ozart was away from ho me, his letter to his mother and sister say vhcry that takes pl.1ce.' lCnt provmg t 11at she IS a (icrman b.uonc:. , ,1nd thl' wcddmc
c-
~ ~- h'l ) compo mona!
.. .
.wout process or 1deas abo ut th e wor k' other .
t .11l
. -'lowed
'
tJlt' p<>~tpon~.ment of the opera was in the end a goo I
d h'
10 S• rnce Jl <»
rni\'al h The imilarit) of La bIIOifa j 1'S l 11101II to La ji11111 ~rcmluuaa I'> ob\ wuv
, d · g the CJ owever, thl' ckvit:c f h . h . ' ,
more hme for rehearsal Th e performanc!.'S took place unn . . fronl orig· d 1 o a\ mgt e gJrdcner girl lOm~wu~ of her m-.n nohh:
. I d J ignJtarle~ lnsan f eemg tl1' \ 1·ol•. 0 fh I .
~ea ·on, an d so they wt"re attended by high and 011g 1t y an f S3 lthui'S• the . ~ ~:n~c er owr " J no\d l\\ t\t on the theme and
cont nv,lnce of I .. h I .
many different places. Mozart's employer, Archbishop ())!Ioredo ~ (.lllliiY· throw•h I lanng t e O\·er~ go mvthologi~.lll) nuJ and rt'~lllh.rle
o .1 ternate I>Cr'>ona . 1 h'
attl!l)d cd with his r tinu~. J.) d ld tbe members of the ~axon ru mg '~ '' ·' ~o nc\\ to t 1\ hbJt'tto; ll runtor~D th •
 1111 M ARR I AC,J ()/ FltJA /UI I I

P•'"lr>t lll the whole J~ J lh .. lfl£ nnv C r p

· I r ·ul'lii Ve followa .1'> !the frnJo; ·' pi.J<..e to lucie, utd till~ lltovcs c.Jmlc ly
ton (> (II .l \ ''"" 11
I 1fO
wmt'd~. Tr<)~t"\cf th(' fl,ght of tlw h 'llllll , I0 l orturutJes for
p.umlc ~:A ,·II lm Jll' M o l l fl wo uld ••xploit tlu s kind ol flUid ~.,•m· ~,on I HI~
I
· t: g O<HIIV pfa({ h
I II •1
dr ptnr ' cJa,(oJC fo r the gc-nr<:. I h( otl tt r dllr I • . h w rc &he 11110 t 11. ' • · · llJ J·.x ·s the re
M cr, Ill 1 ~ ~ l md of ' lll.'r cf(<: d in /tfOIIIC' fiC'O, pJ rtf y bn.tU~C I1IC Sl CIIt" l UI I C: 1.:
rJ> <me ~ . y t.1r a tJo th<:r '>how up
'
'''ltnnt n • '
Ill V 3 0(1 YJrlliC Of thr h
nP<ra all 1w11 w Hn •
·' c1l ll fl/ SC>'
Ill ( IlltJl' •1
· ·
nd •allow ' 1 dr•arna tk.tllv• efttL.IJ'< I! llllcr.•'
· 1 ... ,
I toll ),_ ' \: C
J' I
'II ' ·n
V~llhlll ltc·r gcttder. tJer dtffcr<.'nH· In.m hot lt til . r t t: I c-rurnc •
I'LJI tht\ ~ll lll 1n fa jintfl ''it~rdlllltrO 1s .1n cxlr 1111 Jn,an Y
< ~''t'u ~ nrugg~tl dtl prtV.If(' I P" L)I1.'· )
J l)( . • ()
arro;•uH noh kwo m JIJ ' how thjt .,ht. 1 thm • th. n h ''" tt
"J ·• • • ~:: c orm o 1 l' r app.lrl.'nt da l v1v1d pori r.ttl ol dc,pc r.Jtron. .
nu af ule ...1m c Itm e too\ t rtUl tU'I tc• pull1 .mk in IH•r J'rr 1p ·r 1· I Wi th the ''xl<:ptJon o f th l\ 'ilrtring cxcrci c in trudurc, the he tUlle'\"! I a
h " O<lu Clr< e. And
t ~ :~cr th~r .:11! 1h~: men :u~ c ~tht r m l<•v{ .,. 11h or at It:.!\ I \}'mpathttiC10 htr J111 ta xuurJ111u·m rend to ht in the ~c..t.lils - e pcd .tlly in l\ l o/,Jrt' wundcr lully
sugg 15 ht: router hc.JUty. wh t<.h cotllpl, rn< nt• lu:t innc..•r ~l'tt:clnt'i.~. inw ntlvc 11 ~e of 1he or<hc~>l r.1, .mu lu:. uftcn 111 prising .tnd (or nplt·x h urrllolll •
1 1h1Jtl n..~ ~·tmded t() the c (;harJctc:r t~ pl \Hilt h1s custornJn alae ·1 . d A§ 3 wholl• th H1 oper.1 doc!~ no t h;1v' l ltl' variety o f dr.rrnalll: rhyth111 th.at we
• h 1'1 . n ' an
find even in Jd o ttii' III'O ,wd ccrtJinly in the Vicnne e ope ras of his l.1s1 dc~o.t ~(·.
• • J
'l\' 1(•/)C s, 1 ~ I Jretlt l .. htt:d htm to the Xl t'llf tha t 11 jltovkb num~r
. • (; OUI
OPf'orturufles o r the ~h.1 r.a h'r 11, lilrikc u po e or a urnc a metaphor and w1rh thnxccpt1om o f the lm.lk'l .llld till' l\vo duct in the thrnl .td, iii..OIIf11st ,
pt. d o rm I t .&t ~1 11rlc length . I ht· M.t} o r' fir t ;m,J. for txJ mplt•, in wh 1ch J1t lllrc opera -.cri.l, CJ( .1 ra ther n gul .11lcrn at ion Ol'IWl' Cil .,;,, .uHJ ,,cil.l ftvc
' tlmpJ rr~ ha hu tjrrc..d heart ICJ an M du. 1' o1 s au im ita tion to tht' wmp()~r w11hout the d1gnity o f thc tugh -.tylt to make cmc ol th.ll rigidtt )'. lwn the
lU tllu<.tr.Jf(' lht• t~·x t litt•rally. ;.~nd Mw u r de 'thi , with d1v1dtd vinl~s. solo f111J I<~. with tlw1r much grr.J ter potcnti.ll tor 11uidit~·. work 111orc hr ju l.tpo
nwrnent5 for tl.e obm: and llutc,. raJ 10 tht c nd .10 c Ill ire hrJ\s ~ntion w11h $tl ton .1nd n·pctrtion th.lll by dl·vclup nwnt and uc..~.; llllllll ,tlion . 'I Ius j., 111 J.Ht;C
I irnp.tlH. Ah h cru~h b<lth 1~~fi11M .I•tartlm lc'ra and frf<,mmt'tl ( I 7HI 1v.crc wriucn part .tllnbu t,lhlt to thC' hhrllto, who,~.· mnh . •n i~s in the c <.'dJ<HlS ,,rc <JIItlc
fot Mun1c:h . o nly th e lJttc r opt rJ could u ~ the ( lll!ou ~ttnnhcr m on he trJ, contn vcd; hut the '·" ' thJ t M <)l,lll did not (or kit he u111ld not) i u ~ii \1 on
whH h h.1d drc.Lmp d I(J Mun1<..h 1vith Ihe l in.t11r of B.l\.311.1 hy I n R.1 hu thr ~ty ndil Jilt dlJIIgl·~ Jll tlw l1brc..llo .ts h.trJ<IcJ to hi111 nu .Ills th,al the dt ,llll,tlt.,;

"'tnd wriru1~ 10 u1Jintu tturtfmura ,.. llt 1l as prom1nt nt cncrall a~ 11 i\ rn the g<'lllll\ ol thc l.lll'f <01 111<. ope1.1 ~ i~ hctc l.tlcnl only.

),Jft r Up( ( J, ll! vc·rth\.'Jt"'.,, the f OUflg comptJ )t'f \hO\h d off lftt' hand whtll
invitrd by the 1 xt. 'f he <..onttno ' n du.. ulo u t xpmttic.n of /u ~ lin<>Jlg~' u1 "1Ja I e IIOZZI' di f.igaru ( I ht• Marrittgt• e~/ J'rgaro) < tllllllled i.t pet rnusi u. [ ihr(!llo
Sc i tOl CU ,l JrantontJn.tn ( J-wm tit<. '>(ltlfh ~-., uu.f to thl· nflrlh wmd,..) hurkh hy I o rl nlo D.t Ponh , h.t~<"d on the plo~y 1r marru1xc , /,• ltgr ll•' hy 1\ugu 1111
on the uorm.tl pradi~oc in ,omk rnalc: ,,,;.. n t hJ' ing th~ '*he I ra Jllumatt' ( 1ron cJc lh luln.mh.tis. Vtcnll .t, Hur gthc.ll cl, 1 M.tr 17Hf't
nr tt.•, pcmd to thr It'l l Mor"·u·• r. the "'..tY \fOIJtt diffrr{nii.Hl'S till· diCII" n in
1hc <·odic.~ 01nd r(•p c..tl d " "'-" CJf .t na~h,r not tullf .dltM the charJ~Itt
111
Ctr AKA< II I(~
S<'\.'01 v.-~.-tHlUS hut ill C) tc..·l.llf1S the li 1encr's Jlllt:rc~t. 1\ ruund.s\ arta " \ 'i•rtt' l
r uriJ rtr, indq• w " (" I want w pun• h you. \HCidl" J, u11g 10 tht• ( ontmo pnc.< ( OllOt AltJl,I ViV,I
B,1
sh e l1<1S dt cuvcrt d tum ~ith s .mdrit1a, i• an olrvwu~ JIIHUr~c·r 1<1 l krtra s < OUill ( ~ Al111avi\'.t
s,,,,r.tno
1 IJICitk, II
In nde!it.Cnt r.tg 1· ilnil. 111 ltltJttlttJc rJ, Wtth till u .c Cl f lu t mwo
L '
u:s.tnn,t Ithl C ountcss'11 dt.J rnhcnn.ud J, be t rut hc•d tu opr.mo
~uddcn tahs of /c,udrlcs . it lwrt H M: 1phr..t'· · \vi rh l., rw h 'YJIJI'1' tlt• 1·'J
1113
l t&llo fthl < 'lUnt ' v.tkt l
ltHII , Jl tl tl f ( \ tOll ill ~tnkwg har num1 ... Jlw lli<Hlltrll wm c.
t (IIJL) (HI l<l c ht~uhmo, th t < ( llfltt ' p.tgc..• n"
Soprano
L
I)(' !ttl' Ci11h I Ill• I t1~ ( IJ'C'· 1 ~ .:;.utt1rJil<l
. •5 3t".Co f1 cJ l(l ~'-~'IIJ (J hnktd ULc..l' swn M l ullJJl,l ! i"lll oldr t wont.tn 1
I . thcr l h.Ha.tt'rs 11·ltlol 11 , doll« II lrnt11 Scv1llc Sop r.snu
of n uwhc:r ) " C JUuch" (' t Tud one • ), where ht Il I.'~: 1 1' t l Bn
L • I ·~t r.1l a~~nrnp.an 1 H 1 Jii(J, IIlli i~ lt.l her
I lw. lu es <JU t with iJ p.mk~ c~ a ria (l\'4'1 a n 011 C\ J\'~ VH tc.. !Is 'lc.:npr
• • • J r. wtt , wItt II 1l t 1' I Jon uuio, )ltdg
u,euf ( J lon AIJun o p w tl11·s rtus ktnd of ana 111 (...ctJ ,,wt k J ana
C
lcnor
th yuuu l l ~tlu:~ lh 11 tltt it lmf t at~ gwng to w;u ). SJ ndrlfJ,I
11
1'"''" t hatti B.trh " IIJU , di!ughr~·r of
opr.tno
1(10\' ''>
. . "' , dl . ,•.xprt·NO~ hrr th
M il I(•<; IY JJllrl a ilL OnlJ)• lllt'u (Cu i tlh' \-J\'I J
e1 ~(Ill Autoruo, the Cuunt ' g;udcncr Jlld Su anna' undc
Bas
IHJ II j tht~ Ill I \H u !Ofldl·~ J11 tu de..• 11p1 ion tlf h t:r irt.thtftl Y to J1rl Jlh(f, ~
1
tlnl
1 \1 ' Ill' ,, lll .....
phru':l'!; In lh( \ ' PU.:l ~ ud ,, k111d tll h(,l!th~ t .tc..( r)/11p3111'' t r '
1 ~1 tlZAR ! A J) OPERA Bt' H"
0-1M.-.RY
Th.b 1 pcrh.lp' the mo t lOmplex plot among 1ou rt \ op e r.1 . The basiL
energ) of the story, howe\er, is qUJte stmple. The Count 1 ma pprop n .uely
intt.:re,ted in u:.ann , which anger bo th FigJro a nd the Counte-., , who unite-
With US3nna to hdp her a\·o id the Count and C\ Jl t ren~nge. T he Counr
ga.t!l.:) orne Je, erage again t h1 valet by way of Ftgaro'!> lo ng tanc.lmg debt
to r-.1arcellina and b~· Dr. Bartolo' de ire to take re ve nge o n Figaro for hi~
part. year ago, in h elping the Count ·win the Countes again t Bartolo'~
wish -. c\'eryone's p l.ms are confounded br the go iping of Basilio and the
bormone-dri,·cn exploits of the adolescen t page C herubino.
\!'. OP 1
The opera opens man un furnished room , w1th Figaro measu ring the space for
a bed and us.:mna ad miring he r ha t. It tum o ut th J t he is no t happy with
the location of their room , righ t next to the noble couple's qua rters, and after
orne besitauon she tells Figaro that her unhappiness stem fro m the Count')
de 1re to re-establbh hb p re,;ously-abolished feudal right to Jeep with the
v.omen m hb household before they marry, starting with her. Figaro is deter-
nuned to rre\I?Ot this and to m ake the Coun t dance to h t tune. M arcellina
and Bartolo discuss Mar<.ellina's plans to m arry Figaro; sh e' determ ined to
pre\·ent hb wedding to usanna; her back-up is that Figaro ts fi nancially
obhged to her, and that v. hen usanna refuses the Count's advan ces, the
Count \\ill be so annO} d that he "'i ll force Figaro tnlo m arrying Marcellina
a~ compensation for not repaying her money. Bartolo is only too eager to help,
smce he ha a bone to pick with Figaro fo r helping the Countess (formerly
R~tna, h LS " rd} escape from his lustful clutches. (This was the plot of The
Barbrr cf Sn-:llc., the p re\·ious play in Beaumarchais' Figaro trilogy.). He
leave • and usanna and !arcellin.a insult each other. !vtlrcemna leaves m 3
huff. and Cherubino rushc..>s in; the Count has told him to leave the household
be.:ause of lu antiQ. with Barbarina, and he is distraught to ~ parted
fr m the Countess, on whom he has a senous crush. Susanna is mo · ng
cki ]\•
svmpathetic, and Cberubino describes his adolescent ro m antic confusion.
The Count ts heard, and ~ usanna hides Cherubino in a chajr unde r a dress.
10
The Count makes ad\'ances to Susanna, asking whether she would like
accompany h1.~ to Lo~don, b ut ~ilio appro aches, looki~g f~r the Cou~~
Thl Count hiu~ behind the chair in wh1ch Cherubino IS hidden. Bas
c..1rries out his job of reporting the Count's interest in Susanna - surely she
wo:Ud P_refer uch a fine m..n to a m ere page. The Count l~ps up at ~~
tlhmuatJon about Cherubmo; Susanna is terrified. and Basiho tnes to smoO
T il£ .'•fl RRH<.i£ Of FIGARO IJJ
·ngs over In the course o f a trio the Count re -enacts a tory about findtng
I
t1 l · h bl' e unde r the
Ch •rubino under a tablecloth, ,m d re- find t e trem tng pag .
c r 1·g u o enters with a cho ru o f peasants dressed in white and catte nng
d re . . , th C t e
flowers· thi i hi s first stra tagem to fla tter a nd shame e o u nt tn o r -
abolishing the droit du Sl?lgneur a nd m a rrying him and Susan na irnmedi;-tely.
Th e o u n t asks fo r enough ti me " to o rgani.lc a more elaborate. weddmg
. f.
and
o rders hc rubino in to th e military. The first act ends w1 th F~garo s arnous
"No n piu and rai," (" No more will you go") m which he de cnbes the grand
m ilitary life tha t the page wil l e njoy.
Act 11 o pen in a richly-appoin ted room, wJth an alcove an~ three door . The
Co untess i alo ne, lamen ting her situation . Susanna arn ves and the two
women co mmisera te abo ut the Count. Figaro brings in h is next id ea, which is
to have Ba ilio give the Co unt a letter a rrangtng an assignation in the garden
with a young woman , who will actually be Cherubino (whom Figaro has ke~t
in the household) dressed as a g1rl; the Countess will di cover the Count tn
flagra nte d elicto, a nd ha me him into behaving with propriety. The ladies like
the idea, and pla n to d isguise the page. Che rubino ente~. Co\·ered in embar-
rassment to find the Coun tess, but i persuaded to sing the amorous son g he
has just written ("Voi che sapete") before be10g undressed by the wo men.
Cherubino is fi tted o ut with girl ' clothing, Susanna lea\ e to get a ribbon, and
the Countess affec tionately com fort the not-completely-dre!>sed C herubino.
The Count, who was thought to be o ut hunung, approache~. Cherubtno 1
stuffed into the closet. The Count is u picio u o f the Countes:.'s agitation, the
more so when he h ears a no i e in the clo:.et. he will not open it fo r him, md
he drags her off to find the key. u anna come~ 10 through .1 dtffercnt door
and makes Cherubino leave the do et; he escapes through the wind o w and
she replaces him in the do et. The fi nale begins JS the Co u n t and Coun tess
return, he with a hamm er and a gr at c.lcal of a nger, and she forced in to
explaining that he'll fi nd Cherubino in the d o et and that his half-dre-.:.ed
state means nothing. T hi!> d oes nothmg to appea e the Co unt, b ut U'>anna\
exit from tne closet con found!> them bo th. The Countes:. cla1 m '> to ha'e been
teasing the Count, and he b ~..ompelled to m.lke the first o f h i apologi6 to
his wife. Figaro e nters, onct agam asl-.ing the l ount to pe rfo rm the weddtng
nght awa)'· The C o u nt confron t hm1 \\ith the no te that Ba'>th o gaH• htm
abo ut the a ~ignation with herubmo wh i1..h h.lS aln:ad \ bc\.n rc-\c:alcd a, a
~r~ck. S~sanna, the Countt.: s, a~d h garo J'>k the Coun~ to get be\ond the
a~ed tn~..k and agre~? tu the marnagc, b ut he hokh out, hopmg that .\larcellina
\\1ll arri\ e with her unfulfi lled w ntrad. T hing' get mMl' wmplkated when
~he gardener Anto nio 1..0me~ in ~..om plaining that ~omethmg or , om(one
JUmped onto hi llO\\ Cr . F1garo d aim!> 11 \\ Js him, but that i!> patenth
0 CONSERVATORY U BRAR'\':
 Tiff; MA RRIAGF O F FIGA RO 135
uncon¥incing. Antonio abo ha'~ ChcrL b' ,
& ~ommt~ '
h .~~ po ·kct ,l he JUtnpcd out of the I lllo J
h'
. . . . on, "' lch fell out of .. ~··ho h l!> hci J1Cd her look for it, worms o ut of h er that it is from
d owment •\ I.Kk of a e.tl me;m:. th.lt the"' C 0\\. .I ht~· tdcnt
10
fi h' 1gJr0 , Jj' · d
. 1 1 e'~ 1111, but the
y ' •

