Muh. Afdhol Isnan H 200701501078 Ingestive Behavior

REVIEW
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

1
Chapter 11 Outline
• Physiological Regulatory Mechanisms
• Drinking
• Eating: Some Facts about Metabolism
• What Starts a Meal?
• What Stops a Meal?
• Brain Mechanisms
• Eating Disorders
2 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

• Object – maintain the consistency of some
characteristics in the organism’s body in the face of
external variables.
• Homeostasis
• The process by which the body’s substances and
characteristics (such as temperature and glucose
level) are maintained at their optimal level.
• Ingestive behavior
• 1. Eating
• 2. Drinking
•

• Regulatory mechanisms contain 4
components:
• 1. System variables
• A variable that is controlled by a regulatory
mechanism; for example, temperature in a heating
system.
• 2. Set point
• The optimal value of the system variable in a
regulatory mechanism.

• 3. Detector
• In a regulatory process, a mechanism that signals
when the system variable deviates from its set point.
• 4. Correctional mechanism
• In a regulatory process, the mechanism that is
capable of changing the value of the system variable.

• Negative feedback – an essential characteristic of all
regulatory mechanisms
• A process whereby the effect produced by an action
serves to diminish or terminate that action.
• Satiety mechanism’s
• A brain mechanism that causes cessation of hunger or
thirst, produced by adequate and available supplies of
nutrients or water.

Correctional mechanism – in a regulatory process, the
mechanism capable of satiety mechanism of the system
variable (fluid volume).

• Drinking
• Some facts about fluid balance
• 4 fluid compartments
• 1. Intracellular fluid
• The fluid contained within cells. (67%)
• Extracellular fluid
• All body fluids outside cells: interstitial fluid,
blood plasma, and cerebrospinal fluid.
• 2. Intravascular fluid
• The fluid found within blood vessels. (7%)

• Drinking
• Describe some facts about fluid balance!
• 3. Interstitial fluid
• The fluid that bathes the cells, filling the space
between the cells of the body (interstices). (26%)
• 4. Cerebral spinal fluid (1%)

is a clear, colorless body fluid found in the brain and
spinal cord.
• Isotonic
• Equal in osmotic pressure to the contents of a cell. A
cell placed in an isotonic solution neither gains not
loses water.
Relative size of fluid
compartments.
Describe the fluid
works!
The body contains four major fluid
compartments: one compartment of
intracellular fluid and three compartments
of extracellular fluid. Approximately two-
thirds of the body’s water is contained in
the intracellular fluid, the fluid portion of
the cytoplasm of cells. The rest is
extracellular fluid, which includes the
intravascular fluid (the blood plasma), the
cerebrospinal fluid, and the interstitial
fluid. Interstitial means “standing
between”; indeed, the interstitial fluid
stands between our cells—it is the
“seawater” that bathes them.
• Drinking
• Hypertonic (may endanger cells)

• The characteristic of a solution that contains enough
solute that it will draw water out of a cell placed in it,
through the process of osmosis
.
• Hypotonic (may endanger cells)

• The characteristic of a solution that contains so little
solute that a cell placed in it will absorb water, through
the process of osmosis.
• Hypovolemia
• Reduction in the volume of the intravascular fluid.

Describe the Movement of water molecules!
Two of the fluid compartments of the body must be

kept within precise limits: the intracellular fluid
and the intravascular fluid. The intracellular fluid is
controlled by the concentration of solutes in the
interstitial fluid. (Solutes are the substances
dissolved in a solution.) Normally, the interstitial
fluid is isotonic (from isos, “equal,” and tonos,
“tension”) with the intracellular fluid. That is, the
concentration of solutes in the cells and in the
interstitial fluid that bathes them is balanced, so
water does not tend to move into or out of the cells.
If the interstitial fluid loses water (becomes more
concentrated, or hypertonic), water will be pulled
out of the cells. On the other hand, if the interstitial
fluid gains water (becomes more dilute, or
hypotonic), water will move into the cells. Either
condition endangers cells; a loss of water deprives
them of the ability to perform many chemical
reactions, and a gain of water can cause their
membranes to rupture. Therefore, the concentration
of the interstitial fluid must be closely regulated.
12
• Drinking
• Two types of thirst:
• The body needs two sets of receptors, one for blood
volume, and one for cell volume.
• 1. Osmometric thirst
• Thirst produced by an increase in the osmotic
pressure of the interstitial fluid relative to the
intracellular fluid, thus producing cellular dehydration.
• Osmoreceptor
• A neuron that detects changes in the solute
concentration of the interstitial fluid that surrounds it.
If this volume is too low – the membrane potential
increased. 13 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.
The detectors in the term osmometric respond to changes in
the interstitial fluids that surround them.
What behavior that stimulates this brain works?
(a) Activation in the anterior cingulate

