Waste Management 26 (2006) 1166–1172

www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Technical paper

The cause and inXuence of self-cementing properties of Wne recycled

concrete aggregates on the properties of unbound sub-base
Chi-Sun Poon ¤, X.C. Qiao, Dixon Chan
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Accepted 8 December 2005

Available online 20 Febrauary 2006

Abstract

The use of coarse recycled concrete aggregates (CRCA) in conjunction with Wne recycled concrete aggregates (FRCA) as sub-
base materials has been widely studied. Although research results indicate that it is feasible to employ both CRCA and FRCA as
granular sub-base, the inXuence of the unhydrated cement in the adhered mortar of the RCA on the properties of the sub-base
materials has not been thoroughly studied. Generally, it is known that the strength of the sub-base materials prepared with RCA
increases over time. However, this mechanism, known as the self-cementing properties, is not well understood and is believed to be
governed by the properties of the Wne portion of the RCA (<5 mm). This paper presents an investigation on the cause of the self-
cementing properties by measuring X-ray diVraction patterns, pH values, compressive strength and permeability of various size
fractions of the FRCA obtained from a commercially operated construction and demolition waste recycling plant. Their inXuence
on the overall sub-base materials was determined. The results indicate that the size fractions of <0.15 and 0.3–0.6 mm (active frac-
tions) were most likely to be the principal cause of the self-cementing properties of the FRCA. However, the eVects on the proper-
ties of the overall RCA sub-base materials were minimal if the total quantity of the active fractions was limited to a threshold by
weight of the total Wne aggregate.
© 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction concerns. As a result, recycling of these wastes becomes one

The quantities of construction and demolition (C&D)
wastes generated in Hong Kong have signiWcantly risen
from 13.6 million tonnes in 1999 to 19.6 million tonnes in
2003 (CEDD, 2004). It is estimated that this trend will
continue. Hence, it is important to handle these C&D
wastes scientiWcally and in a sustainable manner in
Hong Kong. It is also of interest to note that in 2003
Hong Kong consumed about 13 million tonnes of aggre-
gates and rock products for construction purposes
(Hong Kong Government, 2003).
The disposal of C&D wastes at landWlls is becoming less
favorable due to the dwindling number of landWlls,
increased costs of disposal, and augmented environmental
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +852 2766 6024; fax: +852 2334 6389.
E-mail address: cecspoon@polyu.edu.hk (C.-S. Poon).
of the few viable options because it can solve the increasing
waste storage problem as well as protect the limited natural
resources.
The use of C&D wastes as a source of aggregate in the
production of new concrete has become more popular in
recent decades. Previous studies have proven that the
coarse recycled concrete aggregates (CRCA) can be suc-
cessfully used as a partial or complete substitution of natu-
ral aggregates (NA) in the production of ordinary concrete
(Katz, 2003; Topcu and Sengel, 2004; Poon et al., 2004) and
in high strength concrete (Limbachiya et al., 2000; Shayan
and Xu, 2003). Although the use of RCA has become more
popular in concrete products, limited applications have
been found for the use of the Wne portion (<5 mm) of RCA
due to the detrimental eVects of the Wne RCA on the fresh
and hardened properties of concrete (Hansen, 1992). Nev-
ertheless, the Wne recycled concrete aggregates (FRCA) can

0956-053X/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2005.12.013
 C.-S. Poon et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 1166–1172 1167