Susan na, and about ,111 assignat ion under the pmes. Marce m a arn ves, an
Th ~~ I d ount ~an not stml)lv , d h' '
c m.l e en J!> Mar~ellina Bart ) lo ~ d •' ., . '>en un ''''.tr I ig.lrO seck her mo therly co m for~. She w?nclers why m en and women cannot
. d fr , l , n uon Curzto ~ome t11 J ' . .
JU gm nt l)ffi th Count that will make r· \:l11.tndmg .\ get along li ke ma le and fem ale an 1m.al pa1rs.. .
•garo marr ~IM clltnJ.
In a dark g.m len with two practicable n1 ches, Barbanna ru.shcs thro ugh,
A t Ill hcgin& in a room with two throne~ :tn(i l'f , . . :·garo, B'-1rt olo and B.t!>ilio arrive in prepara tion for accostmg• the Count
3 11 d 1 1 •
f Tt , · ' ~:p.lr.Hwn-. tor J 1 . ~d · , ., he approachc Su~a n na. Basilio describes the peril of confron ~mg tho e tn
ca:.t. lC C.)unt an~rily c gitate about th~ contu~iom of th t .H: mg 1

n , nn d -..su:..anna, W1 ecn hy the ' ount plm·fo ·s

..ou t , t uat1on The
· power by telling a fab le about a donkey-skin cape. Figaro vents h.ts fu ? at the
:.t d t t1 (' , d . ' ' r u llln..t to prt'lend to fem.tle ex; usanna rea lize'> that Figaro has h ea rd about the ass1gnat10n and
. e e o le ount :. estrc by me ting him in the gJrdl·n in tht> ew . . h
h.ts misinterpreted it; she decides to tease him by singing a serenade, os ten -
tn\:k will be that it will he the Counte~ drc ed S'u ···nn I h 'IJrung, tl e
' •
1
..~ • " •'w I
t) \\'1 3CI UJ 'tbly to the oun t, bu t actually to him. Cher ub ino arrives, mistakes the
mak~ the rend Z\' O.u ·• Susanna opproa h~ the Count on the pretext ~ 0 ' ounte fo r Sus.mna and fl irts with her. T he Count arrives to m eet Susa nna,
n~dmg to gt>t :.meUmg. salt for the Counte~ , .tnd nlJke knm\ n that hu. w1 h and ju 1 a herubino is about to give the disgui ed Co untess a kiss, the Coun t
will be her ommand; a duet seah the arrang~mcnt. Figaro enter bricflv. and interposes him elf, and (once again) ends Chcrubino away. The Count starts
the Count O\er hear) u . anna telling Figaro on their \hl out that she':. won to woo "Su anna': with Figaro and the real Susanna com menting separately
her C\Se, which ~ends the Count mto a pJroxTsm of r.1ge. Marcellina, Bartolo, from the sidelines un til the Cou nt takes "Susanna" into a private guden
Don Curzio anJ Ftgaro enter, with Don Curzio pronouncing that Marcellina's hou e. Figaro stJ r ts to tell the " o unte s" (actually Susa nna) about the Coun t'
case ts good: Figaro hould pay her or malT) her. Figoro explain thJt he an't mi deeds, but recognizes usanna's voice, and start to woo her a if she were
possiblv marry ~1ar ellina without the con~nt of his parent ; in the coun of really the Countess. Susan na can no t bear this, reveals herself and laps Figaro.
de~ ribmg hi o rigins it turns out that he is actually Raffaello, the long-lost They are blissfully reuni ted. The Coun t a rrives, looking for " usanna", w ho
son of Marcellina and Bartolo, abducted by g} psies a an infant. Parents and ha evidently slipped away. The re.tl usan na and Figaro continue the pretence
son cmbra e; ~ usanna enter and mi~interpret thi until !>he learns the truth. that Figaro is wooing the Coun tess. The commotion brings everyone out, last
Marcdlma an d Bartolo d ecide final!)' to mJrrr. E\eryone is delighted, and of all the real Cou ntess, who nobly accepts the Count's humble apology .1nd
leaves. Cherubmo and Barbarina brieflv enter, announcing that Cherubino the "crazy day" of the opera ends in rejoicing.
i sl ill around, and about to be disgui ~ a a gtrl once more, to be able to
con ort w tth lh other pretty girl in the ~tle. They run off, and the Count~ C OM M ENTARY
arru· tO lament her Situation and then to decide that her fideu ty should gl\:e
Origins
her th~ope of re1gniting the Cow1t' lo\'e. She and Susanna.confirm ~elf
plans and \\Ttte the note to the Count that will tell him the ume and P aha The exact story about the comm ts~ion of F1garo is not knowable. 1 he
·J 've singina t e
of the assignation rhey h<n:e planned. The castl e g1r s am • " Beau~archais play Lc marriage de figllro, on which this opera Wa! based
. Co · ·es also recog·
Cowltt"S!>' prai~!>; he recob>nizes Cherubmo. The unt arr.rv ' for him prem1ered in Paris in 1784 after man} royal attempts at ccmonng it, and aftc;
ntz.es Cherubino and is about to send him away when Barbanna ask.sd . the Beauman.hais's masterful manipulation of that ccnsor) hip into a m use celebre.
. d I
a a spous~ sin e the Cow1t had prom1se 1er any 10
th ' g she wante Jn
pies It was. a monstrou~ success, and was imtantly kno.,., n thro ughout e uro pe. Its
' . b . and the two cou
course of fondling her. Finally, the \\""cddmg march ~gms, f the Count and nhoton ety was due in part to the O\ ertly political content: I igJro fo r e'am ple
as a Jon d ' ·b · · ' '
(Su ·anna and Ftgaro, Mar ellina and Bartolo) kneel an front
0
otr sealed 1
s. Latn l' tn wh1ch he a~ erts hi social equaht} to the Count. It \'> Js
Counte s to recei\.e their blessings. u!>anna ~neaks th~ ~un~;; not knOW ~so notonou~ for its indec nc); in addition to the Count's tmpropriet1e:. the
with a pm, o n "' hich he prick$ his finger. figaro sees th1.~. u t ountess dal11e!> wn h Ch , b ' d h . .
n 1 . c ru mo, an t ere are 1mphcat•ons that O., w,anna b
o as mnocent as '> he m 'ght B .
that the a: ignation will be \o\o'ith Susanna. m· b . . I Sc.'em. ut It wa:. ah o !>cand.Jiou., Ol'LJ U'>e the
h'ch the an~~~ect~~~cters mclucled bardy disgul'>ed l .HICJtures of Lllrrent offiLials,
. · 100ki for the pin, w 1 • !>Lene (ec;senually cut m Da Po nte':. a<.!aptatJOn ) \o\-Js a n:pl.ty of a
Act I\' begin:. m a little room, w1tb Barbarma ng ed th .lSSignanon.
Count gave her to return to Sw.anna as a s1gn · I h a t he acc:ept e
 /Iff M\flllfH,I 01·1/IJARO 117
t \• . 1 ? A II T A n G I' !1! Ft A
·•~ .J uunpc.•t itt ll , dept ndJn~ how
rn.ll k Mot.H I .•~ ,, h nd c>J he rr to l'.lr'>J<'IIo
(ll

( liH' 1C,Hf'i I IH' {'Vrd l•fl ((',

f< ('( CjJii OII f ll t rf rt'fJII l flliO II

Theop<•r,l h.ld n in r JWrfOIIll.lll((.''tlll · ·lh r. ll l '>l l Ull Il l

· ll' 111 1v ·r we
· VJ('lll
<). • t n
l•rwth
0

rll n. A repo rter fo 1 tlw Vit" n n.t Rcah•Jit iiiX noted that the firo;t !,<..rform~rH.C
wJ., 1101 01 ., ood ,1c; it co uld h.tvc.· hn•n dur to the unu.,u.d dtftt,ully ot th.c
14
mu ~ 1 c, 1h.ll 1he lc1.c, nn r., rt.•lly cd w ,, tc.:d lllilJO rr t y ol d1l' .JUdtcn<:c w,,., .1 b1t
pu 11 tcd hy the work. ,tncl th .11 there w.1s .1 <.ert.tin .1mount of ht.,.,ing from the.;
lm cd ~01 b.al (.1 f.I!O IIp dcd it;rt t•d to hc<.kl1ng the wo rk., of '>OlllC c.:ompo.,c:r., Ill
order to ,lggr:~ n ditc tho'ie of other'>) 111 the g.1 llc-n But hy tlu: third ptrforrn-
nn<.c, ncl.C>Iding to th i'> repo rt er, o rH. would h.tve h.u.l to be w1thoul t,t.,lc or a
member of J ,,,bal not tn lomp rd1end th.Jt 1\.lo/.trl\ lllll'>l~ ""·'" .1 m.l'>ll r
wurk.u' A~<.ord i n g t o th e lll l'lllOir., of Mot.ut\ hrend Mic.:h.tl'l Jo..cllf••1 ll'IHlr
who <.ang the p;~rt o f Do n (u ll in, the .wdrt·nct• cn~orcJ Ch~I ythrng, le.tdmg
the cr npcror to pl.tc(· .1 bla nkl·t b.m on n:pt:.lting cn<oemblcs. The op IJ WJ'i
perfo rm ed in P1 .1gue ' " l>ccember of 171'16, .wd tlw~t: tt w.l'i .m un.tlll>\c.:d
su cc.;c.,~. MO?a rt pro ud ly rl'por t1.·d to hro, lrJl'tH.l B.tron (.ottfltl·d von J,t,qulll
tha.t "here they t.tlk .1bout noth r n~ but 'I ig.tro. "Jothrng ,., pl.l}ed, '>\lllg c>r
whrstle<.l bu t ' h g.tro '. N01 hrng j., dl.\\\.lllg ilkl· 'l·ig.tro: Nt1thing, noth11w
but •r·1 ~Jro ' '"11· A m I tnt
. Il'~·d , Pr,l~lll' d td 'il't Ill p.lrlH.:ul,ul} f,t\OI .1bll.' toW,IJ ds c

M ot tlrl '> musk P.l.,lfl t.th: Bond11l1, the impn:-~.1rio \\ho put on J t"aro in
Prauu '• c· t <lm.m r,o,ron · l'(1 I >on ( ;,0\'cllllti lor the next ~c.;',ll, .tnd I a, h•lltt'IIZtl·"tli 'J ito
wa., obo Wll ltl'l1 fo r t h.l t l rtr.
As wao, th<.' ~.u .-. t 1 1 · 1
(ro Jn l Il l' o p('fl be nrn .t t11.· tllltt', lOilll'o,ttl,lll>· .
pt.•rlorm.thk .ln,11 wcrnl.'nh
c-
Ulltc~ Jbroud l•. • H•'" tu .l p p t•.tt lllll tl' \oon .tftl:r ih Plllllit·r,•, .tnd pctlorm -
17!i7 . Jl )<:~·Ill w tt h .t llHrc.;h .~d.tplt•d ... ~.~.,,on fur Mont,\ in Lomh ud'" in
, a J r r~ pwJ u l.l l l . , ...93 I , '
18 12 lhi>U •h . O l In ' ' .lll< t lw fuo,t Pl'tlor m.tnn· in 1 ondon Ill
· g \ onH.' of thc: 11 1 1 r.
latcd into l\lh<·• ' I ll\1~ \\-J\ · • rl:.lt y "nmvn there from hdng intt..rpo-
difterent l t OJd)C I ,h. In \ lt n n,,, tlw \\llf'k ,,,,., tt.\1\'c.;•d in 17XtJ witl1 l
'•:. • .ttl n ot tbl I \ 1· ' •
l iorJJII~i) a) ~ .. , > W I1 1 '< ll.ltl.l I t'rt.ll\.'o,t.• Jt•l lknc (!he.;• fir~t
"\' . us.lnntt , w h ldl llt'l\.\\11 t• I :\I
~~lilt• lngtnou iH,ttc vi" ·•nd, I> ·I '' l~ • oz.t~.t '.l·pl.ldng the origin.• I
to h:rr,nc t•\ vinuo~k o,in , ' <: l \It Ill non t.ud,u wtth mw.i" bl.'tlet suited
l ..tn for 29 r ) f gmg, If nut to our \l'll,l' ol tht.• JJ,Hl\a 'I h' • . I
t l't u r m . m t. l'' u ntli 1 · 1s rc' tV,l
Plt:nucl t' prudu~.t,o n <'f c I 1
t' 'lll,l!' 17Y l, .lnd o»('rl,•ppcd wrth th
f\' Jl() t . i . <hi till fill It \ I • • I' . .
lllllC'ol l 1~11,1 ( ount z,·,)
l
I l{ I W J~.:e lh ll h .I
(, • l' l' ll) ll\'t. I tl • 1. I ll'Ou<lft
·•' Villlt'ri I . I I . t. h.: l:ltt r t Ud sung hv I'.
f .I , • . n ... l l ,lt h!.' t.' I1 Jtl\t.l 'I I ' elr,uc!l~; .tnd < akrin t
'' '-~O r.t ' 1" '1 l 1\ H olllll' I \.'II rrt.• .• R I .. •
f<'i >l I o tlw dt'<>in: o l lht on. I I • t ' orH o ( AI tk~to t.li thi
•IC\.'t. " D •I t.: \\10 olt.orl·~ \ou"j th ·
t.: I Vl l'OI , llo n to~rd .u 'J II . c \" tun!ttc.; ·•ria th tt
m suggl.' .. ts th,u his plcasurl· Clik~ th:,t