cortex and hypothalamus, corresponding to a sensation
of thirst.
(b) Activation in the lamina terminalis, the location of the brain’s
osmoreceptors. 15 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.
• Drinking
• Two types of thirst
• Volumetric Thirst
• Thirst caused by hypovolemia; occurs when the
volume of the blood plasma the intravascular volume
decreases.
• Loss of blood causes of pure volumetric thirst. In this
case there is a loss of (1) salt as well as (2) water.
The loss of salt produces a volumetric thirst leads to a
salt appetite.
• Two sets of receptors accomplish this dual function:
Set 1 is located in the kidneys (Renin).
Set 2 is located in the heart (Angiostein).
• Drinking
• Two types of thirst: (1) When the flow of blood to the
kidneys decreases, the detector cells secrete an enzyme
called renin.
• Renin
• An enzyme secreted by the kidneys that causes the
conversion of a protein (angiotensinogen) in the blood
into a hormone called angiotensin.
• Role of angiotensin
This hormone causes constricts blood vessels
(increasing blood pressure), it causes the kidneys to
conserve water and sodium, and it initiates drinking
and a salt appetite.17 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.
Describe how to detect
hypovolema, using this
picture!
Angiotensin II has several

physiological effects: It stimulates the
secretion of hormones by the posterior
pituitary gland and the adrenal cortex
that cause the kidneys to conserve
water and sodium, and it increases
blood pressure by causing muscles in
the small arteries to contract. In
addition, AII has two behavioral
effects: It initiates both drinking and a
salt appetite. Therefore, a reduction in
the flow of blood to he kidneys causes
water and sodium to be retained by the
body, helps to compensate for their
loss by reducing the size of the blood
vessels, and encourages the animal to
find and ingest both water and salt.
• Neural Mechanisms of Thirst
• Subfornical organ (SFO) – the receptor site the initiates
drinking.
• A small organ located in the confluence of the lateral
ventricles, attached to the underside of the fornix;
contains neurons that detect the presence of
angiotensin in the blood and excite neural circuits that
initiate drinking.

• Neural Mechanisms of Thirst
• Receptor neurons in the SFO send their axons to
the median preoptic nucleus.
• Median preoptic nucleus

• A small nucleus situated around the decussation of
the anterior commissure; plays a role in thirst
stimulated by angiotensin. Stimulation initiates
neurons in the subfornical organ send their axons
to another part of the lamina terminalis.

• Renin : the second set of receptors for volumetric
thirst.
• When the blood volume falls, the atria of the heart becomes
less full, and stretch receptors located in the atria detect this
change. The decrement in blood volume is sent to the brain,
and drinking behavior is stimulated in about 20 minutes
(dogs).