be used in mould bricks and blocks since workability is not
important for these dry concrete mixtures (Poon et al.,
2002; Poon and Chan, in press-a).
Alternatively, the use of FRCA in conjunction with
CRCA as granular road material has been widely
reported (Chini et al., 2001; Park, 2003; Nataatmadja and
Tan, 2001; Poon and Chan, in press-b). Park (2003) con-
cluded that 100% RCA (both coarse and Wne) can be used
as base and sub-base materials for supporting a concrete
pavement. Nataatmadja and Tan (2001) reported that the
performance of the sub-base materials prepared with both
CRCA and FRCA was comparable to that of natural sub-
base materials. Poon and Chan (in press-b) reported that
it was feasible to use RCA and crushed clay brick as an
unbound granular sub-base. Although these research
results have demonstrated the feasibility of using FRCA
in sub-base, the inXuence of the unhydrated cement that
remains in the adhered mortar of the FRCA on the prop-
erties of the sub-base materials has not been thoroughly
studied. Recently, Arm (2001) found that the stiVness of
the unbound base/sub-base layers made with crushed
demolished concrete increased as time increased. How-
ever, the same phenomenon, referred to as self-cementing
properties, did not occur for the natural base/sub-base
layers.
This study aims to explore the fundamental causes of
the self-cementing properties of the Wne portion of RCA
(<5 mm) and its possible eVects on the properties of the
overall RCA sub-base materials. The X-ray diVraction
patterns, pH value, compressive strength, toxicity charac-
teristics leaching procedure (TCLP) and permeability
were initially investigated for the FRCA. After that, the
FRCA was blended with CRCA to produce the sub-base
materials in conformance with Hong Kong speciWcations
(Works Bureau, 2002). The blended sub-base materials
were compacted at their optimum moisture content before
the California bearing ratio (CBR) and permeability tests
were carried out to evaluate its overall performance. Fur-
thermore, the inXuence of the variability (i.e., using labo-
ratory prepared concretes with diVerent grading curves)
of the FRCA on the self-cementing characteristics of the
sub-base was also investigated in the last part of this
study.
2. Materials
Natural aggregates (NA), with nominal sizes ranging
from 40 to <5 mm, which comply with the grading limits of
BS882 (British Standards Institute, 1992), were used to pre-
pare the sub-base material that served as the control. The
properties of the NA are summarized in Table 1.
Recycled concrete aggregates, with nominal sizes rang-
ing from 40 to <5 mm, were used. They were sourced from a
commercially operated construction and demolition waste
recycling facility in Hong Kong. The properties of the RCA
are summarized in Table 2.
Generally, the density of NA was higher than that of
RCA. Due to the adhered mortar, RCA exempliWed a
higher water absorption value compared to that of NA.
The strength of the aggregates was tested in terms of the
10% Wnes value. This test provides a measure of the resis-
tance of aggregates to crushing under a gradually applied
compressive load. The results revealed that the resistance to
crushing of NA was higher than that of RCA. Nevertheless,

Table 1
Properties of natural aggregates (NA)
Test methods Properties Aggregate size
40 (mm) 20 (mm) 10 (mm) <5 (mm)
3
BS 812 Part 2 Density-saturated surface dry (kg/m ) 2622 2660 2577 2579
Density-oven-dry (kg/m3) 2594 2644 2562 2492
Water absorption (%) 1.06 0.57 0.59 3.51
BS 812 Part 111 10% Wnes – soaked (kN) – 190 – –
BS 812 Part 121 Soundness (%) – 97.5 – –
BS 1377 Part 3 Water-soluble sulphate content (g/L) – – – 0.025