tamou-. JUdtdal aff: IT in r. ' With hi ...... '\Ol '> lllllfall~l'. ll''l' l' h II (old r
brother of M.trit'-AtlH1in He.' .tl:l'•\' d at h.:J, t nn~ C t' l man tt .uhl.ui,,n hi be
pubh,hc.:d, unrut, in v·~ . but t tht · J ' t 'h)rlll'nt h bJnned ib l' 1llmu-
an-.e. l (lrenzo DJ Pl)nt ' r 'l'moir' de '~ nl'>~· ,\ l' tO~l'" " h1.: r by he.• and ,\ h1urt
wrot th opera tog :ht .lnd th n he: p~.,·r'l' '·' I~ pc. r'uadc.d th ~..·mp ror to
all'l'' it l\) b p rform d. Ho"' wr D.1 1\mh.•\ menwtr.... .Hl' ntt~..·n ,df-"'' "P,r.u-
ulatory b 'llld the bound, of '>trict t l t hlu no,. h ' "hnHl\1 l'8Y lh'" ll't fit
\\lth oth r l'\1d nc ab,)ut the l fi.'Jtion of the.• l'l''-'1 ,1.~' .md tlwr ' ' l'' 1d~..·n,c
'u~~..-.tmg that )Q, , ph .·:b ' ' il':"~~· or e\l"'l ~., ,l~ r h\ ·' "' • lo~ nlbmm.lh)T)
h r .. ton of the " nk r ·orml J, m pJrt to 'hl,n.· up h1 rq'utati,m for
, upportin, fr dc.:'m t. t: r , o•1. Jnd n pJ~t ,\., a I~. 'on t"' tht" n~..,bilitr under
hb ·uri_, diuion.
R ~ardle" ol \\ilo in ,ti~ated thi' particular '' ork. \to art had b ~ n !,,,,king
tM :a !!0\.hl Italian 1·b ett 'in~\.' the dt'mi' of t"te ~ l''pptd tn,up in 1-t\.\, He
h d t;uted but I' l'O"lplet d 3 )U~ k of bu• ' .li.)J' r.1., , .md mu' t h.l\t' been
delight d w lind ~ f'a Ponte, " ho had b n hirt-d ~~ th pod to the \:uurt
.
theater in l/.:'3, a ''illin~ and ciftro ct,lb.borator. He ' m~ to ha\l' , t.lrtt>d
'
~-ork lin F'11:am in J;.-bru n 1/ 5. ''ith Count Ro,enbefl!, tht> ' up nntcndent
of tht• , ourl 01''{'1"3. ru' h ng him to fini'h in the autumn. HO\\ ('\ cr. due to the
ab~c.''l'l\.~ of Lui-.:a Lh..:ht, ~hedulc!'d to pla) l~.,c: L~'unte~ , and the , .:heJule of
other oper-J ... o n the Burstht"oitcr , t3gt", it a~tL· 11~ d <.1 rot premiere until ~t.l\'
I i 6. It \\3!- ..t"rta.in ' '·c"j alon~ br the late autur-,~ ho ,.e, r, and the pro•t'(t
"'-'<b \lo eU-kflo,, n ae ro~ Euro~ bt.fore it came to fruition. 24
ln addition to t . l ....... aum_ -.. ~.1~ rl \' b 3 ' 0Ur<:t. \'ozart and Da Ponte
had 11 deal \dth tht g·eat u.::cc'~ of C. ounni Pai id >:. ..ctting oi The Bmva
ot: ·:&, "hich ha~ p,a,e-d in \ ... nna sin.::e the r..-e...t.l"''li, hm<'nt of opera
bufl.l m I / S3, and '' hich ,, ~ puformed only three month bt"iore th.e
premtcre of Fi . ro 'T"1c Bar~, · \t.'l Ut: i ck•:.elv b~d on the lkaumarchitt)
pb~ whkh 1 the .,r·eq.. d " to 1 t .\ farriac,· of F;£aro; in thi~ Kork, Rart(llo i'
the g.uanhan of Ro n , , ith whom the y~ung u;unt Almav:h ·a j, d~perate.l)"
in loH". Bartolo hA.\ tlli own de :ign'> upon Ro ·ina and keep' her locked up 10
the h ou~. But the barber Figaro, who happen' to ri.'·Cn~ountcr h .'' tncn · · d and
. f10rdihgt) J-. '\tha nna, ,, hkh neccs~l t .li~·J \ \ll/Jrt repl.1~. m~ the origm.tl
former emplm-er the Count after mam· war is ucce!>. fully enli~teJ 10 en~•·
netT Ro~ma\ liberation into the Cou~t"~ arnh. Mozart r"cognizt"d the affe.:-
tion of thl' Yiennese public for thL. opera, and built in a number of refercn.Cl'
to It: the C.ountc,~· ~Porg1 amor., resemble., in ..r)1e. key and orchc tratwn
Ro6ina's lament "Giu..to cid" ("Ju:.t hea\l'n ..) when ~he think' her amorou:
'-! • · .
amwuon~ are tn \'illn. And th~ ~t"<Ond ~ection of Figaro., " .: uo
1 hallarc
. .
quotes a moment h Pai-.il•llo' great introductory aria for l .~Jn). "" 1n 1 g•a
moho patst" {•l h<~\"e tra,ek-d in many countrie)").2s Thi'> kind of rdd"n~c
cetn.tn•· u
the na.rrattve rebtton . beh,een the:' two works, but 1t aI ' 0 CI"\'C'!t Ill
Till \f \ RRIIWI: l)fl HG \RO I \7
R,•t ,•p titlll a llll rt•p uttlt i<w
, 1 h I I nine pl..'thll 111.\IH.~'' in lb ti l ... t llll1 tn \ tenth\; .m J\l..'lJ~I. ' ·kngth
lh~ i.'\1'~'· - ~~-r llt the \ lt' lllll Rl·,,b·• tllll~ llllll..'li th.llthe tir.,t p~:rlorrnJtKC
run rl.'p<'r 1.. ' d' fi 1 t tl
tt ~ould h 1\l' hecn du~: t\l the u nu,u.tl tl aut ty o l t'
' •
• j '
\\ )\ tllll ,\~ ~OOll • ' ' • l "t
• , til It th·· }~.,·,., tllll''i..·llh l'd tiL.tte,t mJ )Mtl} o l the ,\Udten~c \\,t., .1 ll
11\U,Il, • ~ , h' , I th •
,ualtd i'IY th~. ,, <Hk, JnJ th.tt thcr~· \\'J'> .1 cert.un amount ol t'''"S rum . t:
~trtd ... a\~1 (a ~roul' ,h~d~~.ltl.'d to hcd,Jmg the worl'' of 'ome '~'mp~scr' tn
,,rJcr 10 agsr.1nd i1 e tho-,e nt o ther') tn the g.tlkn. But b\ the thml pnform
thl' r~: , 0 rt cr one wo uld hJ\ (' h.td to he wtthout t .l'>IC or J
. ,rd · ..
ance-. 3l ~ l 111 co 10 1 • • •
·mba of J ~JbJI not ttl ..:<.'n1prehcnd th.ll i\lol.1rl.., mu'K v.a., a m.l-.ta-
ntc . . • . d ~t h ·I l ' II . l I ·nor
\\\ lrk. ' \c~ordmg to the mcmmrs o t f\ lozar t ... tncn •• u.: at: ..,c \, c
"h~l ,ang the f'Jrt of non C ur1io. the .wdt~:n~.c encored "'' ·en tlung. l~:admg
the ~mperor to place a bl.m kct b.m on rcpcatmg eml.'mblt:.... 1 h~: o pcr.1 ' ' :' "
performed m Prague m Dc~.cmhcr of 1"'86••10d there 1t \\ J <; .tn u n Jlk" n l
uc c". ~ loz.trt proudl} reported to hts tncnd B.tro n Gottlncd \ On J.t~qutn
thJt " here they talk about nothing but ' fig.tro'. othmg '' pl.twd. '\Uil~ or
whbtled but 'Figaro'. 'othing b dr,,,, mg like ' h g.tro'. Nothmg. n o thtnb
but Tigaro·:··~ And indeed , Prague did eem p.utk ula rl) fa, orablc tO\\.H~.,
Mozart' m u ic: PJ~qu;tle Rondi n i, tht' tmprt: J rtO ''ho put o n fls_•l~<l .m
Prague commi ~ioned Doll GIOVtllmi for the nc'\t '~a r, .md lttckmt"tlZtl d1 Tlt(l
wa .1l o wn tten for that Cit).
A ''a the cu:)tom a t the time. dome,tt\..tlh perfo rm.tbll! .1r r.1n~emcnh
from the operJ began to appcJr qu ite ' oon ,liter 1ts p rcmiet c . •m d pafMm
ance:> ab road beg.tn wtth .1 much .H.I.tpted H'r~ton lor to. \on7.l in l o mb.trdv in
1787, a Pan production in 1 ~9 .\ , .1nd thc lir't F'-'rto rm.HKe in London in
18 12, though :)Otnc ot the mu'i.. ,, .1~ J lrl',tdv \..no\\ n t hen~ Irom h mg intap o
!.ned tnt~\ other tlpera~. In \ H.'nn,t. th~: " ork \\ J -. t l'\'1\ Cd in I ~tN. '"'th J
dtff rent ~a,t , .md not.thh wllh \dn.m.\ fcr r.tr"'~l' d d lkne ( th~: fir't
'"\'enite mgmocchtat~:vi'' .\IH.l " Dch 'H.'nt 11011 t.1rd.u" '' ith must\. b e tte r 'u itc.:J
t O f,rrare<,c':) \ irtUO'>I( '>lll~ing. if not Ill l)Ur ' l'n' e llf thl..' ,lr.ml.l 1 hi~ ft.' \ 1\'3)
ran for 29 perform.m"~:' until FebruJn l"'l) \ ••m ...i l)\ crbpp~:d wtth tht'
premiere product to n ot ( ·o~' t;w tuttt·. \ tume~c dtJn:.t t ount Zi n i'l'n<.kHf
reported t\\ 1cc thJt he l'lllO\eJ the lett\: r d uet. -.u n~ h ' l crrJtol.' .mJ C.lt~·rin 1
~U\'Jlieri, a nd thJt he enJi.\) cJ \ t.1tbmc rcrr.t e, :\ Rondo \" \I dc-.io J1 ~h •
t adora" ("'[\.) the dc~irc ,,f the <'n~· "h,l a"\or" ~ n m'' th"· ' trtlllhll Jrt.l thJt
replaced " Dch vi1:ni, no n t 1rd.u"l.l9 This -.u~gc~t' th.lt his pk.l, lllC \ltk~: th,\1
 U M07..AR1 A:\D UPI RA BLFft\
of opera goer~ through the nges) '' as .•lS much in the <.inging · ·h
as m \\ at we
mrgh t thrnl.. of as the integritv or con J\tency of the drama.
Although tht: opera wa~ performed steadih·• throughout tL" ·
lh. nllleteenth
century, 1t \\a~ not ne:~rlr :ts popubr J) Don Giomnm • ,, hose dramat rc m usr~.
nnd 'upernatur<tl content appeale~ to Roman tiL sensib1ht1es. :\ot only wa~ 11
nlll performed as often as Don Gwl·amu, but un~urpnsingh) It also exerted
le:.s inteUectual tnterc t and fe,, er parod1e~ and spin off,. Ne,erthebs, alter-
atiom and addu ions were rife. orne English re' Jews from the earlv mne-
teenth centurv tell u , for example, that Cherubmo's "\ '01 che ~apete," was
routinely sung b' usanna, 1 whrle Henry B1shop's \'Cr 10n for London m 1819
gave that aria to the Cou ntess, made the Count a ~peaking part, added a char-
acter fro m RoNnr ' Barber ofSnJI/e, and radicallv diminished the amount of
ensemble mu ic in the opera. • One of the mtcrt>~trng aspects of nineteenth-
ctntury reception was a gradual change from thrnkmg of Susanna as the matn
role to emph~iting the Countess. In an 1823 i'>'>Ue of The Harmomcon, for
example, the re ponse to the first appearance of \1iss Lour~a Dance on the
London stage as usanna was: '"1o appear rn thrs cha racter wa~ ... to
announce her mtenuon of occupying the first vocal place m the theater."31
And a Viennese magazine m 1818 simp!) called this role "the mam part."\4 A5
a coroUan to this, a review in an 1826 1ssuc of a music journal m Berhn
praised the "lightness" of the Countess·~ role as sung br Madame 1mke. '
Later in the mnett:ent h centurv and certawlv well rnto the twenttcth, and in
many quarters aU the \\ J \ up t~ the pre,ent day, the fo<..Us shifted to the trials
and character of the Counte!>.S. For example, Henry C. lunn, re\iewmg the
1866 opera $e3~on m London, wrote of a Mlle. Tietens, \\'ho plawd the
Countess, "Who could more exquisitclr deliHr the quiet and melodious musrc
of Mozart; ~·ho could more eloquently reveal the patient suffenng of the
jealous but resigned " 1fe of the libertine U>unt?""'
·
The nineteenth- and early twentieth-Lentury rc\ Je\.\·s o f t h e 77Je \111mnr;t· •
,if
· f the ft'1'
Frgaro are not nearh a:. mtert~ting as tho.,e of Don Gro1'clnlll or ~ ...
. 1 . d' atJOn to ve
~rformances of Cosr: in the latter case there wa~ mora '" rgn b dI . ' .
vtnted. and in the former the Don Juan mrth was alway.:. at an
h d to ela u·
( an ~\e. It ISobnously about power "wllhm" the plot .•1-. tt \\ere that is the
. • . . fl ·nuaJ JS tho~e 0
rate the commentary. Frgaro has no mterpretauon~ a:. m Ut: . 3
E.. T. A. Hoffman n and Soren Kierke...aard for /Jon G11mmm. RJther' II '' . }
o . . of dramatiC
typicaJly deS\:ribed as a mastc1pie<:e of mu:.iral and :.omett~no .· hout
'I h ·rtormen \\It
construction, and review~ then typically dt::.cn lC t e pc 'J"h ·s~ue
. I h a - ter~ et.
much comrnentan about the mt>anrng or qu1ht} ot t 1e c Jr ' .. · . ,JJCJ·
•L- · • • •
ulilt has penodu:all> rattled .1t tht~ operas c.1ge c.oncerm m r
• nolttJCJ1Jnll
r J
. . 111 1786 re•erre 10
hom. The first commentator, for the \ u:nna Rca/ulfllllg ' .. h mJ\'
· that '' J 1 ·
Joseph Il's banning performance of the ~poken play by notJng ,- til. rlar
. · 1 ntcnt o c •
not be said can yet be sung," sugg~l t ng that the poI1IKJ co
TilE .\f.~RRIAGE Of f.JG,\RO 139
wJS till quite present in the opera.r After the rmmed i~te penod of the opera·~
· · ho\v·e,•er• the politic.1l context seem to h.wc thed away, .md the work
ongtn,
·ed sunply as J comedy. The renowned compo cr and conductor
WJ pla> . '
Gustav Mahler conducted (and apparently drrected ) the work Jt the \ 1enna
Opera ill 1906, and thrs performance wa c'·.idently not only stell.1r wt th
respect to it musical qualities, but also, as a re' tewer later noted. ne\vly poftr-
ical. "With Mahler Tile Marriage of Figaro was a soc~aJ drJma, .1 forchod mg of
the French Revolution in the combat of the h umble sen ant agam t their aril>-
tocratic lords; and beside , he made it a dram.1 of strong h um.m pas. ion ."
This kind of political engagement with the content did no t rcallr become
normal again until the 1960s.J9 ince then the broader context of the relations
between the characters has been quite routinely exammeJ or i> ugg~ted tn
performance. Other recent interpretation md ude icholas Till's rehgiouJ)-
tinged reading, and Wyc Al lan brook'i~ thoroughgomg interpretation of the
work as a pastoral, neit her of which seem to have found their ,.,ay in to
mainstream productions de pite their intellectual and hi torical appe.tl. •tJ
Men, wom en, clnss nnd power itt Figaro
De pile the origrnal re\'iewcr's comments about '>mging and speaking, and
pace Mahler's reading, "l he Mamngt: of Flgclro b not tn the nJrrov. 'Cil'it' a
polit iLal opera - that b, it "' not a ,., ork that suggests the "revolut1on 111
acti~n," as Bea umJrcllJI~\ play h a~ been de~cnbed. Comparr~on with other
com" operas on the Vicnne c stage !luggcsh no greater d."~ tcnston between
the character~, and nO greater bolclnC'>S On r igaro's part than La ll be found in
most comrc opera~ 111YOh rng master~ J nd sen·ant . ( r1garo's most llH.cndiary
speech rn t~e Beaumarc.hats pia~ \\a~ om1ttcd Ill the opera.) \'e\erthele.,s, it
most certatnly is a work about the exercise of power, and I!> rn that en'e
~ofoundl) polnic.1l. ben in Da Ponte':. adapt.Hion the opera L.lnnot J\oid
H ~ abou~ the power of privtlegc: b.t~ed both o n rank. and on gender.
10
0 '' e\ er 11 1!. also about th
e power o t. su 11·enng
•
and the power., of fnend'hlp
capactt) of some ch -'
of th th ~rac ters to w mpel the attention anJ L'hn the beh;l\ ior
chara:t~ er:. -h but II IS also about the kind~ of powtr that a ''ork and ih
rs c.lll a\ e over the audience.
1 he most ob>w 1 rI
ftgure the b I us y power u character I!> the lount. He i~ ·' king-like
3
' so ute ruler of hrs lrttl, J h h
wa>·, hk.e th I hi c omJm, w IL Is LOntigurtd tn manv
seun to be ~ llg > stratified l<~rger ~ociet} of whrch rt I) a part. His inferior~
. etonom~c.ally dependent up h . h. h .
as hrs proposed b on rm, c as connection., to roY~llt\,
h am as~aJona l trrp to Lo d h · ·
t e rntlrtarv as h d n on 'uggc~b; e ha~ c..onncction~ to
.' ts :.pee . production of a commr-.,ion for Chcrubmo ho~· ,;
 140 ~IP 7..A R I AI\' !I 01'1 RA IHJI I A
fH/; MARRIA GE O F FfG,1RO 141

he h.t, 'nmt: judidal authority, a~ ,hown b)' hi~ c lptcitv 1 1 1·

· • • 1 o ega 17C marriage . J J"t and gener.tlly underfoot when the aunt feels the need for space. The
.md he c"en h,ts M.'xual powt•r O\ ~.r the women in Jw; 1111 All b ' 1
,e y, ,' . .· "Vcdro me ntr'io 0 piro" (" hall I ee, while I languish")
. . ' nor. ut the last Count s maJor ,IJ itl, . d
kmd of powt•r Jtturatdy refleLt the kmd of authorit} ext' rci ed b 1 d
· f. . l 1 · . . Y an cd ans- is of course.~ rage ,Jri,t, but because the Count is .1 ba (a_' ore~ typ~ em~loye
tol.7r.1l<> tn a ~:uun . I>O(It'ty; 11 1~ not
. de.tr that the ,e,ual drot't r111 sezg,rur · ever primarily in comic opera) ,111d becau~e the .ari.1 ends w1th h1s de!J~ht 11~ th.e
ex1~tt:d, and l'\1.'n d 1t h.td been 111 exi tenLe 111 the t..1 1ddlc Age• ·t ide,1 of revenge, just like a b.tsso buffo ana would (a nd !3::Jrtolo h.ts), ll
. . ·'• I was not an
offie~al fMll of c1ghtecnth centurv feud.Jlism. Ne' erthdes., it wtts no doubt the reinforces the idea tha t he is a character who can in fact be dl'fcated.
L·"C tha~ lord~ of the ~1anor (Ould and did e\erCJse ~e,u.tl pri' ilcge over the Within the d ram a, it is the Count's action - his philandering- th.1t sets the
women m thu r domam, beGtu~e. at ll'.tl>l in rural jurisdiLtion , tho~e women plot in motion: without him there wou ld be no story. With i~ the world of t~c
had no recourse other than the very person who had abu~ed them. For plot once it has been et in motion. he exercise power untd the end, but tn
lkaumaflh.ti , however, thi device w.t ,1 compt.>lling metaphor for the kind of th e auditorium, beyond the fourth wall. the audience knows early on th.lt
untrJmmeled and in trU!>IW power ch.tr.Jctenstic of the aristocracy. The he has less command o er the other charauers' fate than they them clve
anim.Jttng energy o f th,, play also come-. from the circumst,mce thJt figaro may feel.
him~df ft!eh thJt he ha~ the right to re'>i!.t the Count's ad\ances on his beloved It is precisely the oppo ite wi th the ountcss., he cxer i e~ a largely rc.Ktivc
without lear of dl'l)ilita ti ng p u ni~hmcnt. A" the audience knows from The role in the second act (the fir t in which she appears), and it is not until she
.811rbcr of .St'l•il/c, before hl' start ed to \\Ork for the Count, hgaro had managed decides to rely on her knowledge of her own unimpeachable tiddity th.Jt she
to ~am a living as a bt~rber after running aw,w from a variety of debts, including can act on her own behalf; within the dr.mta, her trajectory rise JU t .1~ th~
those Jl ruing from a failed opera. He h.ts J"·ed . . uccessfull y by his wits and Cou nt 's begin to fal l. Within the world of the plot she ewr ise~ ver} little
could do so ag.tin if nel.C'>'> J r). The extremity of the Count's incursion on power; he has little temporal authority O\cr the other member of the hou~e
Figaro's rights, then, can be seen .1 ~ a readion to r1gJro's potential independ· hold, and to the extent th::tt the other charaLters act with her in mind, they .Jet
~nee, and this anxiety about the sclf-c.:letermmat ion and JO(.re~ing authority of out of S)'m pathy rn thcr than fear. But in the Juditorium, to the audicn l' (,It
tho~ above serfdom hut bdow th e nri~tocr.K} Ll'ftJinly reflects the political le.tst in modern time ·), the Countes ·'; power is unparalleled; ~he is thl' one ''ho
situation in much of Europe towa rd ~ the end of the e1ghreenth cen tury. literally stops the show with "Porgi <Hnor," and "'ho pnwide-. the literal coup
The.• Count, then, is a figure whose powa i., felt by weigh t of trndition I~ be de gr.ncc at.the end by agreeing to pardon the Count for his tramgre" ions.
enormous and whose primary goal in the opcr.1 ~~ a rc,tl threa t to propnel) It IS obv1ous that the Count\ po,,er is rooted 111 hi-. r.mk .tnd 8l'JHh:r- he
and to the autonomy of orh<·rs un der hi~ authority not only to FigJro and
rules· hi, dom::t' d · · k' 1 ·
• 111, an exeru'>cs · tn~ '>of power un,l\',til,lblc to women Juring
.
thi~ period · It i!> equal! • Yo bVIOL!\ · t11.1t t 11e •ounte:>'>., • power,.,
. deeply connellcd
Susanna, but also to his wife. At the ~a me time, how~. wr, he also occupie: a
to her 1 'lllk an 1 1 .
• l gem er, w 1.11 m.1y
1 b . . lh.tt her kind
e 1t·s~ llltllltl\·ely dear ,..,
poiition in the plot lOmparable to thJt which Dr. Bartolo held in The Bane;
. h . th . fulfillmenl o of power wa~ t h ' • l 0 f. 1 .
oj Sev1/k, namely, the paternal figu re who block'> t c wa} 10 c db his T/ , M . _c rou r c lange m the wnceptlon of the .1rbto~.:r.1tiL \\life.
young love, and whu is undon{' both bv the ~chemmg of the lovers an ol~ as
It arnnge of. Ficr ,,1 ro IS rc 1.lt1ve
1 · · 1y urHt'>U,J I .mwng bufLt opcr.l'> in mdudinl'
an aIrc,td} m lrrit: I . . I . c>
own pndc, lust, or simplt> stllpH.IJt y. This plot type rs e~~w ualflv as lovers gmrc, . '
In ~ell Ill''
( .lrl'>tm.r.ttJC ~.:oup c; 1t " also rel.tt l\cl) lmu..,u.tl 111 tlw;
' th ' , . .
. . • ( nO tWO C'l u~
comedy 1tsdf, and a~ soon as the basiL ch,tr.tcter L"nnJigurJ 1.0 k ·~ thJI )'l'•Jrs mto.
the marriJv • h ,
c cxptt!Jtlon that th,Jt m.uncd CtHlpk will St.'H'ral
· 1 '
J h JJence no" · lha b . . , , c-c, c unltet pnm.ull> bv hond. of .tftcctlon r.tther
and one bumbling fathl'r/wJrd/undc h anJwunLeu, t l' ,JU cJ·ousl)'• . 11 y l011VCI11ence, dyn.t~t i bJ' . ·[ . . .
• 1 or ungra an\to . t' . (. o tga tJOn, ot l .l~s ">Oitd.mty. Unlike m.uw
young love wdJ triumph and the fa ther figure ,..,,11, grat: I OU~ >. . of cour~e. .
cr.t lc women Ill opcr I l fl h (, .
accede to their wishes at the t'nd. The Count '!> major lnJJlllllJtJOn ' ly Jl rhe
15
overwecn. ' . , I ' m a, t e oun~~.:,.., e:xpre"e" .llmo-.t l1tl pride or
havmg to ask, first Ill the !'>n.ond J(.t lllltlk, Jn I lt:fl, n 10 . J rivJro~l
. . . J 1 . ~t famous , ntomcntl :.~~~ JC.tlou~r· I Icr tommt•n l bdorc ht•r sc('ond ari,t ' Dove '>ono i hl'i
, .. - ~~~~anz~<t ~a n o . ' 1.\l s 1e IS .hhaml'd m I d h
very end of the opera, for hi~ wife s (and nnp 1Jut 1Y1or • , h hJpP> ned· Ill order to .111 l -k ' • l .111110) e to a\·c to pret~.·nJ to be .t sen ,lfl t
"' l.tc her hu-.band i 1 , 1 .
forgiveness. But he is also thwarted by ~u.,,mnJ') dcvernl';'>, h) e . tenth' b)'
1
propte as '>he , ' t "1·1 . , .., .ts c O'>c tot ll' ll!>ll.ll .trhtou.ttJC amour
dent th.at Figaro cannot marrv MJ rtdlmJ, .mu 1110 •
.J ~ 1 pcrsl'>
. dt'~igns opciJ bufh 1 gct '· .1c undt•rl'-Jno I
· ·
t> .!'>'>lllllpttOn Wtth n.''Pt'Lt to th norm tl
· 1 • <.. ou nt 11as · ' 'ns <>i.ratl( <.ounlc i'> tl t J 1 h 1
1,\ ,t t H>ug t 1l'Jr rhctont '-Oiltl'lll'> lfti.·c~
'
Cherubmo, who manages to be w1th B.trlwm.t "hen 1 1( • n 11 •1lh' gel)
lion and fidd 1't . r
y, tt would m f.t t 1 , It l '
. "Su~nna" (a,tually the Lountt' s~) WJICI ~ • l thl' Cl>Uil 1 . fj Nl tner:.hip t:o t I r L )C u-.u,t OJ loth fll\.'lllbcr'> ot .tn Jfl'>tou It it
upon her, wuh ,, 1., 0 ( 1n •·
n r.tcte' 10 r r ·a - •
c nt ~u.,pc-. ~ '>llll'> o 1 '>t.ttc, nwnc\, . or ~- tltk t
bit rendnvous with her, with the< ,ounw.s. who Ill the ou • , o " t ra\ ; t I1<:
 1\T t\!\D )I .ERA Bl FF
0 l:C

