Cooling Towers

AN EXTENSIVE APPROACH
Outline

 Overview of heat transfer through evaporation

 Overview of relevant terms related to cooling operations
 Introduction to cooling towers
 Basic working principle of a cooling tower
 Classification of cooling towers
 Major components of a cooling tower
 Design of natural draft cooling tower with numerical example
 Strategies to improve cooling tower performance
 Importance of cooling towers in Chemical Process Industry
 References
Evaporation

 Evaporation is the conversion of a liquid phase of a material or

substance to a vapor phase at a specific temperature and pressure.

 At normal temperature and pressure, all liquids posses a liquid and

vapor phase, which are in equilibrium with each other, if the
temperature and pressure conditions remain the same.

 Rate of evaporation of a liquid is affected by the change in

ambient temperature and pressure conditions.

 The change affects the vapor pressure of the liquid, causing an

increase or decrease in rate of evaporation.
Why evaporation causes cooling ?

 Evaporation results in vapor escaping from the surface of the liquid.

 The vapors require energy to escape.

 That energy is heat.

 As vapors escape the surface, they carry with them some heat
content of the liquid, and thus cause the liquid surface to cool.
Terminologies relevant to cooling
operations
 Humidity – Amount of vapor associated with a unit mass of dry gas.

 Relative humidity – Ratio of partial pressure of vapor in gas to the partial

pressure of vapor in same gas at saturation.

 Humidification – Process of increasing the amount of vapor in a gas

stream.

 De-humidification – The opposite of humidification i.e. the process of

decreasing the amount of vapor in a gas stream.

 Wet-bulb temperature – The lowest temperature that water

theoretically can reach by evaporation.
Factors affecting rate of
evaporation
 Some major factors include

 Temperature and pressure of the liquid being evaporated.

 Temperature and pressure of the ambient gas which will accept the
vapors from incoming liquid.
 Humidity of the ambient gas.
 Flow conditions for liquid and gas.
 Weather conditions in case of open-air evaporation generally
describing the temperature, pressure, and velocity of ambient air e.g.,
water evaporating from a pond.
Cooling towers
 As per the definition of Cooling Technology Institute (CTI), USA

“A cooling tower is a heat rejection device,

which extracts waste heat to the atmosphere
though the cooling of a water stream
to a lower temperature.”

 Cooling towers are used in process industries to cool off effluent water from various heat transfer
equipment e.g., condensate from a condenser.

 Cooling towers, in general, cool the water to a temperature below the dry-bulb and above the
wet-bulb temperature of air at the present conditions.

 The cooled water is sent back to the process for reuse, thus emphasizing conservation of water.
Basic working principle of a cooling
tower
 Considering an example of an air-water system, the basic working
principle of a cooling tower can be listed as,

1. Hot water and relatively cool ambient air enter the cooling tower.
2. Heat transfer between the air stream and the water stream occurs.
3. Hot water transfers its heat to the ambient air and becomes cool.
4. Cool water is removed from the cooling tower and sent back to the
process plant.
5. The resulting hot air rises and is, generally, removed from the top of the
tower by virtue of its low density.
Classification of cooling towers

 Cooling towers are generally classified based on the following

factors,

1. Method by which air is introduced into the tower.

2. Flow configuration inside the tower.
3. Method of heat transfer / heat removal.
1. Air Introduction Method

NO. TYPE DESCRIPTION

1 Natural draft cooling Air movement is regulated without any help of

towers a mechanical fan or regulator and is
dependent on the height and size of the
tower
2 Mechanical draft Air is regulated by means of mechanical fans.
cooling towers It has two further types based on the
positioning of the fan

 Induced mechanical draft where the fan is

positioned on the top side of the tower

 Forced mechanical draft where the fan is

positioned at the bottom side of the tower
2. Flow configuration
NO. TYPE
1 Cross flow configuration
2 Counter-current flow
configuration
3 Co-current flow
configuration
DESCRIPTION
The air stream enters the tower in a direction
perpendicular to that of flow of water e.g., air
entering from the sides of the cooling tower in
association with the water stream entering
from the top of the tower
The air stream and water stream flow in
parallel but opposite direction inside the
tower e.g., air entering from below and water
entering from the top of the tower
The air stream and water stream flow in
parallel and same direction inside the tower
2. Flow Configuration (contd.)
3. Method of Heat Transfer
NO. TYPE DESCRIPTION