Table 2
Properties of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA)
Test methods Properties Aggregate size
40 (mm) 20 (mm) 10 (mm) <5 (mm)
3
BS 812 Part 2 Density-saturated surface dry (kg/m ) 2487 2546 2580 2310
Density-oven-dry (kg/m3) 2411 2493 2523 2093
Water absorption (%) 3.17 2.17 2.29 10.3
BS 812 Part 111 10% Wnes – soaked (kN) – 109 – –
BS 812 Part 121 Soundness (%) – 96.3 – –
BS 1377 Part 3 Water-soluble sulphate content (g/L) – – – 0.032
1168 C.-S. Poon et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 1166–1172
the soundness and water-soluble sulphate content were
similar for these two materials.
3. Test methods
3.1. Assessment of FRCA
A series of tests was conducted to evaluate the proper-
ties of the FRCA. These tests included X-ray diVraction,
pH value, compressive strength, toxic characteristics
leaching procedure (TCLP) and permeability. The X-ray
diVraction patterns and pH value analyses were carried
out for the smallest three size fractions of the Wne RCA
(i.e., <0.15, 0.15–0.3, 0.3–0.6 mm). For the pH value mea-
surement, 5 g of the FRCA and 100 ml of distilled water
were simultaneously added into a 200-ml glass Xask with a
screw lid and were automatically mixed on a shaking
table. The pH values of the solution were measured at 10,
20, 40, 60, 120, 180 and 4320 min after the mixing process
had begun. The TCLP test was carried out to assess the
potential risk posed by the RCA from leaching of toxic
constituents. In the test, the FRCA was extracted with
acetic acid solution for 18 h at a 20:1 liquid-to-solid ratio
(L/kg). The extract was analyzed to determine if the
FRCA possessed leachate toxic constituents. The RCA
was considered hazardous if the concentrations of the
constituents in the leachate exceed the regulatory level
prescribed by the US Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) (Conner, 1990).
The compressive strengths of Wve size fractions of the
FRCA were determined: <0.15, 0.15–0.30, 0.3–0.6, 0.6–
1.18 mm and <5 mm (overall). The materials were mixed
with water using a trowel at room temperature such that a
water-to-solid ratio of 0.5 was obtained. They were then
cast into copper moulds (⭋40 £ 80 mm) and compacted
under a pressure of 200 MPa until no water was extruded.
The surface of the compacted sample was leveled before
placing the specimens in a fog tank at two diVerent temper-
atures of 25 °C (N-curing) and 65 °C (S-curing) for a 7-day
curing process. After the 7-day curing stage, the specimens
were removed from the tank and demoulded prior to test-
ing. The tests were designed to show the potential size frac-
tions of the FRCA, which contributed to the increase in
strength or stiVness as reported by Arm (2001). The frac-
tions 1.18–2.36 mm and 2.36–5.0 mm were not included in
the test because the materials in these fractions could not
bind together after compaction.
The permeability test was carried out for the FRCA using
the falling head method (Head, 1994). The FRCA was ini-
tially compacted at its optimum moisture content in a mould
with internal dimensions of ⭋100 £ 130 mm. The measure-
ment was done immediately after compaction, after a 7-day
S-curing stage at a temperature of 65 °C and after a 10-day
curing regime which comprised a 7-day S-curing stage at a
temperature of 65 °C and a subsequent 3-day air curing
period. A reduction in the permeability was a manifestation
of the occurrence of the self-cementing phenomenon.
3.2. Tests for sub-base
After the preliminary assessment of the FRCA, the
FRCA was blended with the CRCA in accordance with the
speciWcations in Hong Kong to produce the sub-base mate-
rials. Aggregates with various nominal sizes were blended
in such a way that the 40, 20, 10 and <5 mm aggregates,
respectively, constituted 20%, 10%, 40% and 30% by mass
of the total aggregates for the sub-base. The optimum mois-
ture content was Wrst determined for the blended materials.
The CBR test was then conducted in both soaked and
unsoaked conditions in accordance with BS 1377-4 (1990)
to evaluate the bearing properties of the RCA sub-base.
The results were subsequently compared with those of the
sub-base prepared with natural aggregates.
The conventional permeability test uses a mould with
internal dimensions of ⭋100 £ 130 mm. It was only suitable
for measuring the imperviousness of the materials with a
maximum size of 10 mm or less, which cannot represent the
real condition of a road sub-base which generally contains
aggregates up to the size of 37.5 mm. In order to assess the
inXuence of the self-cementing properties of the FRCA on
the permeability of the overall sub-base material, the sub-
base materials were therefore compacted in a 150 mm3
mould to determine the inXuence of the FRCA on the per-
meability of the overall sub-base materials.
4. Results and discussion
The X-ray diVraction patterns of the three size fractions
(<0.15, 0.15–0.30 and 0.3–0.6 mm) of RCA are shown in
Fig. 1. The results indicated that C2S and C3H2S3 (C–S–H)
were detected in the RCA samples. Because C2S is a less
reactive compound compared to C3S (Newman and Choo,
2003), it cannot be completely hydrated even after a long
curing time. It probably explains why C2S was still detected
in the RCA samples. However, the presence of C2S gradu-
ally vanished as the size of RCA increased. The results
revealed that the <0.15 mm fraction of RCA could be a
highly possible cause of the self cementing properties of
RCA as this fraction contained the highest amount of C2S.
Although C2S was not detected in the 0.3–0.6 mm fraction
of RCA, the pH value (Fig. 2) of the solution prepared with
C3H2S3
SiO2
13000
11000
C2S
9000
7000
0-0.15 mm
5000
3000
0.15-0.30 mm
1000
0.30-0.60 mm
-1000
10 20 30 40 50 60
2-Theta
Fig. 1. X-ray diVraction patterns of diVerent size fractions of FRCA.
 C.-S. Poon et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 1166–1172 1169