\ i..-nnc e ,u.. Jl c~..,mm ·nt ..nor Joh.mn Pazl. for eumnl~ noted th . , usJnnJ':. l ower i mor' co nr.Un~d '' irhin th~ \\ Mid (,f th' 'o t. h
I t ' J( <1 CICISb o
or~ .mt .:1 J nt,nnJ.l J(~..outr... ment tor Jn Jri tocrJti~.. ,, 011un
Countl's.,·s. ,\.lthough it is the 'ounr'· initi.1l J ·ttun in pur m ~- u J thJt
,
T~~ l' untc: -.. hO\ Y r. n~ t1..1 behc\c in \t' r c:\.p ·
·tqh•
•
·" . t b 1It'\
._ vUO tO get· the> 1ot ·t,u t d , and thl' hq;n·en ~ · of th ' 'ount " thJt 1.11 • the
1
m th m rt-mg ~t'Ur£Nl' nono~ oi t'idcltt.- r~..-g.trdk· ... of r,mk. Tht· i· not ; ction up, in b 't" t'cn , 1t i :u~nn.t " ht) pro,idt: the.' • hut-tt'r''l 't .1 d
<tlh'£~fh ·r ... urprt-.1112.· me h r on gin::- a::- Ro ·i1u m Tht· B.1rba of, cl'illt• Jf\> cncrgv to grease the hinge:. of the ,tCtion. : he di.gui.:,·· Chei.tbir~). ' h
le . cl '.tted than tho::-e of Count Alma\ l \ .1. "ho pur ue:-. .tnd wm : her in that out of the d o ·et to con t~und th~ Count J.nd ·~~~n ·rat~ the ·o~ntl."
pl.l\. Tht bourge1..lb , n ibili~ en.:ourJge th' parti~.. ul.u- l-ind of power he agree to me<?t the ount in tht• g.trden. and in tb' ·nd ~h~ r t J pr:n ··
t')..er h:~ m tht> .mdltorium. -ht! i .1 quintc. ·entiill "~cnttmcntal herom •.·· Figaro' lo,·c b} ·ccming to ' eren.u.le the Count. E\t'n thing ~h' o . m the
a typ of chJrJcter quite f.1miliar in opera buffJ. 'ud1 chJ.r.lC'ters \erv ofte'n plot " ork ; he i. the h 1r of ~l?nerJ.ti~.m. of Jr "f\ tng girls '' ho tn,:! .u J
belit•' e them~ h to be ~hephcrde.: ·c.,, gJrdencr-);irls. or of comparabl~ tlllter their w.1y to uccc .... It i enrirdv normJ..I in op...·r,t buffJ tor:- •n l''g ~·rl
preth p:tswral ongm:.; in fa~..'t the) u u.1lh turn out. .1fter m.tm· triJl~ and to a t while their " bt·rter "reflect; wh,\t IS ditlt•r ·nt thou~h 1wt um~u • Jh..l 1t
tribul.ttw~ induding b ing importuned. thr ·,ltened .md .tb.tndo~L-d b,• men uSJnna i that she i not inter . ted m outwittim.. h r anta...·on "..t~ to rurr' o1
nf htgher rank. to be of J ~t.1tion appropriat for mJrn,lgt' to thJ.t man. and ri h man or gain ociaJ :.t.ttu:. ~he ~imph ' ' .1nt:-. to mJ.rn h ·r t-,•lt)\ • but
e-.~1bmg turns out happily. In the memtim • ho"e'er. the) ha,· presented need to ll e the r Oll r ·e · of h ·r l..ind to do so. It i' ht..m 'h'r. 'ntm~h t\ f -:u
them d\ to th audJen ·e Ji both "unpretentiou ' and po..:~e·,ed of an of the genre that her .l tion' (,111 onh· take pb.. . within th' fr.lffit'\\ ), ~~ ur
unusual cal acttv fo r ~ ling. The,· 'en often .mg cJ.ntabik ari alone on bv her oci ,tl uperiors.
tage, and hk the Count ' ~Porgi A.mor,~ tho e .1ria · are quite often not Figaro'· power with in th • dr.mu is more lik · :u~.tmu's th.ul lt · th ...
introduced by re~itati\e The chara...-ter Joe not e\pbin or act before she Count's: he .1 ts and r .1 ·ts wirhin tht' fr,un •work. :. t ul~ r,, hi:- s ·tJ..I ~t·P •
sing ; rather, mu.ic.1l introspecoo n ~.: m to be her ..def.mlt'' mode. uch arias riors. Bur unlik • . . usan n.1. he is r •IJth ·lv ineft( tuJ.I '' ithin th pi~. r. lk ,. fuU
oftm give the audience the sen that the\ are "overheJring'' .1 thought prOt' · of idea .md quick on hi ti.· t, hut not one of his ~U~t . h1..ltl' " ,t ...·tuJ..I[~ u... t,-d
rather lhan being addressed djredly inde~.-d, the Count : m ~Porgi Amor" i upon. In 0me respen. hl' i: mon: lil..~ th • Count~ -" th,m ltl...: ~u •.l m.t 1. r th'
quite expliatly ad~ing Cup1d . .1nd just J~ the a\erted gaze of _mam Count, in th..1t his l owt'r is l..1~ ·h t>\t:rl.'i$~..·J m the .1..:-t 1., p ·r t~H lll..l 1... •. J;'
painted or photographed nud s allo'' ·the pe tJ.tor to look at the bodieS on e ·.1mple, in ··~· vuul bJ.lJap" "It vou ,,,mt hl JJn<. •") lw n.h.!' l ,,tl) .lf"
t . .
display without mhibition, o the unmed1at d mteriority of the e ~na oa,tt~c mmuet .md .1 lo\\ t'r·da ~ l'l~ntrt~Jn~t'; th •, · d.m~ · h\ tl\ n . u,_'' • t
encourages tM audience freely to ea\ <.d rop on the plight of the e herome~. fir t hts a· umpti0n of th · c~..,unt's dt•me..m~mr ll11..lr~l ·r tt' ,\,ld 1·m ~,. h :-
~ po~ ~ might seem to ~ with the audienu~. but in performance. thhe 0~''11 le\ d , ..md tht•n tht• nwre comt~)r£,lhll' mn~ · of l<.ut n t l,tt , ·u .tl ,, ,
....t..lh. h . t'on
1 ' and t e Figaro : ch me JnJ trtt l.. to hnn~ th <..\lunt dtH\ n. \n I 1' ,,, p ,1 .11dr-.\i'
sanger -.uuu 1 and completely compd .md LOntrols t c1r atten
singer/charactn turns her vulneubilitY mto power unique in the opera. he pe~torm .t ditz,·ing li:.t ot o.h.tng -~ thJt Cht•rubirh' '' II h.l\ "' u J ~
"t"L - • h re ~,)Oance:. m to be m th e mt1·tt,ln. But unltl-e th' l\,unt · ,·. Jri.l , 1~ •, • n,1 1.' I ~J ". . ...
'uc power of observed \"ulnerabilJty or <>ufknng J~ ... twng
1"'1.....:-~-- . . ~... I Th Count ~~ 10 .. addfi '>s d t '-' o th l'r ch .\r,h·ter-.., '' h •th~..·r ~~r ' 'tlt '-'f ..1t-~ ''t .mJ th · • , ...
arc
'-"~~ culture, tM cruofu bemg the ob' 1ou svmt•O e .
· :~f torgl\·en · ntro,
rath t'rt h Jh tiltIS·t 1,\t
. L.. I
' llt•ll' h tn t1' 1'\t \d.m ·..::-, t·.th ·....,miht.tr\ ll ,,,
many w ys a Christian figure particularlv in her dt prn~atwn t • .
"'- - dB . • L A d '. _: h. ,. ·' t nnrwJ~aborc!\:u
er" t an. pro\ i(lin> 1..
!! .t mort' .ll•..,tr,Jd .llm'"Ph 11~.. .h. ·,)mp.ltHilll'llt. l' , · \,U
a we en . ut m u1e worl ot opera burt<! t ~'' t..Jllu o pt
t · not anJ, Apnte un • 1 ..
u• . Pll qut·g I o ... , h1, 1' ,1 iJr · '\1 h.' th m ·n m th .1 1 ,· , , , •
li.arlY tCaemale, and, 1mportantly,
.
a markt: r ol. r.m k·. -~cf\ Jn t C'drh· were • , .,
110,1 lng the ttmt>·honour~.>J l.. t'tnl-. nl,,, (lt "hr ·,t I :- h l"
·~-.....!-~ oL- 'bi}' . h . b . .
MA.Vlucu u.c saua ttv ot t etr t>tter : If 1-. no acu t
d nt that whenh• tJ nJ tll. to e\po • th • r m... t ' · tl'lll t ' <II 1 t .: ~ ..•...• ...•
• • •• t t l" , c e ,trllflcr ot th • l'(~..,hion
Mp her rawishing lo\-r song to Fig:tro, · Dch '1e01 non l•trJ.t r, J ·h Jl trr~, l heruhino\ i> ,, • J tt
~:U...- &. I rJ l' otht•r '- ar. unu It' . l Hr I I l'ft'nt lnl'll th.lt t't ,l'l\ '' h ·r .. lur.t~..·t ·r u 1 }tnt.
• T-'"' aor nampk. it is couched 3..) a tru.k, '" o'er w.1 ) r r(k ~ua or llp 'r I 1-- it ll '
._...~
uau" part and parctl of the imbroglto. Tht: ounte,., art- a
' . 15 . re ol cnur~
·tl'n,ll•'
k1nu 1
• , . ~ ' u ·'· ts n.Hlll' m '.lll'> 'httk , rub." nd h · ~~ , I, .ui
o Cupid h~url' r. • . .~ h
oL- h • •r tharJt out of l . t prnt'ntm~. Jt lll.lt t I~''' ..:r t..' Ill.\ ,. l 'll... t.tU m nd
vant to ullt' plot, but he-r particular po" Lr lit.•, 111 er mnt f - oth· O\ l', ,Jt k.N th • f
.~.._ ol..-- • h lth ~ten• ll•1 ht ha, 10 . . • l ll ~ ruptl\l' l''''hf tH I th l'hi 1 .. I .u fn'Ol Ill' u , l
rauiiCI" uJAH m her actiOn , and it i., th rough ha .lflJ' - t • ' r. 11\l,ltu.tkd ' ' ith t 1ll lt1 Unt "'· h.....tl tl phn '"uh lt1rl nn.1 .11 ,i
sbliloquia - that ~ are made to h: I that p O\\ er.
 144 MOZAR'I A D OPERA B HA
D O N GIOVANNI 145

fl trt h amelc ly with " u a nna" in the Ia t fi nale. Indeed the only .
. . • woman m
t h e plot Wi th whom h e do not d ally t Mar ell ina. But he is also the Count'
"advan e hado\ ," o to p eak , alread y there whenever the ou nt is about t~
SYNOP I ~ where Lep o rello complains about ~ihs
on Giova nni appea r Jn so~e
. · arden, t m g · tumult, w1t
The opera begm ll1 a gAn an . keeping
indulge in hi own intere t . ther tha n being in the way, Cherubino doe not
vant Do nn a na . and D on Gwvanm..;..•-:...,0-!'-- -
have ,. ry much e ffect on the pr gre of the narra tive, particularly ince Da lor as a se.r to. prevent G iovanni from escapmg d ato re w h o challenges his
Anna tryrng ·se brings out the Commen ' ld man Don
Ponte cu t fro m the Bea urna rcha i p lay th ountes ' expli it att raction to
him . But he d oe h ave a k ind of m th I gical power on a more ab tract level
!!,s faceh,idden.kTh~ n~Jduel. After initially refusing to .fight a~ o d Lep~rello
daughter s attac er o d kills him. Don G w vanm a n . .
within th p lot, a nd in the audito rium he i a perpetuaJ indication that the Giovanni takes the challenge an aster for the murde r and Do n Gwvanm
be t l.1id plan are ubje ct to d i ru pt ion . escape afte r the serva nt beratesh the .rnl.en ce Don Ottavio, for who m Anna had
th reatens his servant WI.
·th furt er v w · -
h h rro r story and promiSeS' ms Supper
f
~staken Giova nn~ ar~Jves, ~ ea:s t e o .

Gtova~mr o
. •
. II d . oluto pun ito (Don Giovanni, or the Rake P11nished) and love to hiS fia ncee 111 het gn ef. h rage to tell Don Giovanm
Don ta .
rss Lo renzo Da Ponte, ba ed on Don Giovanni , d Leporello p lucks up t e cou .
Dramma giO o o. ~Jbretto by . al T h ater 29 October 1787: Vienna, On a street at awn, . . k en kind! . Just then , Don G iovanm senses
by G iovanni BertatJ. Pragu e, atwn e ' that he's a sco und rel, whtch IS no t ta . al I . b o n na Elvira raging agains t Don
Burgtheater, 7 Ma 178 · a woman and hides to watch her arnv ·l.t ~ h ·dentJ.ty ,Don Giovanni step s
....., ~ d t f her ot rea IZln g er I ,
::7~:":~::~:~a~s7::'ce~ but tl,ey ace both thunderstmck asthey re~;;;o:~~
CHARACTERS . each other. Don Giovanni m akes his escap e by leavi~g Leporello toout Don
. extrem el y Jicen t1ous Bass things over which he tr ies to do by telling Donn a Elvira the truth ab b d
Giovanni's , literally thousands of conquests, m ade a.ll o~er the glo e an
. anni ' )·oung cavaher,
Don G JO\ . ed Soprano
Donna Anna. lady, promis to Tenor recorded in a book that Leporello carrie everywhere With h1m. .
Don Ottavio Anna's father] Bass -The nex t scene shows a chorus o f peasants celebra ting the w eddmg o f
The Commendatore {Donna abandoned by k_lina and Ma etto. Don Giovanni a nd Le porello come upon the~: bon
Donna Elvira, la~r from Burgos, Soprano Giovan ni's interest i'Sinstan tly p iqued:,.berlina in pa rticula r ca tc hes h 1s at~en-
. nm Bass tion . He tells Lepo rello to offer all kinds of goodie to the p easan ts, esp ectally
Don G wva ·• servant
Masetto, so that he (G iovanni) can manage a little time with Zerlina. h e i a t
Lepore Ito' D on Giovanm s Bass
oprano fi rst uspicious of the nobleman's inte rest in her, and M asetto i particularly
Masetto, lover of .
aggressive about his own suspicions. The separa tion o f the n t couple is
Zerli na, Peasant gtrl effected, and D.un Giovanni sed uce Zerlina into agreein g to betroth in hi
"little cottage:: Just as t hey are about to d epart, Do nna Elvira rus e in to te ll
I p onna Anna at Zerlina to run away. G iovanni trie to p ass Elv ira off a insane, but Elvira
· vanni, who assau ts nd tries to rape
S
UM
MARY
h exploits of Don GJO . the aftermath. a na Elvira. a~ .g!:,e v£s and lead - Zerlina away. Don O ttavio and Donna Anna arrive to a 'k
T he plot turns on t e kills her father ~n h form of Don revent Ius Don Giovan ni's help, as a noblem an , in id entifying and punishing the
· fthe opera, e tn t e · and 10 P d ter· murderer o f her fat her. Once again, Donna Elvira arrive an d tart to berate
the beginmng o t Vengeance com Don Giovanm Ottavio. e n
Zerlina in the first:~~termined farhe~r:ge
to rcfor:nd her fia nce o :na's
Don Giovan ni while the noble couple co m ment in a ton i hment. t th e end
6
earlier conques~ :Oomen, of Donn~.An;;tually, of Do~~~e opera and
the quar.tet exp res ing this contretemps, Don Giovann i again trie to bru h
onna Elvira off a · h. · D · h. · f
further ab~ o him to justice, an
th . s tnsane: t Is t1me anna Anna recogmze 1s , .o1ce rom
e ost at the end o
mined to bnng who appears as a gh ened ured·
nJght she
before,
d anddfor hthe fi r t time tells Don Ottavio about the attack he
that d ' eman s t at Don Ottavio exact reveng . Don Ottavio t.lte
c~mpels
Commendatore,
Giovanm· to Hell. of l111nd d himcisto avenge h er. (Vienna 1788: Don Otta' io add that his
peace uty
epen on hers.] Leporello and Don Gio anni reappear, the
 146 MOZ RT A:-1D tlPEI\A HUFF.'\

[)0.\' GIOVANNI 147

former dt.·.,cribing hi .lttempt _ .., 1 d'
. " JStra tmg ~1 - ,
quent arm·al with Donnd Elvira dJ t a ctto and Zerltna' b · They are a tonishcd and not pleased to di cover LeporeUo'
. J'i rous, and the 1 u . . u 'e- tJ rt to Jtta k h1111 • 1 1 'th D
ar gomg fine· h will organite l c"l ~t . a cr In Jsting that thin · H b g for mercy and [Prague 17 7 on y: eave ".., onna
d . • '- t: >ration, get the g rrue tden ut y. e 11 '} h
ancmg, and tak
I .
z rima dunng the conf
U\1011.
pc.l Jllb drunk and ·
nnaJ. I tenna 1788 onf)': the re maining characters berate Lepore o unu e
. . . ..
n .a gard n With two locked door~. Zcrlm.t molllfic . D n Ottavio announce that it i now certatn that Don Gto\anm ts
nothmg happ n d between h r and D G' 1asetto by :wing that
rs ape · o 1[Pr 1- -
the killer and attacker, and that it is time for vengeance. . ague 1 1 on y.
1·
·u·
WJ mg to be puni hed for her tra' inll D
. on ri0\.Jl1nl ) d
G' ' • n pretending to be h asks the a em bled ompany to go and tell Anna that he IS about. to _avenge
ha l)~n. and tans to orgunize the ; co· on I0\.,111111 arr· fi
her.) [Vienna 1788 only: Zerlina continue to ab~ e L~porello, thiS ume ~y
p.trt b on., ' . 1\C .iller the fmale
Zerlina from ~fa,etto Don Ott 1 [) ) \.t: ag.un lr\lng to cparate having him , ith no oap. Ma etto and Donna Elv1ra arm·e: he ha been frutt-
• • \ IO, onna Ann 1 d D
de 1ded to gatccrao;h the p 'ft\' d. . d . ' an onna El\'ira hare 1 - 1. cha ing someone he thought \\Ia Don Giovanni (or Leporello). Donna
1 gtuse m ma k d
•
CllO\'JnnJ \\ith hi in L"po ·II . .
..

