Footings 5.1 GENERAL “The purpose of a footing isto transfer safely to the ground the dead load of the superstructure (weight), and all other extemel forces geting upon it. The latter ones consist not only of general five load (as in dwellings, warehouses, industrial buildings, etc.) o¥ fil (as in silos, bunkers, tank. supporting structures, aad similsr), but also of the ground tlfeets of various lateral forees such as wind, Blast, or earth- Guske. In case ay of these forces are of dynamic character, An allowance for impact should be included in the estimate Of their magnitude unless a more exact evaluation is re (quited. Footings also include foundation elements that are Tesigned to resist uplift and overtuming, and comprise in [general all structural elements that will provide a stable base for the superstructure and safe transfer of all applied forces down to the ground. Tho ways and means by which the transfer of these forces into the subsoil can be obtained are manyfold, They depend primarily on the type aad magnitude of the loading, on the Miviness and structural behaviour of the superstructure, on. the bearing capacity of the soil in general and on that of a certain stratum in particular, and on the depth below round surface where this soil stratum is encountered, and fn the depth of the groundwater level below grade. The chief civil Engineer, Albert Kal Associates, Inc. Archiects and ‘Engineers, Dero, Michigsn FRITZ KRAMRISCH, D.Eng.” type of foundation js also influenced, though to a lesser degree, by the geographical location and climatic condition (of the site; by the time of the year when the construction is to be executed; by the speed of construction that is desired; by the availabilty oF material, equipment and manpower; by the prevailing economical conditions; and by many other eircumstances, The importance of these apparently second my considerations ean grow with the magnitude of the job and may, in certain cases, influence the successful on come of an entire project. It is, therefore, not enough to approach the selection of the type of foundation with a ‘cool, calm engineering mind; very often, experienced Judgment that can envision advantages and foresee diffi- calties deserves serious consideration, ‘The type and magnitude of the loading will usually be furnished by the engineer designing the superstructure, It is up to the foundation engineer to collect all informa- tion regarding the purpose of the superstructure, the ‘materiale that will be used in its construction, its sensitivity to settlements in general and to difforontial settlements in particular, and all other pertinent information that may Influence the suecessful Selection and execution of the Foundation design "The evaluation of the maximum bearing eapacity of the soil is to be made on the basis of soil mechanical eonsider- Stions. The engineer designing the foundation should select the soil stratuin that Js most suitable for the support of the m112 HANDBOOK OF CONCRETE ENGINEERING superstructure; he must assume the appropiate safety factor to sitive at the allowable bearing pressure: and finally, decide on the most economical type of foundation to be used. For this resson It is essentisl for « foundation engineer to possess a good knowledge of the problems that are involved in the design and behaviour of the super- structure, a certain familiarity with the basic principles of soil mechanics, and 2 good understanding of the interaction between both, ‘A detailed treatment of above topics does not fall within the scope of this handbook; however, a short discussion of the basic considerations affecting the evaluation and distribu- tion of the bearing pressures under footing bases ie given below. 5.2 EVALUATION OF BEARING PRESSURES AT FOOTING BASES 5.2.1. General Principles The distribution of the bearing pressures under 4 concen trically loaded, infinitely stiff footing, with frictionless base, testing on an ideal, cohesionlesé or cohesive subsoil? is generally known, and shown in Fig. 5-1, Under ordinary conditions few soils will exhibit such a behavior; no footing could be considered to be infinitely stiff. The distribution ‘of the bearing pressure under somewhat flexible footings ‘and ordinary soil conditions will bo similar to those shown in Fig. 5-25 of it may assume any intermediate distribution. ‘The assumption of a uniform bearing pressure over the entire base area of a concentrically loaded footing, as shown in Fig, 5-3, seems to be justified, therefore, for teasons of simplicity, and i common design practice. This assumption ot only Fepresents an average condition, but is usually on the safe side because most of the common soll types will produce bearing pressure distributions similar to that shown in Fig. $-2a. The foundation designer, however, shall Keep jn mind that the assumption of a uniform bearing pressure distebution was primarily made for reasons of simplicity and may, in special cases, require adjustment ‘Any footing that is held in static equilibrium solely by bearing pressures acting against its base has to satisfy the following basic requirements regardless of whether it 8 an isolated or a combined footing: 1, The resultant of all bearing pressures, acting against i thi rT ul, cl w) Fig. 641 Beerlng pressure distribution for a stif footing with fi tionless bate on ideal soil. (a) On cohesionless soil (send: sad () om cohesive eat (cay ‘a AT ¢ Sorry @ © Ing_preseure distbution for » flexible footing on ‘ordinary sol {2} On granalse sil; and (b) on clayey 2 Fig. 8-3. Simplified bearing prosute distribution (commonty wl tne footing ase (reaction), must be of equal Intensity and and opposite direction asthe resultant ofall Toads andjor Yertial effects due to moments and lateral forces, acting on {he footing element (action) 2. The location where the resultant vector of the zeae tion intersects the footing base must colneide withthe loca tion where the resultant vector of the action Is applied ‘Action and reaction are as defined under (1) ove. '3. The maximum intensity of the