12.0 of C2S (in the <0.15 mm fraction) and the amorphous

hydration products (in the 0.3–0.6 mm fraction).
11.5 The results of the TCLP test are shown in Table 3. It was
clear that the toxic constituents in the leachate of the RCA
did not exceed the regulatory level prescribed by the US
11.0
Environmental Protection Agency of (EPA). Therefore, the
use of RCA as sub-base would not pose a potential hazard-
pH

10.5 ous risk to the environment.

10.0
9.5
9.0
0 10 20 40 60
Time (mins)
Fig. 2. pH values of diVerent size fractions of FRCA in solution.
the 0.3–0.6 mm fraction of RCA was the highest compared
to the pH values of the samples prepared with <0.15 or
0.15–0.3 mm fractions. The results implied that there were
more amorphous hydration products in the fraction of 0.3–
0.6 mm, which could provide suYcient lime (CaO) for addi-
tional reaction.
The compressive strengths of diVerent size fractions
(<0.15, 0.15–0.30, 0.30–0.60 and 0.60–1.18 mm) of RCA and
<5 mm (overall) RCA subjected to diVerent curing regimes
are shown in Fig. 3. It is shown that the S-curing regime
accelerated the strength development of the FRCA. It was
noticeable that size fractions of <0.15 and 0.3–0.6 mm had
the higher compressive strength compared to other frac-
tions. The corresponding strengths were 1.54 and 1.32 MPa
for fractions <0.15 and 0.3–0.6 mm, respectively. In con-
trast, the strengths were much lower for size fractions of
0.15–0.30 and 0.6–1.18 mm. The high compressive strength
for the former size fractions was attributed to the presence
1.8
7D_S-Curing
1.6
Compressive Strength (MPa)
The permeability of the (<5 mm) FRCA was determined
using a falling head method and compared with the results
0-0.15 mm
of the Wne NA. Table 4 shows that the permeability of the
0.15-0.30 mm RCA sample was higher than that of the NA sample. The
0.30-0.60 mm higher initial coeYcient of permeability of the RCA sample
was attributed to the porous nature of the RCA. However,
after a 7-day S-curing regime, the permeability of the RCA
120 180 4320
sample signiWcantly decreased while only a slight decrease
was observed for the NA sample. The subsequent 3-day air
curing further decreased the permeability of the RCA sam-
ple, but the inXuence on the NA sample was insigniWcant.
The results indicated that the inXuence of the self-cement-
ing eVects on the permeability of the FRCA sample was
signiWcant.
After the preliminary assessment of the FRCA, the
<5 mm materials were blended with the CRCA to produce
the sub-base materials. Furthermore, the Wne and coarse
NAs were also blended to produce a control sub-base for
comparison. The grading curves for the RCA and NA sub-
base materials after blending are shown in Fig. 4. Both
materials satisWed the grading limit prescribed by the speci-
Wcation of Hong Kong for sub-base materials. The mois-
ture–density relationship was determined for each sub-base
material prior to the CBR test. The optimum moisture con-
tents were 8.6% and 11.8% for the sub-base materials pre-
pared with natural and recycled aggregates, respectively.
The corresponding maximum dry densities were 2.15 and
2.02 mg/m3 for the natural and recycled sub-base materials,
Table 3
Toxic characteristics leaching procedure (TCLP) test results
Component (mg/L) EPA hazardous NA RCA
criteria (Conner, 1990)
As <5.0 0.031 0.010
Ba <100 ND 0.225