1 Dry cooling towers Transfer heat through a surface which

separates the working fluid from ambient air
e.g., tube to air heat exchanger. No
evaporation occurs in dry cooling towers

2 Wet cooling towers Transfer heat on the principle of evaporative

cooling e.g., hyperbolic natural draft cooling
towers used in power plants

3 Wet-dry hybrid cooling Combination of an air-cooled heat

towers exchanger and a wet cooling tower to cool
off the required fluid
4 Evaporative condenser Principle of wet cooling tower is applied to
cooling tower cool a process fluid which remains isolated
from the cooling tower fluids (usually air and
water)
3. Method of Heat Transfer (contd.)

Wet-dry cooling tower

Evaporative condenser cooling tower

Major components of a cooling
tower
NO. NAME OF FUNCTION MATERIAL OF
COMPONENT CONSTRUCTION
1 Frame and Supports exterior enclosures SS 316/304,
casing Concrete, Fiber glass
2 Fill Increases contact between air PVC, wood,
and water, facilitating heat Polypropylene
transfer. Has two types; Splash fill
and Film fill
3 Cold water basin Receives water at the bottom of SS 316, Concrete
the tower
4 Drift eliminators Reduce loss of water due to PVC, Polypropylene
windage/drift
Major components of a cooling
tower (contd.)
NO. NAME OF COMPONENT FUNCTION

5 Air inlet Enables air to enter the tower

6 Louvers Louvers equalize air flow into the fill and

retain the water within the tower
7 Nozzles / Spray tree Distributes water to wet the fill

8 Fans Regulate air flow in case of mechanical

draft towers
Design of a cooling tower

 Design procedure of a hyperbolic natural draft cooling tower is

taken as reference.
Design of a cooling tower (contd.)
 Important parameters prerequisite to design,
CLASS NO. NAME SYMBOL UNITS

1 Wet bulb 𝑇𝑤 K
temperature of air
2 Dry bulb K
MEASURED PARAMETERS

𝑇𝑑
temperature of air
3 Inlet water 𝑇𝑖𝑛 K
temperature
4 Outlet water 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 K
temperature
5 Water mass flow 𝑊𝐿 kg/sec
rate / Water load
6 Enthalpy change ∆𝐻′ kJ/kg
(air passing through
tower)
Design of a cooling tower (contd.)

CLASS NO. NAME SYMBOL DESCRIPTION UNITS

1 Range ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 K

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

2 Approach ∆𝑇 ∗ ∆𝑇 ∗ = 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 K

3 Effectiveness 𝐸𝑐 ∆𝑇 %
𝐸𝑐 = ∗ 100
∆𝑇 + ∆𝑇 ∗

4 Cooling capacity 𝑄 𝑄 = 𝑊𝐿 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∗ ∆𝑇 kW

5 Performance 𝐶𝑡 Value is usually 5.2 or --

coefficient lower
Design of a cooling tower (contd.)
CLASS NO. NAME SYMBOL DESCRIPTION UNITS

1 Duty coefficient 𝐷𝑡 𝑊𝐿 ∆𝐻′ 0.5 --

= 0.00369 ∗ ∗ (∆𝑇 ∗ + 0.0752∆𝐻′ )
𝐷𝑡 ∆𝑇
DESIGN PARAMETERS

2 Base area of tower 𝐴𝑏 19.5 ∗ 𝐴𝑏 ∗ 𝑧𝑡0.5 m2

𝐷𝑡 =
𝐶𝑡1.5

3 Height of tower 𝑧𝑡 Assumed values are used during m

calculations to confine to a height to
diameter ratio of 3:2; in case of
hyperbolic natural draft towers
4 Diameter of tower 𝑑𝑏 m
4 ∗ 𝐴𝑏
𝑑𝑏 =
𝜋
Design of a cooling tower –
Numerical example
 Numerical example, with reference to Coulson & Richardson, Chemical
Engineering Vol.1, 6th Edition.