bearing presses under the. most "severe combination of service lougs. must be smaller that, of equal to, the maximum beating pressure Allowed for this kind of loading and type of sol, as deter shined by principles of sol mechani. ‘4. The resultant vector ofthe lest favorable combination of vertical loads, Rovizontal shears, and bending moments That may occur under service load conditions, including Wind or earthquake, nust Intersect the footing base within # maximum eccentecity that will provide safety against overturning “The method most commonly used for the design of footings and lated elements for ordinary building construc: tion, is the one where static equilibrium is obtained by bearing pressures against the footing base only. This method is als the standard method that has been included in the “ullding Code ‘Requirements for Reinforced Concrete” ACI318-71 For zero’ eccentricities, the bearing pressures will be uniformly distbuted over the entire base area of the footing as shown in Fig, 53 and will have the intensity ofg=Fidp Wf the footing shall restrain the column bate, Le. i @ bending moment has to be rested by the subsol alongside with a concentric load, or ifthe column load is applied Oulside ofthe centioid of the base area ofthe footing, the eating pressure disesbution wil vary depending on the magnitude of the eccentricity and its relationship to the Kem distance cy- The ern distance can generally be evaluated shown i Fig. So When the eccentsiity is equal to, or smaller than, the kerm distance cy, the extreme (maximum of minimus) bearing pressures ‘qRS can be found by superposing the flexural Bearing presaes over the axial bearing pressures, see Fig. 5-5 ‘When the eccentricity becomes greater than the kern ds tance superposition eannot be applied anymore, because it would result in tensile strrses between col end footing near the lifted edge of the bay. Equilfium can, however, be attained hy resisting the load resultant by. bearing pressure sesulant of equal magnitude ané Jocation, tn this fase the extreme bearing pressutes at the edge of the base can be evaluated as shown in Fig. $-Sb, The maximum edge rEESUTE d max MUS, under all conditions, be smaller or ‘qual than the maximum allowable soll pressure, "This condition applies until the excentiity,€, of the load, P, reaches the edge of the footing base. Any greater eccentricity will result in overturning. Such a condition, however, can only oceur on rock or of wery hard sf sil Por most practical cases, edge-yielding can inake a footingne req Fig. 64 Kein aintance, (ah ogy 2p e215 (6) IF * moment fof inertt of footing base about neutial avis; (c) zy =distance Of extreme fiber at opposite sie of desired ker distance; () for str, og = 16, : - my ti 47 aoe ty “Li ee) { [ bu age amd Se Fig, Bearing pressure cistibution under cezentre loadin, unusable and produce @ condition that is equivalent 10 overturning, Edge-yielding will occur when the extreme Dearing pressure at the pressed edge will cause failure in the Dearing capacity of the subsoil. The eccentricity causing this condition will, therefore, limit the maximum useful eccen- Footincs 113, ‘ticity. Unless actual test results are available, the failure condition in the beering capacity of the soll, qy, can be assumed with about 2.5 times the sllowable bearing capac- ity, qq; the minimum safety factor against overturning is usually” specified 2s 1.50; although somewhat greater satety factors are sometimes desirable. Introducing these requirements, we arrive in Fig, 5S at a maximum eccentric~ HY, © ag, thst ean safely be utilized. How far the design ‘engineer will take advantage of this condition will depend fon his judgment of the soil and on the sensitivity of the fuperstrueture to tolerate Jateral tilting that may occur if a Toading, causing Such an eccentricity, is applied for a longer peo ‘Moments occurring alongside with concentric loads, may bbe uniaxial oF biaxial. If they occur in oblique directions it 48 most practical to have thelr influence divided into two perpendicular components, exch of them parallel to the ‘main axes of the footing mat, and superpose the resulting bearing pressures, Such conditions occur not only with igolated spread footings, but also with stip footings of Iinnited length, as in the case of shear walls and similar. Combined footings, (.e., footings supporting more then fone column load, such as exterior double-column footings), strip footings supporting spaced column loads, rafts, or mats tan be designed as described above, as long as the entire Foundation can be considered as infinitely tiff. In this case the resultant of all bearing pressures must be equal to the resultant of alloads, and its location must coincide with the fecentricity of the resultant, This approzch is statically Correct, but not necessarily close to the actual condition, In certain cases it may be advisuble to consider the footing as 4 beam on an elestic foundation and utilize the elasticity of the footing mat as well as that of the sot! in the evaluation of (he beating pressures. The bearing pressures obtained by this method no longer follow 2 Straight line distribution across the vontact area, They show maximum accumulations immediately below, and in the vicinity of, concentrated Toads and greatly reduced inten sities between them, as shown in Fig. 56. Such a pressure Is ofa Toundation considerably and is therefore in many cases auite economical. This method is, in addition, intriguing in its setup and appealing especially to the mathematically inclined engineer. . e ° Eis = TTT TTT TTT deformation ine an aaa bearing presse ‘isebution a 7 WY Pare moines deribation Fig. 546 General conditions for » beam on on elastic foundtlon.114 HANDBOOK OF CONCRETE ENGINEERING In the analysis of a beam on elastic foundation, the soil is Introduced as an elastic medium and the intensity of its reaction (bearing pressure) ig assumed to be proportional to ‘he deformation (settlement) of the footing, or soil, under the load Soils behave like elastic materials only to a limited