7D_N-Curing
1.4 Cd <1.0 ND ND
1D_N-Curing Cr <5.0 0.003 0.006
1.2 Pb <5.0 0.010 0.009
1 Hg <0.2 ND ND
Se <1.0 ND ND
0.8 Ag <5.0 ND ND
0.6 ND, not detected.
0.4
0.2 Table 4
CoeYcients of permeability of samples
0
0-0.15 0.15-0.30 0.30-0.60 0.60-1.18 0-5 Fine aggregate Immediately 7-day S-curing 7-day S-curing
Sieve size (mm) after compaction + 3-day air curing

Fig. 3. Compressive strength of samples prepared with diVerent size frac- NA (cm/s) 6.593 £ 10¡6 4.950 £ 10¡6 4.610 £ 10¡6
RCA (cm/s) 3.828 £ 10¡4 2.563 £ 10¡5 7.195 £ 10¡6
tions of FRCA.
1170 C.-S. Poon et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 1166–1172
NA
RCA
HK specification
0.01 0.1 1 10
Sieve Size (mm)
Fig. 4. Grading curves for the sub-base materials.
respectively. Due to the high water absorbability and the
lower particle density of RCA compared to those of NA,
the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density
of the RCA sub-base were, respectively, higher and lower
compared to those of sub-base materials prepared with NA.
The CBR test was carried out in both soaked (after a 4-
day soaking period) and unsoaked conditions. The results
(Table 5) showed that the bearing strength of the sub-base
materials prepared with RCA was lower than that of NA
sub-base. Compared to the unsoaked condition, the soaked
condition did not aVect the strength of both sub-base mate-
rials. Furthermore, both materials showed negligible swell
(i.e., <0.07%) after a 4-day soaking period and should not
cause any Weld problems during saturation condition. In
Hong Kong, a CBR value of >30% is considered suitable to
be used as the sub-base. The results indicated that the use of
100% RCA is adequate to be used as granular sub-base
materials
The blended sub-base prepared with the RCA was sub-
jected to a 7-day S-curing regime at 65 °C prior to the per-
meability measurement. The measured coeYcient of
permeability was found to be 2.67 £ 10¡1 cm/s for the RCA
sub-base. For comparison purposes, the permeability of the
sub-base prepared with NA was also measured; however,
the NA sub-base was not subjected to a steam curing
regime because it was found that steam curing did not have
a signiWcant impact on the permeability of the Wne NA and
the self-cementing eVects were never considered for the NA
sub-base. The corresponding coeYcient of permeability for
the NA sub-base was found to be 2.29 £ 10¡1 cm/s. Due to
the porous nature of the RCA, a higher coeYcient of per-
meability of the sub-base prepared with RCA should be
expected when compared with the sub-base prepared with
NA. However, the more permeable nature of the RCA sub-
Table 5
Results of CBR test
Unsoaked (%)
NA 85
RCA 66
120 base was oVset by the self-cementing properties of the Wne
RCA. As a result, the permeability of the sub-base prepared
100 with RCA after a 7-day S-curing regime was comparable to
that of sub-base prepared with NA.
Percent Passing (%)
80
60
5. Further assessment of the variability of the Wne RCA on
the self-cementing characteristics
40
In order to assess the variability of the Wne RCA on the
20 self-cementing characteristics of the sub-base materials, a
laboratory prepared Grade 45 concrete was crushed into
100
0
the Wne aggregate (RCA-16L) at the curing age of 16 mo in
our laboratory using a laboratory impact crusher. Due to
the diVerent crushing conditions, the grading of the FRCA-
16L was diVerent compared to that of the commercially
produced RCA as shown in Fig. 5. One may notice that the
quantity of the active size fraction (0.3–0.6 mm) of the
FRCA-16L was about twice as much as that of the FRCA,
while the quantity of the <0.15 mm fraction was similar
between the FRCA and the FRCA-16L. For FRCA and
FRCA-16L, the total quantities of the active size fraction
(<0.15 + 0.3–0.6 mm) weighed 28.5 and 42.3% of the total
Wne aggregate, respectively. Due to the high quantity of the
active fraction and the relatively young age (more C2S and
unhydrated cement grains) of the concrete from which the