• Eating and Fasting
• The control of eating is more complicated than the control of
drinking and sodium intake.
• To stay alive all cells in the body must have a constant
supply of fuel and oxygen.
• Metabolism has two phases:
• Absorptive phase occurs when food is present in the
digestive tract.
• Fasting phase occurs when the digestive tract is empaty.
• Fuel reservoirs are necessary to keep the cells nourished
when the gut is empty.
The short-term reservoir stores carbohydrates.
The long-term reservoir stores fats.
22
• Liver, Insulin & Glycagen: (Short-term reservoir calory
capacity). The liver soaks up excess glucose and
stores it as glycogen, and releases glucose from its
reservoir when the digestive tract is empty.
• When glucose and insulin are present in the blood, some of
the glucose is used as a fuel, and some of it is stored as
glycogen.
• Cells in the liver convert glucose into glycogen, and
glycogen is stored in the liver. Insulin, a pancreatic hormone
regulates this process.
• When blood glucose begins to drop, the pancreas responds
by stopping the secretion of insulin and starting to secrete a
different peptide hormone: glucagon.
• The effect of glucagon is the reverse of that of insulin. It
stimulates. It stimulates the
23 conversion of glycogen into
glucose
• When the short-term glucose reservoir becomes
empty the body taps into the long-term reservoir
(adipose tissue).
• Adipose tissue is filled with fats or the other name is
triglycerides.
• Stimulation by the sympathetic branch of the ANS innervate
adipose tissue, the pancreas and the adrenal medulla.
• ANS stimulation causes the triglycrides to be broken down
by glucagon and catecholamines into glycerol, & fatty acids.
• Fatty acids can be metabolized by all the cells in the body
except the brain, which needs glucose.
• The brain can only metabolize by the neurons. The liver
takes up the glycerol and converts it to glucose.
• The brain can absorb glucose in the absence of insulin.
All the other cells in the
24
body require insulin to absorb
glucose.
• Glycogen
• A polysaccharide often referred to as animal satrch;
stored in liver and muscle; constitutes the short-term
store of nutrients.
• Insulin
• A pancreatic hormone that facilitates entry of glucose
and amino acids into the cell, conversion of glucose
into glycogen, and transport of fats into adipose
tissue.

• Glucagon
• A pancreatic hormone that promotes the conversion of
liver glycogen into glucose.
• Triglyceride
• The form of fat storage in adipose cells; consists of a
molecule of glycerol joined with three fatty acids.

• Glycerol
• A substance derived from the breakdown of
triglycerides, along with fatty acids; can be converted
by the liver into glucose.
• Fatty acid
• A substance derived from the breakdown of
triglycerides, along with glycerol; can be metabolized
by most cells of the body except for the brain.

• Fasting phase
• The phase of metabolism during which nutrients are
not available from the digestive system; glucose,
amino acids, and fatty acids are derived from
glycogen, protein, and adipose tissue during this
phase.

• Describe about absorptive phase!
• The phase of metabolism during which nutrients are
absorbed from the digestive system; glucose and
amino acids constitute the principal source of energy
for cells during this phase, and excess nutrients are
stored in adipose tissue in the form of triglycerides.

What Starts a Meal?
• One mechanism is needed to start feeding when
the our long-term nutritional reserves become
depleted, and a second mechanism is needed to
stop ingestion when we start taking in more calories
than we need.
• Signals from the environment
• starvation is an important signal to eat.
• However, many environmental factors motivate us to

eat including:
1. Sight of a plateof food
2. The smell of food cooking in the kitchen
3. the presence of other people sitting around the
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.
30
table
• Signals from the stomach
• Ghrelin
• A peptide hormone released by the stomach that
increases eating, also produced by neurons in the
brain.
• Duodenum
• The first portion of the small intestines, attached
directly to the stomach. The ghrelin receptors are in
the duodenum.
• The secretion of ghrelin is suppressed when ghrelin
receptors detect the presence of food in the
duodenum. This system is not sensitive to ghrelin.

• Metabolic signals
• Glucoprivation
• A dramatic fall in the level of glucose available to cells;
can be caused by a fall in the blood level of glucose or
by drugs that inhibit glucose metabolism.
• lipoprivation
• A dramatic fall in the level of fatty acids available to
cells; usually caused by drugs that inhibit fatty acid
metabolism.

• What detectors monitor the level of metabolic fuels?
• There are two sets of detectors:
• 1. Located in the brain
• 2. Located in the liver
• The liver receives blood from the intestines via the hepatic
portal vein. Receptors in the liver are sensitive to
glucoprivation, and lipoprivation. The vagus nerve sends
this signal to the brain.
• Receptors in the brain also detect glucoprivation.

• Metabolic signals
• Methyl palmoxirate (MP)

• Improve eating behavior and brain immunoreactivity.
• Mercaptoacetate (MA)
• The liver appears to contain receptors that detect low
availability of glucose or fatty acids (glucoprivation or
lipoprivations) and send this information to the brain
throught the vagus nerve.
• Hepatic portal vein
• This vein brings blood from the intestines to the liver
this an injection of a drug into this vein (an intraportal
infusion) delivers it directly
34
to the liver.© 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.
Copyright
What is the meaning of
this picture?
The hepatic Portal Blood Supply

The liver receives water, minerals,
and nutrients from the
digestive system through this blood
supply
The investigators
found that the intraportal infusions
of 2-DG caused immediate eating.
When they cut the vagus nerve,
which
connects the liver with the brain,
the infusions no longer
stimulated eating. Thus, the brain
receives the hunger
signal from the liver through the
vagus nerve.