· . . n: o mnte them
r.
~. an to conH'Ont Don
d fl
Elvi:., i left alone to contemplate her angui hed feelings. }
1-h."a\en's protec.. tion, th ' enter. Ill, an a ter a prayer for In a emetery at night again, Leporello and Don Giovanni meet and carch
up; the D n describes the latest conque t. Leporello i beginning ro ee it fr~m
Ja::: at ne chang~ to J large Illuminated ballroom \\ith mulriple dane
p d·. g... ?n e: 4 mum t for the noble , a contredansc for the middle ranh
an ther perspe ti\·e: what if one of Don Giovanni' women w-a hi own wife?
an a Ten~Lh ~ G • Thi makes Don Giovanni laugh until the statue of the Commendatore \very
. . or erman dance. for the pea ..1nt.. Jn thi mel Don quickly erected, and with a ,·engeful phra e engraved on the ped~tal) prom-
Gto\-anm manage to dr
.
1· z '
ag er JOJ JW".l}, and her l-ream~ are heard as he i es him that by dawn he will be laughing no more. Leporello i terrified, but
assaults her. As the door I· ".uo
' - -kt d d own b' Don Ottano,. Don Gro,·anru
.
Don Giovanni bra hly invite the tatue to dinner.
produces Leporello a the criminal, C\ en though the "Ue~t ontmue to believe In a dark room. Donna Anna a ks Don Ott.n-io again to delay their
that Don G' · ·. 1 · • 1:'
JOvanm l t 1e gmlty one, and the finale end!> 111 both inner J.IJd marriage for a year to aJJow her properlv to mourn her father. He agree to
outer storminess.
hare her gri fin order to lighten it for her.
--./ The finale open in a great hall, \\-ith Don Giov-anni eating a plendid me-al,
Act .11 ~~son a steed; Don GiO\. anni and Leporello engage in their u·u:ll ac omp:mied by a wind-b:md playing the latest hit {including ",'on piu
rccnm.mabons and bluster. Don Giovanni has b en attracted to Donna andra.i" from Figaro), and enliv ned b · Leporello'- attempt to ·teal some of the
Elvua:s S4!rving girl; in onkr to seem m ore piau ible to her he insists upon food. Donna El\rira ru h in to ask Don Giov-anni on Ia t time to gi\e up his
changmg clothes with leporeUo. Donna Eh-rra ome to her windo\\, tning to wicke-d wa as a ign f hi- lo' ~for h r. He i · not interested, and as~ h lea\ ,
persuade benelf not to Jo-ye Don Gi0\'3nni :1ny more. Don Gio\·anni take · the ,he re·ams. L porello folio"~ uit, and th ir terror is :>..-pla.ined b ·the a.rri,al of
opportunity, hidden ~hind l..cpo~Uo, who 1 · drsguised a!> his m~ter..to the Commendatore's tatue making go don hi promi ·c to l."Om to dinner. He
pretmd to WOO her ardently and to call her dm\n- thJt \\<1\ the emng grrl demand that Don Giov:mni rep nt; Don Gio\'-anni bold!) refu _,he gi' th
wiiJ ~ more easily available, and Donna Eh.-ira can think ~he is reconciled tatue his hand and i dragged -re:~m.ing to Hell. In the Prague libretto onlv, th
~th ~n Giovanni through LeporeUo's dhguise. Leporello goe~ along unwJll- oth:r haracters rerum to the ' tage. L p r llo e\ plain wh;t happenl"d. Donna
ingly. indc:ed, at 8UJlpoint. with the scheme. Don Gio\anni then (dr · eJ a~ Eh,ra 3 > he wilJ enter a oment. DonnJ Anm :-ontinu to a.:, for a dd:l\ in
her wedd' Ze li
LepordJo) pret.en<l$ to kiD someone in a fight, to scare otT the real Leporello mg, r na and b.setto e\.r'~<'< t to go hom to a ~:>ooJ m aJ .md
l eporell ·11 ' ~ co •
(disgu.is.ed uGiovannJ) and Elvira. He serenade the Jo,elr matd. !\la~etto and d _
1
° r--
Wt find u n w ma~ter at a taY m. The\ all ioin in an "old n~" ,., tch
coU~amve looking to beat Don Gio, anni up: Go,anni ( ull dt gui ~ JJ t ar · that the ' i ked man h.t · got hi. ·ome--uppan- . ~
l.eporello) offers to help but beats Ma.setto up instead. Z"'rlina tind the brUJ e
Masetto Uld comforts him with the prom1 e of a :.pecial antidote toreJ do e C0\1\tE. 1ARY
to her heart
In 8 uac~
...__._ ground 8oor room Donna Elvira and LepMe II 0 enter· '' ith Origi 11
1 --...rdo . ~ • h, arnH' on
.....,~-"' escapiD& uum Donna Elvira' dutchc~ as .;oon ,t t t) . ' lth th oth . .
st•- n__ "'---- • . J the ulumatr known ab er t\\ operas \\tth hbretti b' [a Ponk. ~ Llti\e\ littk• ·-
-o"· L#\#11 'V\WIY'JO and Donna Anna ent r: ~he h sttll J, m..1n mg
l
. ·" out the ·ompo.,it o I . h'
ft"\ll!ln- '7-J!_ _ .._... . • [) GIOIJllfll· . 1 n.l prou.•:, ot t lS or ·ra. The ... omn11 . ion \7Jn1.
-- -~· &.oQJIIJII euw Muetto join the other , and findtng
00
148 107,.-\ I MW I PI RA !HIl A /J(I t,f()VANNJ 14Q

c rly in 17~7 from 1'.1-;qu I~: Bon.1111i, th lntpH rJ•> nl th Pro~~u 1 ' ·now mll<:h ,,hout Mot.Jrt\ own composition.tl
I 1 l
h\\C~OIO" J' d
rhe !(I, in the \1: kc: of th 01, nifi._ llt II~H ~ t)t} 1. llr() Ill th,lt \II~ •ftOIIJnn,U 1\ II
t Hill •· tl 1c
Vllh I Ju, \\'llfl\,
d~\:J1( r ori••lm of the lrbrctto rn ltcr.uy .m
v · d
n il the dtutu• nl '"I'" ,,,.~ lc11 up to O.t 1\)ntc: ,If lt'l'-1 tl 1 • '~ll r iOt( I I' • . ll'rtl Wll l>t Ponte bJo;cd lm work mo<ot unmc I·
• ' ,,_ IS 1111\\ h, HC 'llllh' " ' t I • •
d ... rth ltlllhl Ol{nl(liT,. Iff'~ lO g dlltlthr lllhf,l •lith< l dlltliTol 11~1111 ' 1'1 . I l>y ( oiOV.II)lli lh I t.lll' non (;wvarmi 0 Slfl II convlfato
1 'lncnt I >rd o b (' '
tht grantho t\ '"• I• dr Ormu l<lr • h n, th IIICI y Ul 1 ll Jh(' ~IIIIIC ( tliC. I'), which W,l'> 'tCl y JIUSeppc
, ( ., ( Oil (riO <!Ill I, I
l>ratul for Marttn y S<'lkr, and 1 on <,rm, "'" to 1 dl fl'' "'' I I 1 ! Ill Venin' .trly '" J 7X7 J )d Ponte .ld.tptcd tl c; one ac.t
( ""~11\lt;·' .IIH I' · }\.t !low d . I cl t ld
\ hlth lihrl'lto hod tul w rsttt'tl, this \\ 1 ,.1t{'ll of , 0 mic. cp1<,0 c-; 111 11c ~ccon ac a1
1
1

ol h•~ pl11n tor gdtmg tht•" 11k d. Ill:"

f.11 rlllJIIItl\110 d 1 11Yakutg "' o' [J ·
ur,111 d 1•1 th<· role ol IJonn.l • vtra pJrt Y 0Y
( 1
n. '"" out .llll 111 , 41
( Tl •tttti' It n 1 til' wlcs into one). I Jowcvcr, t c s ory o
h t f
'"nhmt~tK t~o 1' t ' · r lk
c ouest goc~ back to Sp.uush 10 trJ 1t10n, an< ed · I th
tltt hI)CI I Ill .1111 I 111 11111 r:l d h I
~ du.· 1 htt 1 uy \'Cr 1on d.ncs twm tlw c..rly ~cvcntccuth c..entury Jn t e Pay·
.. ~ 1 , , .. "'1 1 n ,. hi" Jlllllrlatlor tit ~~villa .1pp Jn:d m I 630. Spoken
Wfltyl 1 If ( ( .. ,.. 11 1 . • . • r. . I
tUI th• thcnH prim to the Mut.ttt op r.1 iudude Moliere s I.e 1e>WI t e
1
~'t ( l!ltl ) 11 mt ( ,0 1dlll!l 1 1)em (,wwmt/1 '/i:norio ( 1736), the latter of
1

wtt~'~ I> a l'ontc wuld ,.,1 1ly h.tvc known (it wa puhli~hcd in 1754 ); opc.r~s
on tht ub]CCI pnnt to M01.1rt's indudc worh by Eustachso Rarnbmt,
\ 111 cruu Rightnt and c, n.anig.1; there ~a~ also a much-perf<,rmed ballet,
\\llttm fm \Hnna in 17nl with music by (,luck.
< mmon (but not uniH!rsally prc11ent) clements in these vcr ions include
the ult of a noble JJJy and the murder of her f.Hhcr, the presence of one
or murC' oth r k"<llu;~e~ with varying degrees of altr.Jctwn to the Don, the
St'T\ant ( mctun in the guise of Harlequin or another commcdia dell'arte
char ter) who act s foil Jnd mirror to the Don himself, and the stone
~c t rrival at dinner and sub-.equcnt con ignment of Don Juan to Hell. 44
The op ratk treatments before Mozart are aU comic; the plays are a more
max.~:d bag of comic and serious. Mo1art sand Da Ponte\ opera mixe the two
mode to an unusual, but not then inwmprchensible degree. The opera's
g~neric destgnation dramma giOCO!>O" (Jolly drama), found Ill the iibrerto, has
sometimes been taken as a sign of the authors' intention to mix comic and
serious more thoroughly, or more jarringlv, than u ual. However, dramma
giocoso was the normal de!>ignation for lOmic opera , and Cosi fan tutte -
certifiably wtthout the grandio!litv of Don Giomnni- i aho de tgnated m this
war m the libretto. Utgaro i ~.ailed Commedia per mu ica," perhap
a:knowlcdg1ng the ~poken-pl.t) origm of the libretto. ) In his O\\ n catalogue of
ht works Moun called all three <.onu... opera!> written \\ ith Da Ponte "opera
buffa."
It i~ not dear why the Don Ju.tn nt} th had '>Uch resonance in sevent enth·
andd.ctghtelllth·c ntury 1-urope. Wh,tt i~ dear I'> that Mo1.1rt' and DaPonte'
au Jencl!s would ha\ e bc~n. , entsre
. Ir 1-,ltnl'I Jar \\lt
. h the outlme:.
. of the tory
<~n d Y.l>uld have r - · d 1 k '
. d h . . ccogni7C t te 'rs mg war!> thi \t.'r-.ion mixed the risible
an t e tcrnlytng.
1~0 Wi'.ARI A~DOPIRA Rill ,\
[){),.., GlOW, 'J.'II lSI

l?cputntrcm
.r· · productions that in various ways aggrandi1ed the v;ork or
In adu111on 10 h h ,
J)c~pite the fi"l Burgthc,tter audicnce'l> d1fficultic-. With . . . · line wit h Romantic notions of the Don Ju.tn myt or t e natun:
111J~IltJtlo lJ brought II· tn11o ·sm the nineteenth cen tury saw reworkings- . I
as operas, p ay!t,
Giommu qut~..klr t'5t,lhlishrd tt~clf in I urO))C' Ccrm 'lll ,•t:, ·r'>JOn) WJ!h
. Sn, kon h
0 f operatiC.
Jerol • . . . .
_ tha t parodied it, turning 1t mto a ndtculous comedy. Sue
di.1loguc (often dtffcrent from Da Ponte\ tnt) were 11 t 1y •tl po en
' c Ill t11c suburb and ~tones
. ·d almost immed .iately tn. the German-
, Ianguage su b ur ban
theat~r~ and, mdecd, all throughout German} hcgrnni 1w 1., . an arodiC startc ,... f
• • • e> ' 1
e.tr Yas 1789 4 P' f v· a and spread quickly elsewhere. Among the more slr~Ktng o
Ihe 11111Cteenth ct:nturv rcccl\·ed rt J'> the opcr,1 of 111 op' . · theJtt:rs o lenn ' . . h' h
. ' cr,l'>. not onl· . w ·11 · m Thomas Moncrieff's Don C1ovanm rn London, w 1c
Mot,trt ~ he~t e'>'>J}' 111 the gcntc, but also, and more itn•1ortant l 1 ) the~c wa~ I Ia d h' h
• • t y. t 1c model . d ccessful run in London between 1817 and the 1820s,an w 1c
lor the gcnrl.' .1s J whole. Von GtM'IIIllll, Til<' Marrraot• 0~r ho,,uro and 1hr . enJOYC :1 SU - . d . h
• ('t
r d woman as the title character. ;o Also 111 London unng t e a me
Afngrr . flute Jrc the fir-.t operas to hold the !>t,lge continuou~ly s·lllcc Ihe1r. Jea ture ,3 " . , G IV h D . te
· d pearcd a political ca rtoon stam ng eorge as t e on, tn r-
mcepuon. pcno ap ' . d
· 1 · conquests by his wife (ill. 5 ). London was particularly attune
The nmeteenth century\ adoration of the work, however, did not translare ruptcd 111 11s . . . •
to Don Giovanni during th1s penod because of Ilenry Bts~op s popular
to performances that stuck clo~e to either the libretto or the score (in either
arrangement of it as The Libertine, which premiered in London 111 1817.
•:r~ion). A famou~ 1834 hcnch-lan~uage production tn Pari~. for example, The enduring power of the Don Juan myth was surely part of the .reason
d1\'lded the work mto five act~. spltt the ALL I finale into two so that the for the multitudes of nineteenth-century performance and reworkmgs of
producers could add a ballet ba~ed on a medley of other Mo1art themes, and this opera whether grandiose or ridiculous, whether announced as truly
had Donna Anna fall in love with Don Gio\annt and then ktll herself out of Mozartean or fra nkly distant from the composer. 5 1 The modern era has been
guilt (Her funeral featured music from Moz.art'~ ReqUtem.) In addition, Don equally unable to avoid the conflation of the myth with the opera. Literary
Giovanni him elf \\JS both sung by d tenor and turned into a self-reflective, critic Brigid Brophy's famous idea that Don Giovanni is a repressed homo-
tortured character. 46 The intere ting thing about this productton is that 11 sexual, for example, is based on nothing particular to the Mozart and Da
protested a kind of fidelity to Mo7.art that seems almost incredible from a Ponte telling of the story, but rather takes the power of the music as
modern per~pecti\·e. As musicologist Katharine Ellis poinh out, this produc· emblematic of the reach of the mythY And recent concern about how the
tion was trongly influenced by £. T. A. Hoffmann's reading of the work (see work might function today in a society that is both highly sexualized Jnd
below), and also by French literary trends, particularly the writings of Alfred more conscious of the toll taken by violence against women, relies and
de Musset. 4" It was, like Hoffmann's story described below, a recreation of comments upon the conflation of a pervasive myth with the particulars of
the Don Juan folk tale using Mozart's and Da Ponte'~ own reworking of that this work.5.1
stor} as a \Chicle. Thi~ production occasioned comiderable criticism at the
ume, in pdrt because of the liberties it took with Mozart's music. At the same
Who or what is Don Giovanni? How should his opera end?
time, howe\'er, this kind of reworking/updating \\aS 1ndubitably intended as
homage to ~1o7art (if not to Da Ponte). Katharine Ellis notes that it "natural- Although The Magic Flute has been ubjected to more symboltc "decodings"
ized'' the work in hench culture br bringing it closer to the norms of Fre~ch than any other Mozart oper<J, Don Giovanni h<~s enjoyed (or suffered from)
grand opcra;41 in addilton it was, like much Romantic performance practlc~, the large~t amount of p~ychological and cultural interpretation. The most
~uppo~d to reflect what the interpreters considered the essence of Mozart
5
persistent question <~cross time has concerned the nature of Don C.io'vanni
inlenrions. ·u himself, and in particular the extent to which he is an individual hum<Jn being
One of this Paris production's fea tures- namely. casting a tenor in the btl e or a symbol of somethmg greater. The Dani~h philosopher Soren Kierkegaard
. . d . ms that as5 po~ed this question trenchantly in Eitlter/Or (1843). He wrote: "Don Juan
roe I - v;a\ qUttc normal m the nmeteenth century. Indre • 1t see d
. h le until the en cons t<~ntly hovers between being an idea, that is to ay, energy, life - and being
( (IJ more properly, baritone) smgers did not monopo I1ze t e ro h e
· . f h' haracter. w 05
(! f t IH~ nmet<.'t"nth ct•ntury.49 Changing the votce range o t IS c an individual.""' Kierkegaard's notion that the figure of Don Giovanm ~tands
. . .
ongmal VOJ<:c range is identical to that of Leporello and t e 01
h C nmendatore.
hat fo~ a ~rimal life-energy wa~ enormously influential, as was its corollarv, that
. . h . the hero t
d lstmgutshcs hun from the pack, and makes 1t clear that e 15 this kind of life-energy was realizable only through music. ",ome\\hat b:.
writer~ like Hoffmann and de Musset wanted him to be. abstract but comparably grand was C. l. A. Hoffmann':. reading of the opera,

'FW ENGLAND CONSERVATORY UBRAlff

 l'il ~ll 7AR I A:-\[) 01'1 RA lH I 1 A
nON G!O\'AN I 153

in lu nu\'ella-cum-r view Don Juan ( 18 13 b

. , p u . 1819) · h · 11 knc.!. ·1 a conscio usly-crafted invitJtio n to p roJeCt the audi-
l)tm .lnnl t':l tlw d aemon it. pcr:.onifi <Hion of th . ' tn w t(h Don ings tJ kc t I11s) •111 ' ' . 1,
. fi c C\ er--,eekmg . , J , · e nd fea rs onto th1 chJr.Jcter. Charles Russell, fo r examp c,
11t'h r .,,HI'> ted ""'ith whatever plc:tsurc ha . .!.ptnt, the soul encc s own c lr •1 . . h h
. · ~ JU t pa · ed, a fu d . -h abo ut [)on Juan the legend a. abou t Don GJOvannJ t e c ar-
bemg .n... are of the Highe t, but ed u ed mto a Fall of Bi~li ,tment.llly ~oblr wn tes- a ~ muc • . .
and thu a svmbol of the hattie het\'Vcen Hc.Hc dH tal proportions, actcr: "Don Ju. 1n lives in u~ all . . . o ur daydrea m of adv~n.ture, our mghtttme
"A n an c1I Hoffma . - pe
dre.un o f esc.1 · · ·
the sex u·1l act of conq uest o r subm1ss1on that we have all
• .
!'trong, nohle body, a carriage 1Bildungj emt'tt' k·· _ • nn Wntes:
· mg par s ol ltght · · d for . . . the act o f daring we have never Jttem pted ... he 1 o ur ego
th mttmations of higher things, po sessmg ad . . . • 1gnllmg Ionge - . , '>8 Th d'l
d' cep spmt and a qlllck u d ,g itself in its most clcmcn tJI .ln d elft h fashion. . e gran I o-
a scr t11 a1· ,,
o

tan mg. :.truck my heart. But it is the horrifying wmequence of r lin ~r- ·
n e of the ommcndatorc' music, then, is justified by the "u nrvcr tty
thc enemy pos~e:.se~ the pO\ver to wayla)' Man with w· ·k d . . a .t , t at que . . . . h
.•· • . 1~.: c traps JU t a he IS of the guilty pa ions Don Gwvan nt exc1te , and perht~ps by th ~ extent. ot t e
stn\ing to\' ards the H tghe t, 111 which activit> he e:>..pre~ e h' h 1 social disruption that wou ld occu r if we .11! felt a free as Don G10vann1 to ac t
. . • . I 0) nature.
Th I'> conthct of the Hea\·enly and demoni forces, like the hard-fought victory
upon them. Tn th e arn e vein bu t wit h in the frame of the d rama, critiLS have
of the concept of ltfe beyond, produce the idea of the earthly."~~ Here also noted that Oon Giovan n i' infinitely in terpretable qualit ie co m bined
Hoff:nann s uggest<, that Don Giovanni \o'\JS an mdi\ idual to the extent of with his undeniable power force the o ther cha racters in the drama to define
needmg an appropriate human frame, but that his role in the opera and in themselves primarily in relatio n to him; he is the creen o n which they project
culture more gen erally wa to repre ent moral and spiritual contradiction. their de ire .59
These Romantic interpretation were probabh not in pired by the mu ic Twentieth- and twen ty- first cen tury read ing of Oon Giovanni's character
that Don Giovan ni himself si ngs, an d espc<.iaily not by his arias, which are have certainly on tinued the trends started by Hoffmann and Kierkegaa rd, but
famo usly brief and un-revealing of hi~ elf; .. rather, they were a respon~e to there i also a more socially-gro u nded et of readings, in which he transgre .,e~
the opera as a whole, and in particular to the magnificently terrifying music again t the social order rather than .1gai n t nature (as Hoffman n would ha\'c
of the Commendatore's appearance and pronouncement of Don Giol'anni's it), or again t th e d ivine, a the supernatur.J! come- uppance ha.!. ~ugge ted to
sentence. The fact that the whole opera begins wi th this climactic musJC aJiows many. As a nobleman, for example, it might be expected th.tt he would
it to set the tone for the who le '>vork, but having done ~o. its very magnificence attempt to sedu e Zerlina, but to assault Donna Anna, a woman hi equal or
can seem in many ways out of p roportion to Don Giovanni's sordid h1storyof po sibly even his uperior would be a crime worthy of the mo:.t extr~me ~oci.1l
rape and seduction, even of murder, and perhap~ espedally of his banal censure. Those in clined to read the opcr,l in a more ocially nnd hi~torically
p ursuit of Zerlina, who is, for reasons both social and personal, the easiest of gro_unded way have also cen in th is figure a sign of the hl'>tork.ll pl'riod 111
p re>,. ~een in thi.!. light, E. T. A. Hoffmann's repeated expl1cit insistence that whJch the opera was crea ted. "Viva Ia Iiberti'!," Don G iovanni's toast in the
the opera wa~ about far more im portant is!>ues than the progress of a rake fir~t~act fi n.1 le, fo r example, has been mapped on to the moment of the opcr,1\
;>: 8 1 ~.- during the Ame: kan, and ju t bdore the hcnch, rl'volutions. Jo'>cph
1
(and, that he as an artist was uniquely qualified to perce1ve the \\Ork's deeper
mean ings) makes sense; it i~ a response to a problem that Mozart and Da C. SC) 'c~lcbrated tll m o l the opera ( 1979) took ,1 related t.1ck oy howing Don
10
.Po n te pose but do not resolve. ~- \'an_n1 as •1 figure at the intersection of the feud al cr.1 ,lJld the indu'>trial
.f hts. problem - namely, the gap between the rat her ord Ill ar}' cnmma 1 revo 1ut1on. Peter II Jl' 1b • ~
.. a ~ ce e rated 1977 (,lyndcbournc p10duction su the
qualih of Von C,io, .tnni's actual behavior and the aesth etlc
. and
. d ."th the gran IO>t'
~pmtua 1
d.. J
USt r
opera In the e·n l . , , I
• nlnctecnL1 ccntu q; the historically consi'>tcnt and careful
post-revolutio nary ·u· .
enormity of the supt•rnatu ral react ton 1t cau~es, com bme wl k r a Oon G' ' sc tng tn some w.ty'> mtemifics the w lckc:dnc.,., of
ndwor ' 10r IOVannt :. behaviou r 1 , h
RomantiL tntLrpretation of that gap - have la1d th e gr~u d made over Z I' . I . )Cc.Jusc even t e lame CXLll'>C of fcuJ.tl privilege
. .er m.t 1as been stn ppcd awny.
plethora of r ad tngs of Don Giovanni'.!. character. Vvhere KJerkegaar. and
. nee of mustC, 1 he:.e rc:~dingsof Don Ci v ' h .
him a mamiL -.ta twn of the lifl'-forcc: and the mner esse Hearcn Ones have t . II , o anm s t arac.ter, co;peu,tlly the mote grandtose
. ' ' YPtca y taken a . 1 · f ·
Hoffma nn prc~<:n ted him as the embod1ment o f t h c Jl1
. tcrface between.. ha\'C.~ said, exhibit i m .t c potnt o \ ll'\\, Jnd have often, It must be
1 later cnuc5 ec a remark 1bTe 1 ·I f ·d ·r. .
and JleU. o r tht. epitome of the CH~r-yearning human sou ' h. nncoelf. example E 1' A .' eve o t en tl tcat lon .,..,ith Don GiO\anni. For
1 . ' · · · Hoflm a '
nott'd his "blankness••: his Jl'lUSlGl) and textual refusal tO revea f/:: the next hlm~elf, feels hi I b _nn:. narrator, who ts a ~tand m for Hoffmann
sinct: he I!> al\o'\ J}':. spe.tking the music.al language needed 10 e c dern rcJd· A , " ~ tps urnmg \v1th an un-ofl, d k' h 1
nna \ on mi cl' "("'' ere ~~s ,Is c l'>ten~ to Donna
. s Man}' mo lr uo not tdl m • ') L h
conque-;t or avoid th comt·quenl.<.:s of the prevwus one · c . ater tnt e stor>· we learn that during
 154 MO/ART As D OPI RA 13L'HA
DON GTOVA'JNI 155