degree tnd only small portions of the settlements can be recovered in case of unloading the superstructure, Settlements of the subsoil occur very seldom immediately ot shortly after the load application. Most soils are rather insensitive to sudden load changes and react more to average loadings applied ver an extended period. Variable configurations of te line of deformations during’ this period will cause a vatiable Aistribution of corresponding bearing pressures and internal Stresses of the footing or foundation mat. In addition, the factor relating the magnitude of the beating‘ pressure to that of the deformation is not a constant but varies with the ‘magnitude of the settlements Some of these characteristics have been overcome by sefinements that have been introduced into this method, ‘making It much more complex. If, however, foundations under combined footings are not too stiff and they follow ‘the deformations of the subsoil, the beam on elastic founds- Yion-method will furnish besring pressure distributions that are closer related to the actual condition and more econon- Jel than the straight line distribution of the beasing pressures, Due to the basic deficiencies of a foundation design executed with the help of elasticity relationships, as de scribed in this chapter, itis advisable that results obtained by this method are not taken as exact solutions but more asa guide to arrive ata reasonable distribution of the beating pressure; such foundations shall be designed with ample re~ serve capacity to sustain deviations from the theoretical findings. Under such considerations, the method can provide an excellent tool and a valuable aid in the, design of some times rather difficult foundation problems.°* Figure 5-6 shows the basic vlationships between loading, deformation and bearing pressure as well as the resulting ‘moment distribution, Formulas giving the bearing pressures ‘and bending moments for a strip designed as a beam on elastic foundation ae pven later in Fig. 5-22, So far, bearing pressures against the rooting base have been considered as the only means to resist external forces. Static equilibrium of a footing clement subjected to lateral forces andjor moments in addition to vertical Joads, can also be attained with the help of passive earth pressure, as shown in Fig, 5-7. In this case lateral (passive) pressure of the soil is developed while resisting either lateral movements ‘or filing tendencies of the footing element. This method is sometimes used in the design of footings supporting tall, light superstructures such as transmission towers, light poles, ‘te. One of the drawbacks of this method is that founds tions are usually surrounded by backfill of questionable Tateral resistance; bul even where the footing is cast tightly gaint the osiginal subsoil, passive earth pressure will only Wipe strip footing te r pusive rts preve al ‘arth presure — iy La Fig, 5-7 General dletibution of base and side pressures ot footing ratietng overturning momants, where Gp and ap, are passive fartn pressures due to loading and gp, and dp et2 to be < the ‘maximum allowebie pasive earth pressure that can be utlized at each dost, develop (unless the soll is very stiff or hard) alter a certain ‘moverent or tilting of the superstructure has taken place 5.2.2. Strip Footings <1. Concontricalty loaded strip footings~The loadings of stip footings considered in the following section consist pric ‘marily of continous line loads such as walls, or closely spaced, concentrated loads arranged in one ditection. In many cases, the element causing the load, eg., the wall itself, may provide sufficient stiffness to permit the assump- tion of # continuous line load, even if the intensity of the loading slightly varies (Fig. 5-8). Concentrated loads at close spacings sometimes roquire a stiffening member (0 transform the effects of the concentrated loads into a continuous loading. For small variations in the load intensity, the stiffening tember may be the footing itself; fo: & foundation wall resting on top of the footings; or a ‘beam formed by composite action of both. In either ease the sfiffening member has to be designed as an inverted con- tinuous beam, upwardly loaded by a line load made up of the bearing pressure, g, and intermittently supported where the loads are applied, a8 shown in Fig, 5.9. -2. Hecentricaly loaded strip footings (or stvip footings wilh concentrie lead and moment at base)For stability considerations, « free standing wall is equivalent to one that is fully restrained at its base. Any shear and bending moment caused by lateral forces such as wind, fil, earth- pressure, simulated earthquake loadings, otc., a6 well as all moments and shears caused by eccentrically applied vertical loads acting on projecting piers or brackets, have to be trans- ferred into the subsoil, see Fig. 5-10. intensity of loading Peete See ae “ee T TOE: ww average t Fig, 58 Equalizing strip loadings of varabe intensity.voting the rod at 0 of tpt osely, a. In ‘wall ump: fthe Bs at er to load tsell; ora ethe spot where stings bility eat aging arth as all ‘ical Footines 115 Pu fu Pie Pep Pep Pao | w e. 4 ee ce {tie TTT-s | @ TTT ba T ns oe Fis, Transforming concentrates foe into equal bearing presses, , i tb e iL uA | be eff bres 77 \ ote C HL Ide ay (eee eee] l « € c3 & a Acta Losing avian Ovi Fig. B40. Analogy batweon moments ond eccentric lating conditions, In cases where walls are not free standing but form a part ‘of a frame work, such as in monolithic floor-wall construc tions, the wall may transfer a certain amount of moment into the ground. How successful such a design assumption ray be, deserves a brief discussion. Ht can be proven by statics that only small, lopsided settlements are needed to reduce the restraining effect at the base of frame work to such @ degzee that it may be rendered useless. Such a rotation would produce a condition at the base that is in effect similar to that of a hinge and would increase the moments in the upper frame by the amount Jost at the base. Cautious designers