What Stops a Meal?
Short-term regulation of the sense of satiety.
• 1. These signals include feedback from the nose And mouth

about the nutritive value of the food eaten, from gastric
factors from inteslinal fectors and from liver factors.
• 2. Insulin receptors in the brain serve to indicate that the

body is in the absorbtive phase of metabolism of
carbohydrate ingestion.
• 3. Cholecystokinin
The duodenum controls the rate of stomach emptying by
secreting a peptide hormone.

Long-Term Satiety: Signals from Adipose Tissue
• Ob mouse
• A strain of mice whose obesity and low metabolic
rate is caused by a mutation that prevents the
production of leptin.
• Leptin
• A hormone secreted by adipose tissue; decreases
food intake and increases metabolic rate, primarily
by inhibiting NPY-secreting neurons in the arcuate
nucleus.

Untreated ob mouse ob mouse treated with leptin
Leptin has profound effects on metabolism and eating, acting as an antiobesity

hormone. If ob mice are given daily injections of leptin, their metabolic rate
increases, their body temperature rises, they become more active, and they eat less.
As a result, their weight returns to normal. Figure 12.18 shows a picture of an
untreated ob mouse and an ob mouse that has received injections of leptin.
Brain Mechanisms
• Brain Stem
• Decerebration
• A surgical procedure that severs the brain stem,
disconnecting the hindbrain from the forebrain.
• The only behaviors that a decerebrate animal can

display are those that are directly controlled by neural
circuits located within the brain stem.
• Animal studies indicate that the brain stem contains

neural circuits that can control at least some aspects
of food intake.

Brain Mechanisms
• Hypothalamus : Role in hunger

• Lesions of after the lateral hypothalamus produce cessation
of eating and drinking.
• Lesions of the ventromedial hypothalamus produce gross
obesity.
• Melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH)

• A peptide neurotransmitter found in a system of lateral
hypothalamic neurons that stimulate appetite and reduce
metabolic rate.
• Orexin (AKA hypocretin.)

• A peptide neurotransmitter found in a system of lateral
hypothalamic neurons which has a function to the
stimulate appetite and reduce metabolic rate.
What is the
picture describe
about?
This schematic diagram shows
connections of the MCH
neurons and orexin neurons of the
lateral hypothalamus. The axons of
MCH and orexin neurons travel to
a variety of brain structures that
are known to be involved in
motivation and movement,
including the neocortex,
periaqueductal gray matter,
reticular formation, thalamus, and
locus coeruleus. These neurons
also have connections with
neurons in the spinal cord that
control the autonomic nervous
system, which explains how they
can affect the body’s metabolic
rate (Sawchenko, 1998; Nambu et
al., 1999). Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.
42
Brain Mechanisms
• Neuropeptide Y (NPY)
• A peptide neurotransmitter found in a system of
neurons of the arcuate nucleus that:
Stimulate feeding
Stimulates insulin and glucocorticoid secretion
Stimulates the breakdown of triglycerides
Decreases body temperature.

Brain Mechanisms
• Arcuate nucleus
• A nucleus in the base of the hypothalamus that
controls secretions of the anterior pituitary gland;
contains NPY-secreting neurons involved in feeding
and control of metabolism.
• Paraventricular nucleus
• A nucleus of the hypothalamus located adjacent to the
dorsal third ventricle; contains neurons involved in
control of the autonomic nervous system and the
posterior pituitary gland.

Hunger signal pathway to
the lateral hypothalamus.
Infusion of NPY to the

arcuate nucleus induces
diurnal over feeding.

Brain Mechanisms
• Hypothalamus: Role in hunger
• NPY neurons in hypothalamus release AGRP at their

terminals. This peptide induces eating for intervals up to 6
days in duration.
• Agouti-related peptide (AGRP)

• A potent and extremely long-lasting orexigen; A
neuropeptide that acts as an antagonist at MC-4
receptors and increases eating.
• THC may stimulate the AGRP pathway. Used to
stimulate eating, apparently by increasing the release of
MCH and orexin .
Satiety signal pathway.
Leptin receptors induce an

inhibitory effect on feeding, &
prevent a decrease in
metabolic rate. The satiety
signal from adipose tissue
Desentizes the brain to
Hunger signal.