FRCA-16L was derived, it was expected that the compres-
sive strength of the FRCA-16L was higher than that of the
FRCA. Fig. 6 shows the comparison between the compres-
sive strength of FRCA-16L, FRCA and FRCA prepared
with the addition of 1% unhydrated cement by weight of
the FRCA at various curing ages. As expected, the com-
pressive strength of the FRCA was lower than that of the
FRCA-16L. However, the compressive strength of the
FRCA-16L was still much lower than that of the FRCA
when 1% unhydrated cement by weight of the FRCA was
added.
Nevertheless, it was expected that the permeability of the
sub-base would be greatly aVected by the quantity of the
active size fractions in the FRCA-16L. Therefore, before
the permeability test was carried out for the sub-base in
Soaked (%)
83
66 Fig. 5. Sieve analysis of FRCA and FRCA-16L.
 C.-S. Poon et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 1166–1172
Fig. 6. Compressive strength of FRCA + 1% unhydrated cement, FRCA-
16L and FRCA.
Table 6
Summary of the coeYcient of permeability of sub-base prepared with
diVerent materials
Sub-base type CoeYcient of permeability (cm/s)
NAa 2.29 £ 10¡1
RCA 2.67 £ 10¡1
RCA-16L 2.04 £ 10¡7
RCA-16L (adjusted) 2.31 £ 10¡1
a
Was not subject to a 7-day steam curing regime.
which the FRCA-16L was incorporated, one more FRCA-
16L sample was prepared but its corresponding grading
was adjusted in a manner that it had the same grading
curve (or quantity in each size fraction) as that of the
FRCA. The sub-base was blended using the same ratio but
only the original FRCA was replaced by FRCA-16L and
the adjusted FRCA-16L. Similarly, the sub-base was sub-
jected to a 7-day S-curing regime prior to the permeability
test. The permeability results are shown in Table 6, and the
coeYcients of permeability for both the sub-bases prepared
with NA and RCA are cited as references. The results indi-
cated that the permeability of the sub-base prepared with
FRCA-16L was drastically reduced when compared to that
of the sub-base prepared with FRCA. However, the reduc-
tion in the permeability of the sub-base was ameliorated
when the active size fractions in the FRCA-16L were
adjusted to be similar to those in FRCA. The coeYcient of
permeability increased from 2.04 £ 10¡7 to 2.31 £ 10¡1 cm/s
when the active size fractions in the FRCA-16L were
reduced from 43.2 to 28.5% by weight of the total Wne
aggregate. It is, therefore, important to limit the active size
fractions of the Wne recycled concrete aggregate to a thresh-
old value to prevent clogging of the sub-base resulting from
the self-cementing phenomenon.
6. Conclusions
In this study, the cause of the self-cementing properties of
the sub-base materials prepared with recycled concrete
aggregate (RCA) were investigated. It was believed that the
unhydrated cement remained in the mortar of the FRCA
1171
was the principal cause of the self-cementing phenomenon.
As a result, a series of tests was initially carried out to assess
the properties of diVerent size fractions of the FRCA. The
results of X-ray diVraction, pH values, compressive strength
and permeability showed that the size fractions of <0.15 and
0.3–0.6 mm (active fractions) were most likely to be the cause
for the self-cementing phenomenon. Nevertheless, the results
showed that, if the active fractions of the Wne recycled con-
crete aggregate were limited to a threshold by weight of the
total Wne aggregate, the self-cementing properties of the
FRCA had a negligible eVect on the performance of the
overall sub-base materials prepared with RCA.
Based on the results of this study, it is known that the
cause of the self-cementing properties was attributed to the
intrinsic properties of the FRCA, which could be aVected
by the age, grade, and amount of cementitious materials
used in the original concrete from which the RCA was
derived. The age, grade and mix proportions of the original
concrete would be the deciding factors of amount of the