assume and design the base of such frameworks as hinges and make the structure this way independent of the deformation of the subsoil, Bending moments or eccentric loadings caused by wind or earthquake simulating forces may very well be taken by restraint at the base of the footing mat; such forces are of shost duration and stable soils usually respond rather clastically to loads of short duration. It is however recom- mended that bending moments and eccentric forces caused by dead loads, fll, or average service live load conditions should not be transferred into the soil unless the soi is very Stiff or well consolidated, Forintermediate conditions, partial restraint in selected by judgement, may be utilized amount 5.2.3. Isolated Spread Footings (square and oblong) 1. Concentrically loaded isolated spread footings—Isolated spread footings ase used 10 resist column loads that are concentiic with the centroid of the footing base. Theoret cally such footings may have any shape. Square and oblong bases are most common, but round and polytonal shapes sre being used under certain conditions. Footings may be solid or without center portion, like # ring. We speak of @ concentric loading if the resultant of all acting forces coincides with the centioid of the footing mat or bearing area, regardless of its shape, In this case the bearing pressure | 1350 aise] = | 1300 aot | 1.000 | 2.000 417s | oats | 2051 «.2ao | 0.900 | 2.222 0.225 | 02s | 2404 «250 | 0.750 | 2.667 oats | ors | 2962 0300 | 000 | 3.399 325 | oss | 3.809 0333 | o.s00 | 4.000 350 | oso | 44 39s | oars | 5393 so | o300 | er caa2s | 0.225 | 360 | aso | o1s0 | 13.399 as | oars | 26567 | 00 | ooo |= Fig, 5.12. Gaoring prowure under square and oblong bates Note tlon used Includes: Ap = fyb! Gp = P/Aipse = M/E: ‘gp beating pressure unde! concen loding. 1 C2 7 Area eropertes of various eros: section. "oy = radius of gic inscribed in polygonel Kavn area. “Tox = kevn distance onValues of Cand Ct Various Values of e/g JE wel |S coo | — | 1.000 025 130 osc | - | iso aos | — | 130 0.083 | 1,000 | 2.00 oao0 | osis | 221 oato | oar | 234 0120 | oss | 248 0130 | 0796 | 2.63 o1ao | 0.766 | 2.80 oaso | 0736 | 297 casa [0707 | 346 cae joss | 337 oso | o6se | 361 ciso | osas | 3.85 ago | osoe | 4:14 ozo | 0562 | 444 0.220 | ose | 477 0230 Josao | saa 0260 | osa| 5:36 0.250 | aso | 6.00 0300 | o4o0 | 938 | oasa | 0.300 | 1667 400 | 0.200 | 37.50 0450. | 0.100 | 150-00 500 {0.000 | = Fig. 5.12 Bearing presure under square faves (about diegonal axis, Notation rare en Fig, 5-12 except for Ap =. FooTiNGs 117 Valves of Cand Co for Various Valuos of efdy elds | Cy ‘oo00 | ons | ~ oso | — 0075 0.100 0.25 | 1.000 0.150 | 0910 7s | 0.830 000 | 0.785 022s | 068s 280 | 0615 ons | asso | 41s 0.98 | ooo | 469 0300 | ass | 496 32s | 0420 | 6.00 0350 | 0.360 | 748 0375 | 0.298 | 9.93, gon | 0235 | 13.87 42s | ots | 23.08, 0.450 | 0.120 | 38.25, 0475 } 0.060 | 96.10 300 | 0.000 | + pain of lod sapicaton Fig. 5-14 Bearing pressure under cieuisr ond polygonal bate. Notation same sin Fig, 512 exeopt for Ap = of NOTE: For hoxagoral sess use y= 1.077 dip For octagonal bases use df= 1,084 df, where do = Sam ster ofineribed cree,118 HANDBOOK oF ConenETE ENGINEERING vats ofan fr Vero Var te ae cle On ates eat “lth aalte wy loo [esos [ar] os [oo [so | oy [ao [| a [oo [or [os | [io ous faoof | — | — |] | — peso | 100 | 00 | 100 | 00 wo | a0 gue foes} =] =P >} > | >] fees | aan} uae | 3s | iss un [tp ars J ise | 193] sae} 2 | o = |p ooae | ao | az | ae | ar ta | ian oaoo | ist | 14s | 134 | 193 tors | Leo | ia | ae | tao Me [a0 tam | iar] ter] in| ta | a0 savo | iso | ise | 339 | tae at | ae aso | 42s | dae | 136] 146 | 28 | 19 | 200 ff ous | aon] a0 | rs | ts 1 | 130 oars | han] 123] 139] 150 | tea | 34 | ter ff ots | 2a | ise | rae | at tae | tao aco | oar | iaz | sat | 132 | sas | ig0 | im ff ons | ae | aus | aoe | 154 tn |e daas | O44 | oge | 3a | 133 | 13s | saa | ge ff ban | 2% | 220 | 220 | Zor ae | tao ase fog f nas | esa | 038 | tas | 130 | tae ff oas | anf ar] a | as tas | 30 oars | 089 | o4n | ave | faa | ass | 039 | tas ff aso | ass | a0 | a0 | 200 io | Ban tao | car | est | as | 022 | ox) | o7r | om ff oars | ats | aaa | ag) der bis | a cas | aas | a3s | 03s | 036 | ea2 | 02s | o7e |] naan | 436 | se | ae] 252 aan | 226 ciao | aas | eas | €2 | 02+ | o2t | o3z | oa ff o2ss | son | dar | a0) 230 aaa | ban cas | ais | ois | G22 | 012 | 022 | 12 | 098 ff oaso | pas | San | ees | a0 aes | 204 ass | to | so | fo | oat | 020 | 020 | ogo || oars | 93s | a2] sor] aan bas | aap oaao | saa7 | oss | an | 632 290 | har e 0.425 | 21.08 | 15.55 | 13.32 | 10.43 450 bey Oaao | 382s | Soan | 2ean | tas [geo | as | aan oars | sexo | 7220 | oan | sao | aco | i3a0 | ere peace cedeareg ee gaae ee angeeeaaa 4 ee eee | | WT | eh Point of fea application at Fig, 5:15 Beoring preture undo rng shaped bases. Notation same a in Fig. 5-12 exceot for Ap = (af of) nA the caleulation of the minimum loading it is advisable to reduce dead loads arbitrarily, similasly a required in the ACI Building Code 318-71, Section 9.3, to ascertain that the bearing prossuze and/or eccentricity resulting from this loading condition is a maximum. See also section 5.3.1 5.2.4 Combined Footings Independent, isolated footings for each column toad, usually provide the most economical method to design # founds tion, Support of two or moze column loads on one combined footing should be aitempted only when required by one of the following conditions: ‘8, Proximity of the building line or any other space Jimitation adjacent to a building column, b. Overlapping of adjacent isolated column footings. , Inmufficiont bearing capacity of subsoil requiring large Dearing areas. 4, Sensitivity of the superstructure to differential settler ments. 