Brain Mechanisms
• Hypothalamus: Role in satiety
• CART (arcuate nucleus)

• Cocaine and amphetamine-regulated transcript; a
peptide neurotransmitter found in a system of neurons
of the arcuate nucleus which has a function to that
inhibit feeding.

Set-Point Theory
Manipulating lateral and ventromedial

hypothalamus and alters the body’s “weight
thermostat.”
If weight is lost – we expend more than we consume. If

weight is gained – we consume more calories than we
expend as heat and works.
Revision 2006 PSB

Hunger
• Under feeding – The action or practice of not

giving person or animal enough food
• Over feeding – The action or practice of giving
too much food to a person or animal
• If you eat just one extra carrot a day (20 calories),
you will gain 2 pounds a year, 20 pounds a
decade. Thus the regulation of food intake must to
very precise to defend a set body weight.
Revision 2006 PSB

Eating Disorders
• Obesity
• Obesity is a widespread problem that can have

serious medical consequences.
• In the United States, 67% of males and 62% of

females overweight (exceed a body mass index of
25).
• Known health hazards of obesity include

cardiovascular disease, diabetes, stroke, arthtitis, and
some forms of cencer.

Hunger and Eating
• Identical twins are Body Weights of Twins
more similar in body
weight than are
fraternal twins.
• Physical activity play
a large role in body
weight.
Revision 2006 PSB

Stress, food cues and appetite
• Stress: underweight body weight individuals lose

appetite with increases in stress while overweight
individuals show the reverse pattern.
• Obesity : overweight individuals feel hungrier to food-
related cues than do average weight individuals.
Revision 2006 PSB

Catching Obesity
• There is growing evidence that some viruses may

cause obesity, thus making obesity contagious, said
Leah Whigham of the University of Wisconsin,
Madison, lead researcher in a new study on the
subject.
•
Her study found that a human
• AD-37 causes obesity in chickens.
Revision 2006 PSB

Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa
• anorexia nervosa
• A disorder that most frequently afflicts young women;
exaggerated concern with being overweight that
leads to excessive dieting and often compulsive
exercising; can lead to starvation.
• Bulimia nervosa
• Bouts of excessive hunger and eating; often followed
by forced vomiting or purging with laxatives;
sometimes seen in people with anorexia nervosa.

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REVIEW

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

• Physiological Regulatory Mechanisms

• Eating: Some Facts about Metabolism

• What Starts a Meal?

• What Stops a Meal?

2 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

3 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

4 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

5 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

6 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

7 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

8 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

• 4. Cerebral spinal fluid (1%)

• Hypertonic (may endanger cells)

• Hypotonic (may endanger cells)

11 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

Two of the fluid compartments of the body must be

(a) Activation in the anterior cingulate

Angiotensin II has several

19 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

• Median preoptic nucleus

20 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

21 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

25 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

26 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

27 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

28 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

29 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

• Signals from the environment

• starvation is an important signal to eat.

• However, many environmental factors motivate us to

31 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

32 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

33 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

• Methyl palmoxirate (MP)

The hepatic Portal Blood Supply

35 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

Short-term regulation of the sense of satiety.

• 1. These signals include feedback from the nose And mouth

• 2. Insulin receptors in the brain serve to indicate that the

36 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

37 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

Leptin has profound effects on metabolism and eating, acting as an antiobesity

• The only behaviors that a decerebrate animal can

• Animal studies indicate that the brain stem contains

39 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

• Hypothalamus : Role in hunger

• Melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH)

• Orexin (AKA hypocretin.)

• Hypothalamus : Role in hunger

43 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

• Hypothalamus : Role in hunger

44 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

Infusion of NPY to the

45 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

• Hypothalamus: Role in hunger

• NPY neurons in hypothalamus release AGRP at their

• Agouti-related peptide (AGRP)

Leptin receptors induce an

47 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Inc.

• Hypothalamus: Role in satiety

• CART (arcuate nucleus)