 Q. (a) Determine the diameter and height of a hyperbolic natural draft

cooling tower handling 6500 kg/s of water under the following
conditions.
Inlet water temperature = 318 K
Outlet water temperature = 313 K
Dry bulb temperature of air = 301 K
Wet bulb temperature of air = 295 K

(b) Determine the effectiveness and cooling capacity for the specified
tower.
Design of a cooling tower –
Numerical solution
Available values Required values
𝑇𝑤 = 295 K ∆𝐻′

𝑇𝑑 = 301 K ∆𝑇

𝑇𝑖𝑛 = 318 K ∆𝑇 ∗

𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 313 K 𝐷𝑡

𝑊𝐿 = 6500 kg/s 𝐴𝑏
𝑧𝑡
𝐸𝑐
𝑄
Design of a cooling tower –
Numerical solution (contd.)
1. Range = ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 318 – 313 = 5 K

2. Approach = ∆𝑇 ∗ = 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 = 313 – 295 = 18 K

3. Mean temperature of water = 0.5 ∗ (𝑇𝑖𝑛 + 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = 0.5*(318 +313) = 315.5 K

4. Using a humidity-enthalpy chart, we shall calculate values of enthalpy of air

at the mean temperature of water and at the dry bulb temperature
Design of a cooling tower –
Numerical solution (contd.)
5. The corresponding values of enthalpies at mean water temperature and dry
bulb temperature are approximately 150 kJ/kg and 83 kJ/kg

6. Enthalpy change of passing air = ∆𝐻 ′ = 150 – 83 = 67 kJ/kg

′ 0.5
7. Duty coefficient = 𝑊𝐿 = 0.00369 ∗ ∆𝐻 ∗ (∆𝑇 ∗ + 0.0752∆𝐻 ′ ) = 27388
𝐷𝑡 ∆𝑇
Design of a cooling tower –
Numerical solution (contd.)
8. Assuming height 𝑧𝑡 by hit and trial method and taking 𝐶𝑡 as 5.2, the
base area, diameter, and conformity of the height to diameter
ratio of the tower is calculated as,

No. Height 𝐷𝑡 ∗ 𝐶𝑡1.5 Height to diameter ratio

𝐴𝑏 = 4 ∗ 𝐴𝑏
𝑧𝑡 (m) 19.5 ∗ 𝑧𝑡0.5 𝑑𝑏 = 𝑧𝑡 / 𝑑𝑏 ≈ 1.5
𝜋
(m2)
(m)
1 95 1709 46.6 2.04 ≠ 1.5
2 90 1755 47.3 1.90 ≠ 1.5
3 85 1806 47.9 1.77 ≠ 1.5
4 80 1862 48.7 1.64 ≠ 1.5
5 75 1923 49.5 1.51 ≈ 1.5
Design of a cooling tower –
Numerical solution (contd.)
9. The acceptable value of height and diameter for the specified
tower is 75 m and 49.5 m, respectively

∆𝑇 5
10. Effectiveness of tower = 𝐸𝑐 = ∗ 100 = ∗ 100 = 21.74%
∆𝑇+∆𝑇 ∗ 5+18

11. Cooling capacity

𝑄 = 𝑊𝐿 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∗ ∆𝑇 = 4500 (kg/s) * 4.1815 (kJ/kg K ) * 5 (K)

𝑄 = 94083.75 kW
Strategies to improve cooling tower
performance
 When designing a cooling tower, always use the highest wet-bulb temperature
as reference.

 Monitor the range and approach carefully during the design.

 High range and low approach leads to good performance.

 Improve the quality of water to be cooled by the tower resulting in low utilization
of make-up water.

 Regularly monitor the tower for scale build-up and biological impurities.

 Regularly monitor the flow of water and air inside the tower
Importance of cooling tower in CPI

 Cooling towers are used to cool industrial processes and

applications to ensure that the correct temperature of the
environment and the process are maintained during manufacturing
or large industrial processes.

 Natural draft cooling towers require no power and are of key

importance in power plants.
References
 Literature:
 Dr. N.P. Cheremisinoff, Handbook of Chemical Processing Equipment, 1st
edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, USA, 2000.
 J. M. Coulson, J.F. Richardson, J.H Harker, J.R. Backhurst, Chemical
Engineering Volume 1 – Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer, 6th
edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, USA, 1999.
 San Diego County Water Authority, Technical Information for Cooling
Towers Using Recycled Water, San Diego, USA, 2009.
 Training Session on Energy Equipment, Cooling Towers, UNEP, 2006.

 Websites / URL’s:
 http://www.cti.org/whatis/coolingtowerdetail.shtml
 http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/
 http://www.deltacooling.com/resources/principles-of-cooling-towers/