6 Advantage in construction procedute, such as trench ‘excavation or similar The first condition also includes all cases where elements of oxisting structures, underground faciities, excavations, embankments, ete, limit the extent of the foundation to be constructed; if isa common case for exterior building columns. If'such a condition does not permit the design of ‘symmetrical column footing, the footing can be combined With the adjacent footing, located on the axis perpendicular to the limiting line, to balance its eccentricity. Depending oon the difference in the intensity of the two combined column loads, as well as on the existence of any simulta- neous moments of shears, the eccentricity of the resultant Toad and its magnitude will govern the shape and size of the required base area for the footing. Any shape of base area can be used for the footing as long as it will satisfy the basic requirements discussed in section §.2.1. Rectangular, tuapezoidal, and T-shaped footings are “most commonly used. Figures §-17 through 19 provide the necessary for ‘mulse to determine the required areas and geometsical (continued on p. 121)t FooTines 119 Volues of C2 for Various Velues of ely: ex/iy - aie ls Taso | 040 | 030 | 020 | 018 | o16 | 014 | 012 | avo | 008 | 006 0.00 sees |e fee easel cag ete esis eles m oa | = | azs | ass | sas | ue | aoe | so2 | 96 | 90 | as | 80 67 oan | 2 fama | oa 2] tee | 8a 82) ae] as a8 | ae | 3 dao | > [ie] cz] ar | as] ae | oa] G2 | 30 | ae | 2 2 oe | 2 fans] se] $3] 38] 304) 53 | do | as | as | 2 ois | = [too] sa] se] sz | 32) 30 fos | oe | os | 23 2 tie | 2 {soz | Sf ah] 32] 30} 28 | a6 | as | a3 | ae is ao | 2 | ‘ef sa] 33] 30] as | 26] 28 | 55 p22 [a 0 oo | = | So] ts] So] de] ae | as] 23 | a2 | at | i tas | 2 | a3 | 42] as] ze] as | 23 | 22 | ar | 20 | as is foe | 2 | ao] 40) 23] 28 | 23 | a2 fat | do | ts fat ts gor | 2] 3] 38) a3] 23 | 22] tf ao] te paz fas 5 om] = | aif 3s] as] 22) a7] de fas | fae fas ti 0.00 « 67 33 22 qd 20 | 18 wr 16 Ls la 10 Soot ve | Rav sepleaion ' cae ae 9.6.16 Mimum corner rer (obo erentier. Netdon nea Fg 5.12 ep fF Onan * Co A 5 1) Forwniform bearing reste Fes yada, Pons =P #Ps ee air ae 92 2) For eccentric loading ¢ on either side of O;a, 1 ae press toatl uke point of load 1 rconstruction iy aa ioe rT é Fig. 547 a Za (, + £2) no bly 4 fore> LPy y 3 for Py ex if eis towards wide side ——2Pags BB IG + mm) e) if is towards narrow side Pes Gtmee) Bir |" “STOTT A” i Crap 4 ca | bf ts Fig, 19 T-shaped footingsrelations to design such footings for uniform bearing pressure} or to evaluate the extreme bearing pressures for 4 sven footing shape and size in case of eccentric load Applications, It is recommended to maintain bearing pres ses over the entire base area of a combined footing, ic, 40 design it in such a way that the eccentricity does not exceed the ker distance. Under extreme conditions, how- ‘ever, combined footings may also be designed for partial bearing with exclusion of tensile stresses at the footing base, as indicated Ifthe nearest column, which can be utilized for the design ofa combined footing, is too fas away to permit a combined footing to be built economically, counterweights, or dead- men, can be provided to balance’ the eccentric loading of a footing as shown in Fig. 5-20. In such a case it is advante- gous fo design the footing so as to establish concentric loading for each element; otherwise, edge pressure cond tons have to be investigated carefully. In the evaluation of the available weight on a deadman, itis recommended to rely primarily on the actual developed weight, and disregard oad sproading or internal friction as far as possible. The safety factor to be used in the design of such foundstions shall be t least the same as used for overturning. Referring to condition (b), if overlapping of isolsted single Footings occurs, combination of the two footings into one will permit preater lateral spreading at maintaining a sym- metrical base area, see Fig. 5-21, a (c) and (4) above, it can easily be seen that a combina- tion of two or more column Jouds by means of strips, rafts, ‘or mats will not only spread the load over a bigger area, but willalso give the foundation a monolithic quality which will A otra ON VG A : 11 Yu Ves q ned EEEEEETY c. af limit of eoretuoton —"} Fig. 5-21 Combined footing sees, FooTINGs 121 help to bridge over soft spots nthe subsoil. This will educe the risk of differential settlements, Such a design cen be structurally esirable and may also be economical on soft or dnreguler subsoils. If the foundation i stiff enough (either bby means ofits own thickness or by means of well laced, rmonolithie basement walls), then the foundation may be considered as one unit, The shape of its base and the yesulting bearing presures can be evaluated as « combined footing. The stiffness of a strip, raft, or mat foundation alone is often not great enough to. produce sufficient Fildity; in this ease, the footing is best treated as a bears 6 elastic foundation. Figure 5-22 gives the basic eqnations required to design and evaluate the Dearing pressures nd ‘oments using the simpified method £3» °* ‘As far as the last condition goes, the advantage that may be ghned is primarily economio. 6.3 BASIC DESIGN PROCEDURE-REINFORCED CONCRETE FOOTINGS WITH EQUALLY. DISTRIBUTED BEARING PRESSURES 5.3.1 Footing Size Itis important to keep the determination of the footing size cconupletely separate from the design of the footing strength ‘The determination of the footing size, or ofits width, as in the case of a stip footing or foundation raft, depends on the following criteria: ‘a. The evaluation of the service loads. (The term service is used here in order to differentiate the actual quantities from the factored Ioads to be used in the strength design.) . The evaluation of the bearing pressures at the footing ‘base under the service loads, and the maximum allow able soil pressure. 