unhydrated cement and C2S presented in the adhered mor-
tar of FRCA. A further study is then required to establish
relationships between these parameters and the develop-
ment of the self-cementing phenomenon. Furthermore, it is
recommended to investigate the eVects of the compaction
eVort and the rate of compaction on the self-cementing
properties of the sub-base materials prepared with RCA
since the grading of FRCA may have changed after com-
paction and grading was proven to be an important factor
of the self-cementing properties of sub-base materials.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Environment Conservation
Fund, the Woo Wheelock Green Fund, and the Hong
Kong Polytechnic University for the Wnancial support.
References
Arm, M., 2001. Self-cementing properties of crushed demolished concrete
in unbound layers: results from triaxial tests and Weld tests. Waste
Management 21 (3), 235–239.
British Standards Institute, 1990, BS 1377-4. Methods of test for soils for
civil engineering purposes Part 4: compaction-related tests.
British Standards Institute, 1992, BS 882. SpeciWcation for aggregates
from natural sources for concrete.
Chini, A.R., Kuo, S.-S., Armaghani, J.M., Duxbury, J.P., 2001. Test of recy-
cled concrete aggregate in accelerated test track. Journal of Transpor-
tation Engineering 127 (6), 486–492.
Civil Engineering and Development Department (CEDD), HKSAR, 2004.
Statistic on generation of C&D materials. Available from:
<(www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/services/recycling/stat_eng_cd.mat. pdf)>.
Conner, J.R., 1990. Chemical Fixation and SolidiWcation of Hazardous
Wastes. Van Nostrand-Reinhold, New York.
Hong Kong Government, 2003. Hong Kong Year Book. Available from:
<www.info.gov.hk/yearbook>.
Hansen, T.C., 1992.Recycling of demolished concrete and masonry
RILEM TC 37-DRC-Demolition and Reuse of Concrete E&FN Spon,
London.
Head, K.H., 1994, second ed. Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, vol. 2:
Permeability, Shear Strength and Compressibility Tests John Wiley &
Sons, Inc..
1172 C.-S. Poon et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 1166–1172
Katz, A., 2003. Properties of concrete made with recycled aggregate from
partially hydrated old concrete. Cement and Concrete Research 33 (5),
703–711.
Limbachiya, M.C., Leelawat, T., Dhir, R.K., 2000. Use of recycled concrete
aggregate in high-strength concrete. Materials and Structures 33, 574–
580.
Nataatmadja, A., Tan, Y.L., 2001. Resilient response of recycled concrete
road aggregates. Journal of Transportation Engineering 127 (5), 450–
453.
Newman, J., Choo, B.S. (Eds.), 2003. Advanced Concrete Technology Con-
stituent Materials. Elsevier.
Park, T., 2003. Application of construction and building debris as base and
subbase materials in rigid pavement. Journal of Transportation Engi-
neering 129 (5), 558–563.
Poon, C.S., Chan, D. Paving blocks made with recycled concrete aggregate
and crushed clay brick. Construction and Building Materials, in press-a.
Poon, C.S., Chan, D. Feasible use of recycled concrete aggregates and
crushed clay brick as unbound sub-base. Construction and Building
Materials, in press-b.
Poon, C.S., Kou, S.C., Lam, L., 2002. Use of recycled aggregate in molded
concrete bricks and blocks. Construction and Building Materials 16
(5), 281–289.
Poon, C.S., Shui, Z.H., Lam, L., 2004. EVect of microstructure of ITZ on
compressive strength of concrete prepared with recycled aggregates.
Construction and Building Materials 18 (6), 461–468.
Shayan, A., Xu, A., 2003. Performance and properties of structural con-
crete made with recycled concrete aggregate. ACI Materials Journal
100 (5), 371–380.
Topcu, I.B., Sengel, S., 2004. Properties of concretes produced with waste
concrete aggregate. Cement and Concrete Research 34 (8), 1307–1312.
Works Bureau, 2002. SpeciWcation facilitating the use of recycled aggre-
gates. WBTC No. 12/2002, The Hong Kong SAR Government.