Don Giovanni' a auJt Donna Anna w 1 0 h 1

' verw e med by . · For exa m ple a Viennese review o f a n 1818 performance with
senl>uality, and " he wa not rescued" The na t ' b . a superhuman GtOV<In n J. ' .
. . ' rra or s urntng li · d· Gri.i nba um in the role remarked " Her acting in thi role was partJc-
both h11> own and Don Giovanni's· thi i en h . d . P are clear!)' Ma ame .. .
. . f ' l p aSJZC 111 the tory b ' h . ularly good, since she wa conscious of h~r n ob1l1t:' a nd played the ragmg
t h e pmt o Donna Anna visit the narrator in h " b > avmg
r,fi . . IS ox and de fare . woman who pro found ly recogn ized the fnghtfu l d 1sa ter that had b_efaJlen
a1 mtty \Vlth him. Hoffmann a] 0 de cribe the . . , . a spectaf
c . . . na t rator s VIrtual kiss as be· her, and t-ran fo rmed her pa in o n the dea th o f h er fath er to an act of a~unated
tran 10rmed mto an mfrmtely yearning mu ical note· · . . mg
H o ffmann I1as b ecome Mozart a well as Don Giova ·· an mtunatton tJ131 radjance."62 Some m odern commen ta ry has e sen tially agreed with th1s more
Ki" k , .
1 , , nn1. er egaard s tdeas sympathetic evalua tion ; o ther critics have understood Donna Anna v:uiously
are e per o~al than Hoffmann s, bu t he moves with remarkable smooth as frigid, merely co ld, or a su peran nua ted o pera er ia h eroine, and have
from the nottOn ~at Don Giovanni is sensuous desire incarnate_ that ~s~~ turned to the mo re mezzo carat/ere (somewhere between buffa and seria)
nat~ral a~d es enllal ~ pect ~f ~.uman nature in the ab tract_ to the idea that Donna Elvira as the "hea rt" of the o pera. Both, in any case, have long been
he ts ~e exuberant JOY of hfe, which suggests ome identification between hailed as m asterp ieces o f cha racterization.
lh~ phllo opher and the character. 60 Kierkegaard does not explicitly describe Despite the stro ng characterizatio n of th ese women, they are, paradoxically,
thts exuberance as posse ed only by men, but its object is aU of womankind defi ned almost tota lly by their relationship to Don Giovanni. And thi
and there is no room in his argument for womankind to feel thi kind of paradox im ensifies the question of whether Don Giovanni i really a symbol
sensuali ty. of desire, yearn ing, li fe- force, music, etc., or a more socially-grounded repre-
To many who insist on the essential nobility or universality of Don sentative of hu m ani ty. As p hilo opher Bernard Williams notes, the answer to
Giovanni' character, Donna Anna is Don Giovanni's true antagonist, in part this question affects the m ea n ing of the ending, and in particular, whether it
because she is of- or above - his class and thus an apparently worthy oppo- can be understood as an a t of divine vengean e or omething more trivially
nent, and in part because her motive for putting off Don Ottavio is opaque supernatu ral, and h ow it connects to the society which Don Giovanni e ploit
and thus subject to multiple interpretations. Hoffmann imagines her a the but is not really part of. 63
basically incorruptible virgin, the depth of whose fall is a testament to Don All versions of this op era include Don Giov.mni's demise, and it has always
Giovanni 's superhuman powers: "Only he, only Don Juan , could ignite in her been considered a n opportunity for at lea t some level of theatrical effect: the
the voluptuous madness vvith which she clung to him , which possessed h~r chorus ~f ~emons m ay or may not be visible; the flame may rage more or
spirit with the overpowering, destructive fury of hellish demons." Her fur: ts less realtstl.call y; Don Giovann i may disappear in a puff of smoke or Iidc
both high-tragic and titillating: "Eyes, out of which love, fury, hate, con~uswn downw~rds through a trap door; there may or may not be explicit rellgious
were thrown, as if from the crater of a volcano, as if her soul wa burnmg as symbolism; he may or may not reappear to preside over the sce11a ultima t the
inextinguishably as a Greek (Olympic) flame. Loosened strands of her dark l~st scene of the opera, after Don iovanni's demi e). Recent scholar hip has
1 · h
h air curled in ringlets around her neck. Her white nightgown traitorous_ ~
1
1
snuated this 0 ..
. pera no t on y m t e tradtt1on of opera on the same theme but
aI omam 1· ·
r~vealed ne\er-dangerously-exposed charms." Hoffm an n predic~ t~at~h~ ~~r . . . ?re re •gwus, or s upernatural context.M Thi kind of contextualin-
tton dtm mJshes tl .d h M '
die before the year's delay of her wedding to Don OttavJO 1s. p, bl . . leI ea t at ozart sand DaPonte' opera b unique in oper-
a l JC 11tstory at le t . I . .
fu ry/attachment to Don Giovanni will eat away at her, making her mcapa e qucstton . ' as Wll1 respect to 1t outlme . However it leaves open the
of living with a more conventional husba nd.
. A
'th Ia t :eo f wl th
s moments t ak· d fh
h . . '
cr t c extraordmanly powerful music of Don Giovanni's
.
T he n o ttons tha t the attack is in fact a rape, that Donna nna 1 .
·sin fovewt
rnore help h. ° In
unse1f from writ .
appy accident - namely, that 1ozart could not
. h 1 . .
15 their b mg musJc t at wou d stir generatlOm of li tcncr to
D on Giovanni because of his violation of her, and that she a k bly
. . d remar a ones, even though h " 1 " d
compellmg character because of both these thmgs, have prove ., ssault special rr e on Y wante to create an audience-gripping
eu cct - or wheth h d
sturd y. Even 1n. th e 1970s \Vtlliam
. . Mann, who t h ough t D on Giovanni lia ·aJ to write m . . . er e un erstood the ~tory in a way that led him to
b bene JCI uste Wit h an Intent · 11 c d . ..
was probably n ot consummated, wrote that it would have een . ·on 0 ( nance. Th · . .
1 lS obvtou ly not
IOna Y pro10un spmt u.U and ps}·chologic,tl re o-
. I ..
Donna Anna 's " p ersonal growing up" if it had. T h"JS 1.~ a vufoJnzatJ 0
•ntur}' certainly le d . a Simp e oppos1t10n; spe ta<.ular theatrk ~.m
_a_ . . h · eteent 11-cc.: a an aud1encc to d , fl · C .
Huumanns m1ldl y erotic description of her fury. Ot er mn61
vithout om mend t , . ccper re ectlOn. ertaml y the usc of the
writ1no bo h b"l" f character vn von a ores arrwtl mus· t h b . .
--o a ut er' as more inclined to note h er no 1 Jty 0 t he very 1 h ' tc a I c egmnmg of the ov rturc suooest at
· • 1 0 east t at Moza t fir: . c-~
ptaupposmg that 1t rested in part on a sick scxua epe ndence d r was u ucten tly plea ed with this m.lterial th,lt h
t:SO t Zo.RT A:'\1> OPfRA IH 1 F \ CO 1 FAN T T TE 15;

\\ant('{! to u it mor than once; it b 111 onceh-.tblc th 11 J\ . . rm· it i n o t a feat ure particular to this opera. After all,
· ' a gentus of 1h . I the comiC no ' . - f,
th akr h would not ab.o re, hzc th;lt th t'> double U!>lS" , . ld e stmP Y IJ , ct that the Co unt will stay fatthful to the Counte or
' "' \OU 1end n' t rca y cxpc . . [.
v. j ht to the mom nt. B~vond that, the opera leav ~ pcrforn' . . . extra \Ve do . h f t'me bu t that does not dimin•sh the satl~ actormes-.
•ers, cnttc\ d an apprectablc lengt o 1 • • •
audi(-n..:c~ to Judg th trnificanl.c o l the cfrect. an Y d' to The Mamagc of Ftgaro. .
• tall\' rs~1ns of the op ra, ~.:ven tn Mozar t' ltfetime m lud d h of the en w g d' to th i opera involves including the scena ultunu
A th ird commo n en tng
'• " Th l t b retto from t he \ 1·e•n n a \,88
&. .. t a.
... ' performanLe omih' l it cth t c h~nnw
. · o m e o r all of the characters as irrevocably altered oy Don
• oug llts b 1 re prc~cnun g s 1. •
d tablt.' w~at tht'> meant.~ n~r.lll) peaking, it wa. morl' often omlttt'd in ~ ·• bl'tz through their live . This seems to be a commonp._..ce m
the nm t~nth c ntun and m e the l.ltcr twen tieth centurv it has f Glodvannl s dul ctl'ons· it is also what E. T. A. Hoffmann seems to have witnessed
. more o ten mo ern p ro • . h
be-en trduded . loz:trt him elf included a l:horai"Ah" on the toni D · r eports in Do11 juan); " How chan tablc eem now l e appear-
.d h h • maror, (or at Ieast o h h b
~ D n G tO\aDnt t~ppear ·, utO~tg
.1..
c .tlso cribblcd it out; clearly he was remaining characters, who vainly eek Don Juan, w o a:, een
ance o f the . . h 1 · d th
~'Or~ng on how. tt would be po. tble to end the opera at the moment of the dra cd away by ubterran ea n power . It ts as 1f one as on y JUSt escape c
ggh f the hellish spirits. Donna Anna appeared completely changed: a
[)o;'l !> deau , v.,th the p eta le of the flame . .tnd demon , but al 0 with the cIutc es o · ·h d h
c~ marr choral ~mging. 'It ha· also not been unu ual in the pa t decadC) deathly pallor overtook her face, the light in her eye w-as ex~ngUJ e , er
at l ,t, to include a cut ,·er ion of th Ia t ene, procl:'eding more quickJ; voice [is) trembling and uneven, and makes the most heartrendmg effect e'en
the litlle du et with the weet b ridegroom, who, after Heaven has
th n the original libreuo allows to tht' "antichi ·sima l 3n7on" (the old, old, th roug h d' · 1
_, wruch pronounces the rightne of Don Gio,anni' end. luckily relieved him of the d angerous office of revenge is read] expe 1t10~ Y
to wed." The persistence o r revival of this reading after nearly two. centu~te
It is nOl mconceivable that ~iozart' chief, or ev n only, concern was
:t."t tb ..tncal effect: how best to en urc a pectacular end.' But ince hi as well as its co-existence w ith both more comic and more ymbollc wr ton
of the ending is testament n o t only to the obviou taying power of thi work,
doth. dire to~ ritic Jnd audience have read much more into the choice
but also to the many ambigu itie and unresolved question~ posed by this
of aiding than thi . In a general way, it m.ty be that tho!>e with the most
·cosmi • view of the opera's meaning are most likely to want it to end "opera of operas."
d~"ta \ nth Don Giovanni' death or a hortlr thereafter as decently
possible. Tha1 is, if Don GiO\·anni doe in fact repre ent a primal force,life· Cosi fa n tlltte (Th us do they all) Dramma gioco o. Libretto b} Lorenzo Da
ener , or w ~nee of mu ic, then hi:. death render the other characters Ponte. Vienna, Burgtheater, 26 January 1790.
no only irrde\·ant but m fact dead them elves. On the other hand, in an
equally general way, those who ee the opera as more grounded either in a
CHAIV\CTER
social •" rW or in its genre may prefer the inclu ion of the sce11a ultima
ba:au.s.e it obey the historical comention of endmg a comic opera with a Fiordiligi and Dorabella, Ferrarese ladies and i ter
t;n,o J'M ( mtpP) end~. or a t least wtth con ensus and some sense of a better living in Naples oprano ·
f rc, a v;eU"' "';th a ubstantial ensemble. To end w1th the sce,w ulttmn Guglielmo and Ferrando, lover~ of the above BJ.S:>, Tenor
a cu:sert$ tlut s.ocietv continues a!> before (or at lca!>t as it was repre· Despina, chamberm aid Soprano
~d at t. e begmning of the opera) once disruptive clements hJve been Don Alfon o, o ld philosopher Ba~
r ()~ed: Leporello looks to repeat his relatiomhip with another mast~r;
~...a and ·U5etto expet.t to IJ\'C a cozy bumpkin life; Donna Eh.1ra SUM M ARY
m. the socia!ly acuptable move of the di honored woman by mo\tn~
0
00 a C:O; 11 C1H, .1nd lJonna Anna, only twenty-four hour after the death The opera plays out an experiment in tigated by Don Alfonso, in whi\:h th
f:tr f.a·ber. continue~ betrothed to Don Ottavio but not }'Ct ready for
3
fl?elit.y of the two you ng women is te ted by ha\ ing their lover return in
-~-.l.d
-.u .:-t~,.
'I"L-
1 Je'
f.• t that these tnding~ are "clapped on," to U)e wve · dJsgu.Jse a nd each seduce the other\ beloved. De~pina a!>Si t:. Don Alfon c..> m
..~
..,...... roo~ s e,tef!OU5 phrasc,• 7 and barely concea 1 t h e pro babilit}' that
£ • • • • runnmg the experiment, which fit:. with her own idea about love, but he l c..>
-.~ - • . .a w1, t..-
vcr•;r t>C" tempted again, that Donna Anna may never gc:
'I O\ er the
.
leJrn s a lesson.
I of e\'11. 1 ~
f h
ev<:nt o ! c ,,pera, and tnat Leporcllo will continue the eye e
 ISS MOZART A:-.ID OPERA BUfFA

Sv ' OP JS COS] FAN TUTT£ 159

In a coffee hop, Ferrando and Guglicl . Act 1J begins in a room, where Despina plays on the women's weakening
0 r . mo pratse the
o n AI Jon o I keptical becau e their rea o '" con tancy of their lov resolve, and explains to them how to fli rt - telling them things any ordinary
fid r n ror b el" . . ers
e 1ty are not particularly relevant o r co nv· . tevmg tn the worne ," fifteen-year-o ld female sho uld know. When she has left , the lad ies decide that
prove the ladies' constancy and th e g tl Inetng. They agree on a b ns it might not be so terrible to have a little fun with the visitors. Dorabella is
en emen ag et to
Alfon so tell them. rce to do everything Do more eager than Fiordiligi. Don Alfonso arrives to usher them to the garden,
In a ea ide garden, th e lad ies look at lock t . n where all the amenities fo r co urti ng (including the gen tlemen ) have been set
an~ admire them. Don Alfo n o bu rsts in in dr:a~;:~th ~ic~urcs of their lovers up. Despin a and Don Al fonso manip ulate the you ng p eople like puppets to
theJr lovers have been called away to w T h agttauon to tell them that engineer proper wooing behaviour. He and Despina leave the co uples alone to
· ar. e gentlemen e t promenade: awkward conversation ensues. The two couples separate, and
mg about the misery of parting while D Alti n er and the lovers
.. on onso chuckle · h Dorabella and Guglielmo make quick work of falling in love; he gives her a
groun d . A military march caUs them away d ft . . m t e back-
day, the men are torn away from th e \.,'orne~ru;.h a 1edr. p romtsmg to write every heart-shaped necklace that Fiordiligi had given him. Guglielmo feels slightly
th em a a te '" . · e a 1es and Don Alfto .h orry for Ferrando, since his fiancee deserted him so quickly. The scen e shifts
Journey. Left alone Don Al'" . nso WJs
. ' tOnso op mes th at putt" , c· . to Ferrando and Fiordiligi. He presses h is suit with vigor; she refuses him. Left
the constancy of wom an is like trying to tch h . . mg ones tatth m
ca t e wm d m a net. alone, tho ugh, she realizes that she is falling in love and a ks her absent
In a genteel room, th e ch am bermaid Despina complain about lh l·r f beloved for forgiveness for what she is about to do. Fer rando and Guglielmo
chamb "d Th 1 d. . e LJe o a
ermcu . e a Ie . enter: dtstraught and prostrate with grief. Dorabella meet to check in: Guglielmo is delighted to hear about Fiordiligi' contin uing
co~pares hers~lf to a gn ef-stn cken heroine, and after some prompting, the resistance; Ferrando is furious and asham ed to hear of DorabeUa's capitula-
ladies tell Despma the cause of their m isery. She cannot believe the fuss· after tion to Guglielmo. Guglielm o ru bs it in by addre sing the ladies in the audi-
aU, me~ are all alike, p lus d eceitful, an d women should love at their. own ence, in effect having them agree that they are deeply and hopele ly fickle and
convem~nce. The ladies leave. Don Alfon so arrives and lets Despina in on the manipulative. He leaves and Fer rando reflects on his fury; Don Alfonso and
plan to mtroduce the ladies to n ew lovers, paying her for her troubles. The Guglielmo join him to tell hi m that t his is the way of the world.
gentlemen enter d ressed as Alban ians and pay elaborate court to the philoso- ln another room, the ladie and Despina al o check in with each other:
p her and the. servan t, who is highly amused. The disguised gentlemen start to Fiordiligi confesse t hat she has fa llen in love with Ferrando; DorabeUa
c~urt.t?~ la.dJes as they enter, and the grief-stricken pair repulses them angrily. res~onds ?Y describing love as an irre istible little rascal. Fiordiligi decides to
F10rdihgi smgs proudly about the strength of her constancy to Guglielmo. resist. her mclinations and go to the battlefield disgui ed a a man to join her
Guglielmo asks the two ladies to look with favou r upon them: Fiordiligi on Gugheln:o; she hopes that Dorabella will join her. Ferrando and Guglielmo
Ferrando and DorabeUa on Guglielmo. The ladies leave in high dudgeon. watch th1s decision with differing feelings: Ferrando decides to redouble hi
Left alone, the gentlemen a re delighted with the ladies' fort itude. Don effort ' not ou t of love for Fiord iligi, but out of jealousy of Guglielmo who e
Alfonso sars that there is yet more to the trick, and Ferrando looks forward to fiancee seems to be more faith ful th an h is own. In an elaborate duet Fi~rdiJio " 1
break d d ' o
its happy resolution. Don Alfonso enlists Despina's help to try to soften up the fi d own an agrees to be with Ferrando. She leaves: Guglielmo is horri-
ladtes. The fi r t act Finale begins with the two ladies reflecting on how quickly ~\· 00 1~ Alfonso ays that the solut ion is si m ply to marry the original women
1
life ca n chan ge. Th e gentlemen rush in in mock despair, drinking "arsenic." as that s not what they ' ant, then they can remain forever celibate He
proof of their attachment to the still-chilly ladies. The ladies call in DespJO~, phersuldades the men that they really do love their "plucked hens" and ~hey
S ou take th 1 '
who goes to call a d octor. Don Alfonso confirms the ladies' sense that thiS would do em as l 1ey ~re; these ones have only done what all women
under the same Circum tances, since "Cosl fan tutte.''
could b e fatal for the m en. In the meantime, t he ladies have gingerly touche.d In the !>econd act fi I h
the men to take the1r . . · g in thetr the wron love - . ma e, t . e wrong double wedding is about to take place:
temperatures, and begin to find them m terestm .
I · d · · · d · · ) ives spouung to the fu g rs (with Gughelmo grumbling in the background) ing a toa t
new Y p assiVe con Ition. The doctor (Despina 111 JsgULse arr ' h tu re. Desp· d d
. 1 d" hold t e of a sudd .. Jna, resse as a notary, start the formal proceeding All
mumbo JUmbo and carrving a large magnet. She has th e a ICS en a mtlttary ba d h ·
' , tores the rnen men rusl . n announce t e return of the original lovers The
gentlemens h eads while she performs the cure. The magnet res 1 out In the e . f . .
and pretend . nsumg con uston. They return dre sed a themselvc
to their former am orous condition, but the ladies still reject them.
surpn se at the pale fa es and horrified CApre sion!> the>: finJ:
 160 MOZARJ \ n OPl: RA RU FL -\