1m the evaluation of the service loads, the entire dead load (welght) of the superstructure, including the weight of tie footing with surcharge and ali floor live loxds, should be used in their getnal intensity. Floor live loads of multistory buildings, having an intensity of 100 1b/ft? or less may, ‘according to the requirements of many local building codes, be reduced on the assumption that the full live load will hardly ever occur sinultanoously on all floors. Reductions for live loads exceeding 100 Ib/ft? are seldom permitted by bullding codes because suck loads usually apply to ware- houses or storage facilities. Floors of industrial buildings are often designed for heavy loads in anticipation of machines that may have to be moved across the floor or will have to be set up at eertain unfore- teen locations. It is up to the judgment of the designing fnginees and his personal knowiedge of the manufactusing processes, to suggest a justified live load reduction to be lused for tho design of columns and footings and have it approved by the respective authority. Crane loads, hoist loads, equipment loads; and the lke have to be inchided in full, even if they are only of short duration, Timpact caused by the ocexsional passing of a crane need 1of be considered in the design load of a footing; howeves, mpact eatred by continuously operating hammers or recip” procating machines shall be considered in the loading. Footings resting on loose, granular subsoil may requize special provisions to prevent the transfer of impact or vibrations to the subsoil Loadings caused ditecily or indirectly by fl, lateral earth pressure, or water pressure have to be considered in ful, Lateral loads due to wind and their related effects, such as vertical forces and moments caused by them, have to be determined and considered in the design In cestain geographical areas, earthquake-simuating lateral (continued on p. 123)122 HANDBOOK OF CONCRETE ENGINEERING I a nd ‘Clay Py Pil at column aw, =k +0.16 column (Mp = FL CO.24N+ 0.16) < 12 for about equal spans at midspan right: diay © 2% Joi [ae veedn|isdeternied from P rte, func 1d Condition: (The index e in Fe, Me, and de refers to the MyaM end column.) st midspan left: Myr = Mor Pe ue anne tend column: 1) Me=- Z£ (0.134; +1.06Ra ~ 0.50) i Pe + 6Mele ~ dol Be top Cay 4d 4 Met Sela ants fe Mor = 3g (GF 40m #40 a i = Mya at nidspan right: Mygy = Moy # = AP amb) i midspan right: Mmy= Moy + > » meal ante ye R Mor = qr * Amer Fa) Pe daly Mor = eg (Or * Mme * 40) 4Pe~ th 4a, ‘The smaller Me governs. Fig, 5:22 Simplified design of combined footingsforces have to be applied at all mass centers of the structure tnd have to be transmitted through the foundation into the Gubsoll. These Forces can act in any direction, but do not have to be considered simultaneously with the wind forces. Whichever foree will have the greater effect on the element ‘unser consideration will govern. ‘Building codes usually permit an increase in the allowable stresses by 33 percent where wind or seismic forces ave ieluded. ‘The lotd combination resulting in the lesgest sequired base urea shall be used. ‘in general, footings shall be designed to be at least as strong as the design loads of the columns which they sup- port: all possible combinations of forees that can act simul foneously on the footing under consideration have to be considered, For the design of footings for equal bearing pressures under average service load conditions, see Section 542. ‘The “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Con crete,” ACI 318-71, stipulates the following combinations, ‘of load effects as generally applicable: 1. (D + £) the resulting maximum bearing pressure must be smaller than or equal to the maximum allowable soil pressure, 4 & de BD tL + W), oF D +L +E) The resulting maximum ‘caused by cither loading (WV of £), must be smaller than 1.33ag, This increase of 33% above the allowable bearing pressure is usally accepted but ought to be checked with the local building code requirements Tn cese of uplift or overturning the most critics) combina- tions shell be investigated, Live loads shall only be con- sidered with uplift forces’ where they contribute to the ‘overturning; wherever dead load counteracts the overturning it shall be introduced with only 0.9 of its actual value to be fon the safe side. The required safety factor against over furning shall not be less than 1.50, but shall be checked With the local building code requirements ‘The evaluation of the intensity and distribution of the bearing pressures shall be done along the lines discussed in Seetion 5.2. “The meximum allowable soil pressure shal be determined by principles of soil mechanics, Unless the engineer designing. the foundation has determined the maxinusn allowable soil pressure himself, i i¢ important for him to understand the basis on Which it was determined and the safety factor which was used in its evaluation, Its also important for hint to find out whether the weight of the overlying soil sur- charge was included in the evaluation of the allowable bearing pressure, ané what the minimam depts below ground surface is at which this bearing pressure ean be developed. He should slso know the influence that raising or lowering ‘of a footing may have on the magnitude of the allowable bearing pressure, and the elevation ane possible fluctuations of the groundwater level. All these factors can be of impor- tant influence on the design of the foundation 8.3.2 Footing Strength =I. General principles—The strength design, also called Ultimate Strength Design (USD), of practically all types of footings can proceed along the lines described below. ‘The size of the footing or foundation, and the resulting Dearing pressures, are determined from’ the service loads (actual loeds), In order to perform the strength design of a footing, the vatious types of loads have to be multiplied by the respective load factors; and the bearing pressures have to be reevalvated for there factorod loads. It has to be kept jm mind, however, that these newly evaluated beating pres- sures are of purely mathematical mature and have no soil FooTINGs 123 mechanical significance. They are calculated reactions to an imaginary factored loading condition resisted by the strength capacity of the foundation clement "The strength design requires that the minimum capacity of every structural element be sufficient (0 resist the fac foted loadings in their most severe combination, For this ‘8 advisable to assemble all different types of loadings and their related effects, such ss shears and bending moments, independently for dead load, live load, wind, and farthquake (if s0 required), so that the sum of each type of Toading can be mulliplied by the sespective load factor. [ACI 318-71 sequites in Section 9.3 thet the following load factors be used: 1.4, for dead loads, fils and liquid loads 1:7, for live loads, wind loads and earth pressures 189, for earthquake loads After the most severe strength combinations have been determined for axio} loads, bending moments, and shears according to Section 9.3 of the ACI Building Code, the footing has to be designed strong enough to resist these factored load combinations and their resulting beating pressures, Te has (o be kept in mind, however, that factored loadings do not always furnish the sane eccentricities as service loads. ‘This is true where lateral loads, or other loads causing ec= centrieities oF overturning, are of a different origin from the Toads or load combinations causing the concentric loading. ‘Consequently, the various loadings will have to be multiplied by different oud factors, and will thus cesult in bearing pressute distributions thal are, in principle, different from those obtained for the unfactored service Joad conditions. Since this is not the intent of the design, it is advisable to Getermine the resalting bearing pressure distribution from the service loads and then multiply it by an appropriate load factor for the strength design. In such a case, cither the rmaximam load factor of 1.7 may be used, of an approxi- mate load factor between 1,7 and 1.4 may be selected, "A footing, depending on its type, can be compared with 2 heavily loaded bracket, or with 8 column capital, or with a ‘beam or slab, all in inverted position, Because of the heavy (inverted) loading due to the bearing, pressure, the thickness (depth) of a reinforced concrete Footing is, with the exception of long-span rafts and mats, usually governed by shear, Due to the different working conditions under which footings often have to be con- Structed, it is common practice to design them without Shear reinforcement; however, the ACI Building Code per- Inits the use of shear reinforcement, if so required, except for mats or slabs Jess than 10 in. thick. Sinee the column, pier, or pedestal is usually much narrower than the size of the footing or the width of the footing strip, oneway shear sction (also called beam shear) end two-way shear action {also called slab or perimeter shear), have to be investigated, With the exception of oblong footings or long rafts, two~ ‘way shear action will usoally govern the design. It js there- fore advisable to investigate i fins. =2, Investigation for two-way shear action (slab or perin rer shear}-The investigation for twooway shear action is the same Whether shear reinforcement is provided or not; ‘only the permissible value of the nominal shear stress varies Gepending on whether shear reinforcement is used oF not ‘The nominal shear stress is to be determined along 2 line concentric with the loaded area, usually provided by the pler or pedestal, and is located at a distance a2 from the face of the loaded area, The line forms the perimeter of the base of a truncated cone or pyremid, through which bearing124 HANDBOOK OF CONCRETE ENGINEERING a 2 perimeter il Begins if ao ATT TTT SR Zyl Vay = Aaa" Gr ~aAy2)a, V2u * 1000Va, bed Fig. 5.23 Twoway (perimeter) shear ation stresses are considered to be transferred straight into the supporting subsoil. Considering the case of a concentrically loaded, isolated spread footing with uniform bearing pres sure, the force Va, as shown in Fig. 5-23, is pressing the footing portion located outside of AAys upward, This force is resisted by the two-way shear of average intensity, U2y, acting along the perimeter area bpd. ‘The nomina} shear stress for two-way shear action Is therefore Vow Pay = 5 1000 bod where ¢ is the capacity reduction factor for shear (@ = 0.88) from Section 9.2.1.3 of ACI 318-71 ‘The maximum permissible two-way shear stress under ultimate loading is Uz = 4Vf2 and is applicable to all con: crete footings without shear reinforcement. Here, us well as in the following sections and cxamples, all concrete is as sumed to be normal weight conerete, Where sand-lishtweight, or all-lightweight concrete is used (which is rather unusual in connection with footings), the permissible shear values have to be reduced in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 11 of ACI 318-71. If shear reinforcement is pro- vided in accordance with Section 11.11.1 of ACL 318-71, the maximum permissible shear stress is vou = OVI If shearhead reinforcement is provided in accordance with Section 11,11,2 of ACT 318-71 vou = 7Vie However, for practical retsons, footings ought to be designed whenever possible without the use of shear reinforcement. In the following, reference ig frequently made to tables contained in other chapters of this handbook, or in the “Ultimate Strength Design Handbook,” ACI SP-17, Num- bers of tables contained in other handbooks have been omitted herein and the tables sre referred to by their gen= eral name only, with ACI SP-17 added. Tables that are similar to those referred to in the USD SP-17, can eso be found in other design aids and textbooks, and can be used ina similar manner, ‘Fables to determine the footing depth as required by ‘perimeter shear have been provided in ACI SP-17 to simplify the calculation, These tables are prepared for square foots ings, concentrically loaded by square, round, or polygonal pedestals or piers. If the londing pressure, ge, at the babe of the column, pier, or pedestal, and the bearing pressure at the footing base, ay, dune fo the factored load are knoven; then the effective depth of the reinforced concrete footing ccan be determined from the ratio 4/t, which can be taken Trom the tables, Similar tables ste also provided in the USD SP-17 for reetangular footings loaded by square or rectangular