CO I FAN T U TTE 161

De pina r veaL that he i not a notary· th
. • , e me n fi nd th h
contract, t he Iadte confess th" g tl c alf- igned
, ' '" en e m en reveal th . Weddi wrote the o pera Cosl fan tutte, and was not yet finished
Alfon!!o point out that although th . eJr part in the tr' k ng For when M oza r t · d th I
ey were de eJVed th d . tc . Don . h h · tru m entation a nd time was sho r t bes1des, he requeste at
tru t l1, ' and that now thev can rna .h , e ecett revealed W i t t e lOS ' · { )
. ' rry Wtt some sorn~ · ers an d in p a r ticular the two female vocalists Fer r arese
D e. pma ay th,lt he' ash amed of h r accumulated Wisd rehear e t h e smg ' .
_ . • ow tar the tr ' k , orn. 'll ne uve· whereby I had opportunity e n o ugh to become acquamted
l.Ouples re-unrte and · ing ,\ maxim about t h . tc went. The original an d Vt e ' -.
c. h . e unportanc' 0 f with th eater life, with its disorders, cabals an d so forth . . . . '
trom t e per~pect1ve of rea on. ~:: approaching life
The premiere of the opera took place in January 1790, but after onJy five
COMME TAR'\ perform an ces th e thea ter dosed to h o n or th ~ clea t~ o f Joseph II, and the opera
did not reappea r until the summer, w hen 1t received another five perform-
Origins ances. It was well received: audiences seem to h ave been sizeable for those
performances.72 The initial cast included Adriana Ferrarese del B~ne as
The fact about th e commi sion and compo itional process of th' Fiordiligi; sh e was Da Po n te's m istress, and al o p layed Susanna 10 the
at lea t k t h 'f IS opera are
a e c y as, 1 not more so than, tho e for the other h •0 D p !789-90 revival of Figaro. H er place o f origin (Ferrara) might also account for
.,. . "' a onte
op ra . •,fozart wa dearly working on the opera in late 1789 · h the libretto's descrip tion of the two ladies a "don ne ferrarese': Louise
· d · · , smce e
ment10ne . 1t 10 a begging letter to a generou fell ow-l\lason, Michael Villeneuve, so metime (without evidence) referred to a Ferrarese's sister, sang
Puchberg, 10 late December, saying that he would hortly receive a 200-ducat the part of Dorabella: Moza rt had w ritten concer t aria for her but she had
fee for the work, and that thi hould erve as a kind of collateral for the loan not appeared in a ny of h is operas before this. T h e Ferrando was Vincenzo
he was reque ting from Puchberg. On 31 December there was a rehearsal of Calve i, a lo ngstanding member of the Burgtheater 's opera buffa troupe, and
the work to which both Puchberg and Joseph Haydn were invited; they wm the Guglielmo was France co Benucci, 1ozart's fi rs t Figaro and perhap the
also invited to the orchestral rehearsal on 20 Jan uary. That is the entire extent best-loved basso b uffo of his time. Don Alfonso was played by Francesco
of Mozart' own mention of the work. Da Ponte also says less about it than Bussani, a Mozart famili ar ; he had prem iered the d oubled roles of Ma etto
about either Figaro or Don Giovann~ mentioning only that it holds "third and the Com menda to re in the 1788 Dor1 Giovanni, and of Bartolo and the
place among the isters" born of Mozart with Da Ponte's assistance, and ga rdener Antonio in Figaro. Despina was played by his wife, Dorothea
implying in an early, and factually problematic, version of his memoirs !hat Bussani, the first C herubino, and a gifted com ic actre . 73 The audience would,
the ucce s of Don Giovanni in Prague s timulated Mozart to ask Da Pont~ ~or then, have had "histories" for each of these character that would doubtle
another libretto.68 Contextual sources, however, tell us more about the ongms have played into their understanding of the new role ·.
· · all , ote the libre!lo Of the th:ee \vorks Da Po n te wrote for Mozart, Cosi i the only one not
of the work. lt eems, for example that DaPonte ongm Y\H • ba ed on a mglc p · .
( then entitled simplv La scuola deglt amantt
. . {"Th S h I [i0 r Lovers ]) for
e c oo . . th
d rev10u sour e. 1t IS, rather, a compilation of reference to
. ' . ., ~ 1 f mbers sun'!ve 10 e an d.g.lo es on a variety of previou sources from both the recent operan·
alien, not for Mozart. Sal1en s sketches tor a coup e 0 nu . and t ra ltton and th h. h
fi th ccount of Vmcen! 1 . e m ore 1g brow world of Italian and das icaJ literature
Austrian ·ational Library, and these con rm e a d that Salim
Man ~o,·ello, who VlSite . . d , • ·d
1\-Lozart s WI ow m
· 1829 and learne
. h. libretto!'
h~c~anodu~~;t tnh~lud.~ ~hefidOv~dian myth of Cephalu and Procri , in which ~
IS Wlte e!Jty by a . h . . .
' f • s in setting I 1 canto ofA . ' ppeanng to er m di gut e· and \arious
was particularly jealous o Mozart s succes . I) M zart campo~ nosto pastoral · 0 1 d fi · . '
Manuscnpt detect ive work also tells us that (at least 10 Act . ~ rs sinet he bet and the d bl'
ou mg of the
epic ran o Jrtoso, m which the elements o f the
d h
bil. · of h1s swge ' Ponte' langu fu ll men an t e women are both anticipated.-4 Da
the ensembles fir:.t - p robably not to test the a I tieS ntains so manl age, of both m 1:h 1 · 1 ~
h . ce the opera co entences in 0 I d fu . } o ogtca reLerence and para phra ~ of
knew all t h e voice pretty well- but per aps, St? . r an o noso - a lot f I . .
Said - provide th I o :arn10g very lightly worn, it mu t be
Ofth"'__.. to for m a kind of frame for the arias. ,o . -re in general 31 e c ues to the e source s
..., f, 0 perattc 1II' ·. Th e re
Not atypically either for Mozart himself or or have been heel'' cent op ratic repertor}' . v··
' • tion seem to 1 n
(1 reference o r ources (it' ha d . m I n~a also provided either points of
this time, the fmaJ stages o f the operas prepara E bier left an accoun
~ally pertinen t compari .r to know whtch ). The mo t triking and politi-
and politically complicated . Mozart's student Joseph ! . hbretti t Giambattista ;n ~~the opera.~ grotta di Trofonio, by ' alien and the
of preparation.
his 1826 autobiography) ofth e Iate stages asti, 1\1eta ta IO succes or ,.. .
..._, Imp n
"a}
court po t.
 IN> ~ll)ZART A:'\'J) 01'1 R,\ Rliii'A
Dt 'rina revc.:ah that 'he 1 not .1 notary; the men find the h If .
. . a -'!grwd w ·dd
ontr.Kt, the Iad ll') lOOk\~, the gentlemen rc\cal the .· c ang
Al 100'-0 P('ll1t' out t at although thev Wl.'re dccetved tl d an th(' trick· 0 on
e · h ar p.trt
• 1C cccu re\·ealed
trut h ~. and that now the\ can man y wath ~orne . orn~
. · accumu 1at('d w1 d
I) e ptna SJ}~ that ~he's asham(•d of how f. 1r th" tr k ~ orn.
, " ac . went. The on .
couple rc-umte and \ing a ma\am about the import"n. f gmal
" ce o approach 111 l'r
from the per pcd1ve of n:a on. 8 11e
On g111s
The fact about the c~mmi ion and compo~itional process of this opera are
at least as sketch) as, tf not more so than, tho)e for the other two Da Ponte
operas. \1ourt ''-lS clearly workmg on the opera in late 1789, since he
mentioned it m a bcggmg letter to a generous fellow-Mason, Machael
Puchbcrg, 111 late December, saying that he would shortly recei,·e a 200-duc.u
fee for the work, and that this should ~erve as a kind of collateral for the loan
he was reque tang from Puchberg. On 31 December there was a rehearsal of
the work. to which both Puchberg and Joseph Haydn were invired; they were
also mvHed to the orchestral rehearsal on 20 January. That i~ th<.> enure extent
of Mo7.art\ own mentwn of the work. Da Ponte also says lc s about it than
about either Figaro or Don Gtm'mmi, mentioning only that it holds uth1rd
place among the s1~ters" born of Mozart with Da Ponte's asmtance, and
ampJying in an early, and factually problematic, 'ersion of h1s memoar) thai
the ~uccess of Don Gtowu1111 in Prague ~umufated Mo1art to ask DaPonte for
another ltbrctto. 1 Contextual 'our~.-cs, howe' er, tell us more about 1he origms
of the "ork It seems, for example that Da Ponte originally wrote the libn:tto
(then entatkd simply La sc11ola deglt amanti {"The School for Lo\·ers )) for
Sahen, not for Mozart. Salieri's sketches for a couple of numbers sumv~ in the
Austrian \.'ational Library, and these wnfirm the acc.ount of Vincent an~
Mar~ "\ovello, who vasited M01art's ,.,.1dov~ in 1829 and lcMned that Salle~
was partawlarl} JCalow. of Mozart\ succe5\ in ~etting this libretto~
Manu lript dctectl\'e work aho tclh us that (at least in o\ct l) MoLart compos
the en~mble:. fir t probablr not to test the abilities of hi) sangers, smce h~
knew all the voices pretty well- but perhaps, since the opera conrauls so man~
of them, to form J kind of frame for the aria~. 70
· 1·r · genera131
ot Jtvpicallv, either for Mot4lrt himself or for operatiC ue tn
. ' , . . h ·c been h~' 11'
th1s umc, the final :otages of the opera~ prl'parauon seem 10 a\ 1
an
and politkally LOmpJicatcd. Monrt s studl'nl Joseph Fyhlcr ll'ft an accoun
his 1826 autobiography) of thl' late )!age) of preparation:
COS! fA ,\ ' Tl TTE t61
For when Monrt \\~rotc the opera Cosi fan rrme, and was not ret finished
with the instrumentation, and time wa short be ide • he requested that I
rehea r· c the ingers, and in particu lar the two female vocali ts Fer[ r)~re<.e
and Villeneuve; whereby I had opportunity enough to become acquamted
\~ith theater life, with its di o rders, cabals and o forth .. ..
The premiere of the opera took place 111 Januarv J790, but after onlr fi'\C
performances the theater closed to honor the death of Joseph II, and the opera
did not reappear until the summer, when it received another five perform-
ances. It was well received: audiences seem to have been azeable for those
perfo rmances.~2 The initial cast included Adriana Ferrarc~e del Bene as
Fiordiligr; he was Da Ponte's mastre s, and al o plaved u anna in the
1789-90 revival of Figaro. Her place of ongin {Ferrara) maght also .1ccount for
the libretto's descriptiOn of the two lad1e~ a "donne ferrarc ·e·: Lout\e
Villeneuve, sometime (without evidence) referred to a Fcrrarc c\ i~ter, s.mg
the part of Dorabella: Mozart had written concert ana for her but he had
not appeared in any of his opera before thrs. The Ferrando '"a \ 'mc;enzo
Calve 1, a long tand ing member of the Burgtheater' opera buffa troupe, and
the Guglielmo wa France co Benucca, Mozart's first figaro and perhap~ the
best-loved ba so buffo of hi time. Don Alfon o wa~ played by Fr.mce-;co
Bussani, a Mozart fami liar; he h.1d premiered the doubled role~ of ~tasetto
and the ommendatore in the 1788 Don Giovamu, and of B.utolo ,1nd the
gardener Antonio in figaro. Despma \\J~ pl.tyed by has "ifc, Dorothea
Bussani, the fi r t herubmo, and a gifted ~..omic actre, . The audJt:rt e would,
then, have h.1d "historres" for each of these ch.nacter:. that would doubtle~~
have played into thc1r understanding:. of the new role .
Of the three \\ark~ Da Ponte wrote for \1ol.lrt, Co>l ~~ tht only one not
based on a sangle previous ~ource. It IS, rather, a compalatwn ot rd~rcnct..., to
and gl. os~cs on a \anet} of pre\ iow. source from both the recent opcrat11..
tradrtaon and the more highbrow world of Italian .l!1d dassiL.tl lih.-raturL
~uch sources indude the Ov1dian m} th of CephaJu, and ProLrl'•, 111 whkh a
mb.tnd tests hb waft'~ fadcl aty by appeanng to her in di~guhe .md , triou~
cantos ot A • • ' ·
noMos pa~toral ep1<. Orlmuio (urt<lso, 111 which the clc:m<. ,, of the
bet and the do bl f h
p , u mg o I e men and the "uml.'n are both .mtiLlpJttd. ~ Da
~nte ~ language, full of both mythologtL.ll rdercnce~ and l'araphraf~C!> of
~cnrences 10 0 11 d r .
sad . an o ;urtoso - a lot ot lt.1rmng vcrr lighth \\urn it mu:.t be
c • - prO\ Ide the clue) to the\e !>Ourct)...~ , •
The reLent ope t
refere ra '' repertor} an \ IU\11.1 aho provided either noinh of
nee or source~ (ll's h d k - . ,
calh pen · . a_r to now "hJCh) !he mo~t stnkmg and pohti-
libreum ~~a~~~~mpanl>?n IS the Opel a La gratta c/r Trofcmio, by . alieri and the
lliSt.l ( a~ll. \1et,tsta\lo\ ~ucce,~or J~ imperi.Jl LOUrt po t.
NFW ENGLAND CONSERVATORY UBRAJtY
 162 Mlll.AIU AND Or! KA B II A
\alieri wa a rival of Mozart, and Da Ponte mukes it qui te clear i h'
I (~,J~tl· wa~ I,...,
· nva
· I. 1n t h'ts opera, who e libretto wears · 1 n 1 ~ .mcmo1rs
11at
. . · I1~ carnmg quit
hcavdr (with footnotes, no le. ~) two young women sister< e .
. . . • · .,, one ~cnou~ and
book1~h and the other tnv1al und light-hearted ha\c the· 1
. ' tr emperament~
c.:hangcd by entcnng the cave of Trofonio, a kind of wizard Th .· 1 .
. · c1r overs are
confu~cJ by th1s change, and ask the magician to change their tcm
. . . pcraments
a .wdl,
. but by th1s lime
. the g1rb have had their character~ return cd tot he
ongmal. . The
. confusiOns are ~ortcd out in short orde r· Th ·s
1 0 pera was
prcm1ered m 1785, .and tayed in the Bu rgtheatcr repertory until 1788. The
two operas ~bared mgers, though mostly in different kinds of roles: Benucci
(Gugb~lmo) playe~ the magician Trofonio, Calvesi (Ferrando) played
Artem1doro, the senous male lover, and Francesco Bussani (Alfonso) played
PIJstcnc •. the. lc~s serious male lover. In other words, there were enough
conne lions m both the ma terial and the presentation of this work to make
the audience aware of the comparison; they may or may not have known that
DaPonte's La smola degli amanti had first been offered to Salieri; those in the
know wouJd certainly have found the connections between Trofonio and Cosi
particularly delicio us. Another, older opera in the Vien ne e repertory that
audience5 could have connected with Cost was II curiosa indiscrcto by the
compo:.er Pasquale Anfossi and possibly the librettist Giovanni Bertati, author
of the most immediate so urce for Don Giovmmi. In this opera, performed at
the Burgtheater in I 783, and for which Mozart wrote two substitute arias, a
marqui ~ persuades the younger (and presumably more appeali ng) Contino to
te~t the fidelit y of h is wife, a test which, of course, ~he fails.
Reputation
As the pre\ ious p aragraphs sugge~t. Cost had multiple layers of resonance for
its fir!>t aud1ences. And its first Vien nese performances, though not trcmen-
dousJ}' nu merous, were well received. Even the diarist Coun t Zinzendorf, who
did not fa il tu comment when the music did not please, called the work
u h
c armmg. . " I' arIy Nor thern German reception was less en thUS 1.3 ~ t1·c· the
Berlin Annalrn de's Theaters of I May 1791 famously reported on a German
langti4ge producuon that it was ..a m iserable Italian product w1th the powerful,
sublime music ot a Molclrt.'' And from then on, throughout the nineteenth
century .md into the twentieth, the opera wa'> dogged by the noti~n that
~ozart "'" burd.ened by a second·rate, silly, trivial, immoral.' ltalia~, ltbre~~
Richard Wagner m J 851 admired Mo7art's "incapacity" to wn tc mu~IC JS g
a!t that for Ftgaro and Don Ciovan11i to .such n shameful libretto, opining that
had the music been as powerful, it would have desecrated the art. It was
performed mulh le~s frequently than either of the other two DaPonte operas.
( 0 I fAN TUTfE 16]
't was perfo rmed it wa!> not infrequently announ~..ed a a re'< i\ ul.
and w hen J • h . ed
Numerous" 111
~ tte pts \"ere made to bring the worJ mto hne w1th t e percetv
· f
d mo ral purit y of the music, includmg an l863 French, daptat10n o
beautyan • 1· h · f
Shake pea re's Love's Labour's Lost to the mu~ic of Co5r. ~n Eng.t I bn:Vt('WI .<>1
<ion commented, "Wh at think you of ':!hake pearc L01:e s a our IC.:
th IS ver., n7• h d f,
Lost tormented into a libretto to suit Mozart's mu~tc? ' T t.: g~oun _ur
objection here arc not entirely clear, but t~e wntt:r v.a u•rtamly bu 1er
defending hakespea rc against the a ~auJt of the French arrang~:r than Da
Ponte agai nst alteration. Indeed, an earlier English version el~titl.cd Til fvr Tat
had some success; here th e women know that the men arc tnd.;mg them and
play along as revengc.~11 This version v.as aid to do m~re justic.c to "the: '<..
than the original, to demonstrate that women "had thetr han: tn the general
moral improvement" of the nineteenth century, and to be rc<.pu:tublc enough
for the English stage. A similar attempt to ennoble the opaa and be k :.
"degrading" to women than the original was made in tuttgart in H~-8 (tlus
followed four previous adaptations in the ~arne th~:atcr): m thi~ 'l:<.:r:-.ion the
gentlemen in disguise seduce their own gtrlfricnds, wht<.:h allm':. the worn n
to be in fact fai th ful, and their "psychological motiHs agree with truth." Thl!t
alteration was al o thought to make the opera more appropriate both for
young people and for the German nation ovcrall. 79
By the end of the n ineteenth centur} there were inc.:re.1~ing Jttcmpt tu
perform the opera wtth Da Ponte' text, but it did not join ib · '>1:-.tcr:-." in the
canon of rou tinely performed Monrt oper.ts until thrc.:e dc ... ,1dt.:<> into the
twentieth century; it i generally agreed that the ,J~ndchourne prodU<;tion of
1934 wa~ the turning poin t, espectally in Lngh~h-~pcaking ~.:ountn " ~111 e
then, it has be (1me in reasingly appreciated. Ncverthde~-.. it i~ st1ll .1!-.o
regarded as ex<.eptional among MotJrt' m.ll\m.: ~>pct.ts: it j., dl''>Crib J a
every thing from the ''most cmgmatic," the "nw't disturbing," and the "muq
art i.ficial" to the "most beautiful"; and dtrcdor~ and producer~ hJ\ c not
h_es 1 t~ted to change the ending so that the "w10ng" pa:r., (Dor.tbella .md
Gugliel~to, hordiligi and Ferrando) end up wup!t:d, or,,, in th P~·tcr :c.:ll.lf'>
pro.J uctton of 1986, (filmed a few yc.m later) am kind of ~.:oupling sccnh ltkc
an 1111 PO. siblc feat, and the char.1ctcr~ \vhirl aro~nd •• ., 1 olat J monads.
Libretto, tttusic a tJ d t h e trut1rs of Cosl
Whetherornotc 't' J' ~
15 W.·tth out doubt n tcs,
t
uu 1ence , and lhredoro; hnd it troubling .ln)' mor(.', th re
b
of 1\!1 , . a ens10n ctween the extr.JOrdtn 1rv und cun-.pinwu b aut
O&lrt ~ m u~IC h' I1 ]' ,
de • \\ IC most tstener.., take to be emblematic.. of om kind uf
P emottonJI truth ( h tl . · .
conclu . \\ e ler trontc or 1Ill r,li), nJ th~ neat ~) mmdric , pat
SJons, P~ychologtca · 1aust'b·l
· 1 1mp
1 11tes nd c..old-blond d t' l rim~:nt t~<lll
164 07. Rl A ' I> OPf RA ll II A
ot Da Pvntt:'s libretto. And thi ten ion 1 felt all th more bccaus · .
• . • • C II IS on)y
one ot ~cnc of more or lc s exphc1t tens10ns or oppo it10ns which i
. So metimes out of proportiOn reference to a whole world of htera-
Ct'n lltule one o f t hc matn
. top1c
. o f t h e opera. n a sen e
OJ Ponte' libretto IS in fact anrthing but trivi.tl. It is both a brilliant d" I
. . . '
ot wtl and learnmg on tt 0\\'11 term and the perfect frame for Mozart's
. mustc.
[t glAss · ~urface eems to conceal, but m fact reveals it larger point , and it is
thi plav of o;urfacc and depth to which Mozart' music so perfectly responds
The <>et-up of the tory eems entirely con,entional: two young ladies, on~
m~rc:- ~enou~lscria, the_ other more frivolous/b~fTa, and a corresponding pair
ot ~uung gentlemen WJth whom the young ladtes arc in love. A maidservant
pro ides both a social and a dramatic foil to the young ladies; and an older
man provides the preventative to the marriage that would otherwise take
pl.t \! 1mmediately. This ets the drama in motion. But right away the very
pertection of thi set-up reveals a problem, which i that the older man is not
th (OO\entionaJ guardian or father figure interested either in snaring a girl
lor himself or en uring that she marries money or status. He is an "old
philo~pher," whatever that means. And without a father figure the ladies are,
in ei£hteenth-century terms, remarkably cast loose from the normal social
context thc!t '~ould define them. Nor is it explicitly a fantasy or fairy tale, like
Salieri's /.A grotta dr Trofonio, in which the ladic are equally unmoored from
thar iOciallocatwn, but where the frankly mythological setting makes that
ungrouodedne~ more piau ible (if that is the word). Cosr is set in Naples, and
the .tisten are said to be from Ferrara, so the setting 1s quite determinedly
ralistic. However it i1> not clear what the character are doing in Naples, and
why they arc ~·ithout the normal structures of family or other social authority
wtthin which women usu:.11ly lived. Cultural historian John Rosselli has
~that the ladies are ingers living in temporary lodgings while they
perfurm at the famous opera house there; he bases this tdea on their Ferrarese
on&lm (the pun on the name of Da Ponte's singer-mbtress, who played
F'IOrdffisi} and on rht self-reflexivity of the work as a whole. 80 Howeve~,
the comJ*te lad of any reference to a theatrical context makes this a btt
~ .
ru..fetched. It seetnt more hkely that the apparent realism of the setttng.
aatm}y m~endtd to point out the "problem" of the ladies' positton in soctery,
and thw to mdiate the libretto'~ status a<, a game or punle rather than a
depictjon of reality.
Da Ponte's uae of language is similarly ~ubtle and complex. On the ~ne
han4, tb.e work &eU up a clol>Cd !>yo;tcm con i~ling of the wager, the seductiOn
of lh"... oppoarte
. ghurJt'nd~.
...It: • h .
t e dramat1Lally neLessary con r
t ast between
. f1
Oorabetl.'s lpetdy chan~ of heart and 1 iord1lig1's slower and more patn u
~aon. and the pL!cing of the young people'~ passion between 1n
Alfj • -t~. • .
on.o• gn-ltcd philosophv .md 1>esp1na'~ worldly w1se cymcts · .
0
m On t ,e
COS I FAN J UrTE 16S
as mentioned above, the lib retto makes frequent, consp1cuous,
other hand , . .
f unny c~ n d · . . .
turc and archetypical human expcnence. Dor~beUa mvokes the ~umemdes, or
: · in her fi rst response to the gcnllemen s departure; Gugheimo say he
tsp ay f unes, d"l" ·
. uld rather marry Charon, the keeper of the Underworld, than F10r 1 1g1,
once she has betrayed him; in an earlier moment o opt1m1sm, owever, he
wo f . . h
fers to her as a Penelope, Odysseus's faithful and long-suffering .,.vife. Don
re
Alfonso's statement that female fidel ity is a phoenix is on the one had an o Vl-
b.
ously mythological reference, but also invokes specific Metastasian _texts, thus
calling up opera seria's elevated world of love and duty. One could s1mply take
these references as a sign of (especially) the young people's overblown sene of
their own emotions, and indeed on the superficial level, thi reading works
perfectly well. But one can also read the substrate of reference to life-and-
death matters as a sign of the thin ice on which the whole edifice of the opera
(and by extension the whole edifice of social life) is precariously balanced.
The lieto fine (happy end) is similarly clever. Buffa operas all end with
weddings, and many of the couples hitched together in tho e conclu ion
seem less than well-matched. Even within Mozart' opera , one might well
wonder about the Count's capacity to tay faithful to the Counte in Figaro,
or Zerlina's interest in an exclusive bond with Ma etto in Don Giova1111i, let
alone the promise of a happy life to Violante and the Contino in La jinta giar-
diniera, when the latter has already beaten the former :.enseless and left her for
dead. But the presumption in these cases, as with the vast majority of opera
buffa happy ends, is that both the haracter:. and the audience paper OH'r the
troubles revealed in the body of the opera and that the end is about society's
capacity to repair itself, right its imbalance , and produce manageable ltw
for most people. The end of Cosr may seem to ay the same thing, but its
relation to the ending-conventions of the genre suggest:. that its mes:.age is
more complicated. For example, most opera in the repcrtor} immediatcl}
surrounding Cosl, - a repertory that formed the audience'c; expectations -
allowed a relationship that was the result of a "conversion experienLe'' to slid,.
~
In Cosl that would mean that Fiordiligi would m,ury Ferrando and Dorabclla
would marry Guglielmo. A return to an original pairing whether h,tppy or
unhappy, was in these other operas usually the result of class ~.onsidcr.Hions,
wherea
. th at IS
· qUJte
· c1early not the cac;c in Cosl. fhe end in Co_,, i) about affec-
tiOn .rather tl1an c1ass, . but ·11 1· not about bhnd. pa<>ston,
.
and 1t ts not about
~a~~
1111
~ convenient end by clapping the lid on the cauldron of problem~
. PhClt 1n human re 1a1tons, · w het her ·mumate
· . Rather
or more broadlv so1.1al.
II speak 10 · ( . · •
' avour of the mote honec,t but also more painful attitude of
° ac kn
, dowledging 'and acceptmg
goo ness lt i ·
· the 1mposstb1hty
. . . of perfection
. - or C\en of rc,ll
· s not a cyntc,u end, though, despite l)on Alfonso's 'kepuo'm
166 M07..ART A 0 OPERA BUFFA
about human and especially female nature and Despina's disillusiontd .
io~ about men. D~ina's admission at the end of the opera that she hopm-
was duped, which . 1oz.art sets in a completely different rhythm from ev erself
t.-• ---• . h th . .
e~X: s v~ 1me at t e same moment, 50 at llts as clearlr audible~ ~I.e
eryone
is the key to this. Throughout the opera she has been the personification of
"free love" (some have read her as Cupid, or Nature iu.elf . She argues earlitr
in ~e o~ra that l~·c ~ ~bout "pleasure, convenience, wte, joy, diYersion,
p~mg ume, (and ) JOllity ; that men selfishly use \\·omen so they can enjo
those things, and that women should follow theu own whims for the ~
reason, dJ.SCarding partner.. whene\·er they happen to feel like iL But when the
couples return to their original partners. as Don Alfonso knew they would,
Despina's philosophy of throwa .;ay relationships. of the pursuit of immediate
and selfish pl~ure, is rendered as useless~ the lovers' original philosophy of
pure, intense, exclusive and permanent passion, and her comment at the end
that she has a future in further trickery rings rather hollow. The correct atti-
tude, according to Da Ponte, is perfectly explicit on the surface of the opera
and recited by everyone at the end; "Happy is he who can take everything for
its o pposite and let reason guide him through events. Those things which
m.ake others weep are for him a reason for laughter, and in the middle of the
tumult of the world, he will fmd lovely calm."
But even here, there is more than one layer. Don AJfonso has no apparent
penonal interest in love of any sort; he may be happy, but his happiness is
unlike that of most people - when he teUs the gentlemen that looking for
perfection in a woman is recipe for a life alone, he is not recommending that
life. Although he is m uch more explicit about the reasons for his actions than
il Don Giovanni, like that character he remains a psychological blank. Don
Gio¥armi desires all women, makes distmctions among them only to ~e
esk:Dt of being able to assume appropriate "voices" for the prosecution of~
.aims, aad thus has no core "personality" beyond hi~ desires. Don ~o~so 15
llilllilady aablc to make distinctions between actual people, but 11 lS not
lwaate be iJ desire incarnate; rather it is because he is the opposite. He h.a>
DO ptnclall dai.res beyond proving his theorems. !'\either character has a
.at~ aria; both reveal themselves only in relation to others; both are
__._...... ._ . .
- - vr a pnnc1ple, whether reason or pleasure, an ev1 en '
d 'd tlv neither
Walart nor 0. Ponte saw fit to ha,·e them ..elicit the audience's sympath)'
ap1110 • "11
· •L--...L.
ua:uuaves alone on stage. The point here is not that Don Alfonsoth
...--...:...:-•
- r - . _ contentment masks a deep unhappiness, but rat h er that . e
t:a.--_ 0 f passton
IIUUXIU teems to uy that the simultaneous awareness and contra1
-
the·mteraction · between surface calm or smoothne~s with d eeper turnuh or
_ ...; . . . AI~ 0 so was a
--ruCibon - lS the tdeal. (The point is also not that Don
~...... c. _ .. . . . fi
°explore I
---rcrau.c:d ant1-Gt0vanm," but rather that both 1gures
COSI FAN T U ITE 167
ncentrated wavs the nature of pow-er, which had long bttn at
remarkably Co ·
the centre of opera buffa' concerns.)
This reading suggests not that the libretto imply .. left room" for Mozart'
j
rnu.s c,
but rather- that it demanded the OYerfiow of beaut:•
. .
mat
. , ..
Mozart
" -
ovided. That is, the often-percewed mlSIIlatch of the mu.:.K s excesses ot
pr ed d · · · f.
feeling \\ith the libretto's celebration of disinteres~ reason ~ tts spmt o
ore ..'rTV'rimentation is in fact analogous to the 1deas of surface and depth
P -,-- f" . " . I
that are central to the libreuo itself. Three moments o excesst,·e mlblca
beauty illustrate this point. They are the two ensembles of the fur~·eU
sequence, the quintet '"Di scrivermi ogm giorno" ' Write to me t"\·en· da' ")and
the rrio •Soave sia il vento" "Let the breeze be gentle~ 1, and the canonic
"champagne" quartet "E, nel ruo, nel m1o bicchiero" "And in vour, in mv,
glass") in the second act finale. Each of these ensembles halts the action and
expresses sentiments that are in one \~ay or another more than the o.:~ion
demands. In the quintet, the ladies are more gnef- tricken th..lil they h3\t anv
reason to be, and the gentlemen are int'\oitablv caught up in their !11.berv,
partly to plav along \\ilh the trick, but partly out of a mixture of worry at the
omcome of the trick and no-doubt genuine sympathy at the ladie:.' grie( In
the trio, the murmurings of the string a· the gentlemen sad out of tght
invoke a world of mythological forces- breezes ~ith good or ill intentions, for
example; and the twice-heard painful dissonances on the word ~desir" 1 desire )
suggest a scope of feeling far berond the ho~e m ~aples accommodattng two
silly roung ,,·omen and their servant. The "champagne" quartet (inexplKably
cut by Mozart for the first performance) does not expre:> feeling:. in exce::.s of
what we now know the character are capable of, but it is excessive m that it
holds the action up at a crucial moment, and uspend::. the characters in a
moment that at least two of them and the audience know mu t be broken.
Each of these numbers has orne mu ical feature that mak~ tt:. b.:autv
conspicuous - that is, they don't JU r happen to be lovely piece:. beca~
Mozart couldn't help himself. In the rwo fareweU en embles, the accompani-
m~nt is unusuaHy atmo phenc: the murmunng string:. in the tno, in the
qu~ntet the combination of continuou~ long note sugge:.ting an infinite
traJectory and the more metronomic short note:> m the other part , and in the
b fi~al quartet, the use of canon {round). These moments are all poi ed on the
! ~mg~ of the action,~ the tnck begin and end_, and :-.1oz.art' · music mak
5 1t ent1rely dear that th e uperfiClallogtStiCS
. . . of the tnck. are onlv a mall part
of the real action of this opera. ·
Within the e · t• .
0
f xpenment ttse •· Mozart use:. the well-under tood COO\I.'ntlon
opera buffa to develop gradattons of iron'' which also link the qualitv of the
mustc with the pot t"al· . f h l'b .' , . . . . ..
·n ("U en t ltle:. o t e 1 retto. Dora bella s" mante tmpl.t ab1le
nappeasable ra,·ings" ), sung unmediateh he learn:. of the gulllcmen\
 dcp.m urc, 1s u uallv taken .1 an unJJnbiguow.; parody of a eria ra e. .
· · I d' · · b.
~. nn, .1 na 1t10n ~~ more .un tguou a out
b '' omc (Og!io" (''Likeg anJ. The ~
• . al .. . . 1 b ., a rock 1 CH APTER 6
J wrd1I1g1 s <.qUJ\1 ent to ~ mame tmp aCJ. 111, "her<. he as erts the '
.l. f h -. · . . etemJ.!
um:hJng ab11t' o er alied ton ; ome nti~ ha\~ et:n it as pu
re parodv
other:- have n 1t as J more trampar~ nt ~ign of Ftordtliaj\ o ., mt,cgntv· and'
pun t\. It doe , however, ~lear! m.lke u e of the eria tradition of the ·imile
..UJJ, as well .1!. of the bufia tend en~ to lampoon that tradHion. And a! thou h
Fiordihgi is indub1tably ·incere a!l he tng 1t. 1t is h.trd not to ee in ~ts A BRIEF NOTE ON THE
\Ocal and textuaJ exces the ign of her undoing. Her econd act Rondo
"Per piew ben mw'' m whtt h he b~.-go; the ab ent GugLelmo' pardon fo; UNFINISH ED AND
the infiddity -,he l...now ·h ''ill (Ommit, i rarely t.ak~..:n as ironic. H0 ,, ever,
it tak~ the long t, nding tr.tdition of the eriou aria with obbugato wind MISCELLAN EOUS OPERAS
instrum nt to unpn.: edented eurcm -· both of vocal effort and of in tru-
mental prominence. with the French hom both nmg to upport and
decorate Fwrdiligi's YO .U line, and punningly reminding the audience of pollo et Hyacintlws. Latin intermezzo to the drama Clementia Croe~i.
the cuckoldry that i ab0ut to en, ue. 1 Cuckotd... - men who e wives cheat on
them - ~ re .,ajd to grow horn~., Th ambigmty of the horn in this aria is
A Libretto by Father Ru finius Widl. 'alzburg Cni,·ersiry, 13 Ma} l7o7.

~mhlematJc of the ddi(att! baJ<m.... of musJCal meaning throughout the

CHARACTE RS:
opera· and the wa} 1t refer· to \ ariou t radit,on imultaneously is do ely
.malogou~ ro the witty and profo und reft.. rentiality of Da Ponte's text. Oebalu , King of Lacedemonia Tenor
'Jbe nineteenth ~ntury found th op r.t immoral because it "degradedn Melia, Oebalu ' daughter opr.1no
~"'men. More recent critici!>m h~ tended to a\oid the qu~tion of morality, Hya inthu , Oebalu ' on , opr.mo
finding largefv .aC$thctic pleasure in the '.\Ork. Another reJding might return polio, gue!)t of Oebalu Alto
to nwral qutStions and find this work perhars the mo t morally engagc:d of Zephyrus, friend of Hv.Kinthus Alto
JJl the Mozart operas becau~ to a umque extent the mmte sugge ts its own Two a rifi ial prie~ts ~f Apollo Ba: ·c
point of vit"W,.indepen&nt of the character~· -.uperficial interactions or rrJ}ec· Choru
tories and \V(' pc-ruive that p<>int of \'iew with an emotional immed1acy that
lends &t the for'e of a Jesson. This lesson -.u~e:,b fir t fall that beaut~ (and This three-pan work would ha,·c bl?en performed b tv~ een tht> t1-..e .t.:t:. of thl'
i
thus the gQOd that beauty mav S}'tllboliuJ al~ Jn n~ ting and precarious. Latin play (hence the generic title intermezzo, or int~·rmcdium ). The fir~t .ld
rhe mtr;t consptcoously beautiful . . . . I. d t the rntht preceded the beginning of the play.
mo.r,ntnts ar~ bo(h bn an a ._ ,
~Jic.att rnOillC'1lb in the plot for aamp~. and the con picuou.;lr "be.wttlul
....1-.:~' ( ·L- bhl . . both beJU-
~l'u.;<: o u~e o 1pto born at a tll()Jmnt of extreme -.ennment JS
:~.a M-'
t uw . U
an., potentJa y com1c The leuon thu also uggl!'>t , m c 0
. I e collJbora-
a1 douv1e
~...
. ~ . The_ opera opens "1·th prep,1r.1t10n:.· .
for a ~.11..nfice to Apollo. /eph' ru' lj,r., a
uon ~tl ' t librmo. that the fuUv hum.an life r~qunes a perpctu . b
h h
ene of god h ld . , .
· · f bt;tng ~ A e '' ou a ~oon worshtp. 1 he l.'horu-, <.'tler' tt-. pr.n er-, to
c.onscsnusoess - a capacity to be ~uced into a h eedL~., state 0 ake 11
bectuty ior lot~) and an equal capaci.n• to 5~P ba~.:k fn.un that ~tart: and t t podo,h~ut a torm gathers .1nd destro\ ., the alt.u; Oeh.tlu. .tnd \ klt.t ~mdt•r
an t IS a. a .. t• , . .
her d of soctal norms. nu d Mgn o polio dtsple.hure. I haunthu, , how \cr. h.1' .1 more
ance. und rst.ln<I'mg o f the wa\ the ~ods ruk· ,ometunt''~ b' t ,1r ;1' \l
~omett mes h)· I . .. ,
tio r O\ t'. polio appe.:trs in ::.hephcni':. dothtng. He c\. )rc.: ,.._., t
l1 t Or both ( J' · ' .
eta and HL1tlllthu!), .tnd Zeph~ ru:. . \\<.lrrkd thJt \polio'' Ill