col- lunmns, piers, or pedestals. These tables can also be used for round and polygonal columns, piers, and pedestals, if their loading ‘areas are transformed into squares of equal cross sectional aree =3. Investigation Jor one-way’ shear aetion—The nominal shear stress due to one-way shear action shall be calculated a in an ordinary reinforced concrete beam, along a plane perpendicular to the footing, located at a distance d from the face of the column, pier, or pedestal, This plano shell extend across the entire footing and the shear stresses stall, be assumed to be uniformly distributed over this plane, as shown in Fig. 5-24. The governing shear foree, Vig, for one way shear action consists, therefore, of the sim of all bear- ing pressures, q, acting outside of the critical section. ‘The average nominal shear stress acting along, the critical section is then 10007 iy dba where @ is the capacity reduction factor for sheer (9 = 0.85) {rom Section 9.2.1.3 of AC] 318-71, If no shear reinforce: ment is provided, which i the usual cae, and the concrete 3 of normal weight taking al ofthe shear suesses, then the ‘maximum permissible stress is ve VE 1 | aa ye 7) 7 Ma Avie Cn Fe. = 100 ufet2be Fig. 624 Oneway (bee shear actionJn the exceptional cases, where shear reinforcement is pro- ‘ded. in footings, it needs to be designed only for the “excessive shear stress (Ujy ~ Ue) in accordance with Section Tig of the ACT Code. In no case shall (yy ~ Be) exceed avi. nd, Anchovoge development of column dowels Aiter the Jinimaum footing thickness that will satisfy both shear re- ‘Guitements has been determined, it should be checked to ‘Re whether it provides sufficient depth for the development ‘Sh the colussn dowels, Anchorage development in compres- Son is the most common condition for column bars; how- frer where bending moments or uplift forves have to be fransmitted to the footing, tne bars must also satisfy the Snchorage requirements for tension bars. Right-angle, oF 90° nooks at the bottom end of column dowels (common practice), are of no help in the development of anchorage Tor compression bars, sce Fig. 525. Chapter 1 of this hand- Pook contains Tables 1-10s to g with minimum required anchorage lengths for bar development in compression and jn tension, with and without hooks. Dowels of smaller diam- ter than the colar bars can be used to reduce the re- ‘quired anchorage Length, and, therefore, thickness of the footing. Dowels of bigger diameter than the column bars may be used also if desirable; the Code, however, does not petinit the diameter of the dowel to exceed that of the col- funn bar by more than 0,15 in, ACI 318-71 provides in Section 15.6 that under certain conditions not all longitudi- pal column reinforcement needs to be extended into the footings, but only cnough fo cover the excess beyond the permissible bearing stes® of the supporting or the supported Inember, whichever is smaller. In this connection, column ‘eel, which has to be counted on at or above the contact area, has to be extended or developed in the column above fod in the fooling below. This also applies to areas where high edge pressures are caused by eccentric loadings ‘or moments. -$. Investigation for flexure-The flexural strength of & footing can be determined in a similar manner to thal of an fordingry beam or cantilever member, The condition is shown in Pig. 5-26, ‘The reference lines about which the bending moments are to be determned shall extend all the way across the footing and shall be located a5 follows At the face of the supported element, for footings columns, piers or pedestals. pa fg & TL itt st i ain Incompresion ib) In Tension Fa.528 Devsiopment (onehowgs) of column bare oF cone, (a) In compression: and (bin tension. FoorinGs 125 oT 1 cancret pie reat 1 Fig. 6.26. Flexare, >. Halfway between the center and the edge of the sup- ported masonry, for footings supporting masonry construction, fe. Halfway between the face of the column and the edge ‘of the base plate, for footings supporting steel base plates and steol columns ‘The flexural moment, My, to be used in the calculation is| therefore y= (Soy SVE sn kipat w= (ee) (Gea)s mH FFor rectangular footings or for square footings supporting rectangular colurnns, pedestals, or piers, the larger moment, jie, the moment in the direotion of the longer projection, ney influence the selection of the footing depth to deter mine the reinforcement, however, the moments have to be Celeulated for each direction, The capacity reduction factor, G, in the ebove equation is 0.9 for flexure according to Section 9.2.1.1 of ACI 318-71, If Tables 1-7 in Chapter 1 Of this handbook, or if tables or graphs of USD SP-17 are used, the @factor can be disregarded because it has gon- erally been included in the handbook. "The flexural strength shell eso be investigated ax all changes in the cross section of the footing element. Such checke are important in the design of stepped or sloping footing mats. ‘The Flexural Tables 1-2 provided in Chapter 1 of this handbook, for the design of ordinary beam and slab prob- Jems, ean be used just as well for the flexural design of a footing, In this cas, the F-factor can be determined from the selected size of the footing as 7 Dyin fe ree cunape? 2000, FO ‘orcan be read from the Fable, With the help of Ky © My, the corresponding wet wn, 13 x $40.1 90.95 kipitt? Determine effective soi pressre (allowable sll pressure that can be uclized) ag = 4.80 ~0.95= 3.95 kipit? ete forfind the rinimum required base aren of footing Pp +P, _ 3804 215 Apqin 2a O82 «567 ge a eo ow s4ne=(%na24) x xlbn-24) 2200 Fissat Ang Ape Bag 169 nisaeis.tan Spe ays Agay 1582 4527 % OY“ =m7508 Y ow a Ags 1s 1000 Sasja80+ 6a 6 br snaps Fig. 5.28 Twosway shear ation, ‘The peumissble two-way shear stzess (ACI 318-7], Section 11.403) 18 ay * 495 = 20 pt NOTE: It is advssble (o dasgn 4 footing thick enovgh to salty ‘the permissible shear sreses for unrebforeed concrete. When, under txiceme conditions, the footing cannot be made thick enough, the Shear eapacty of the footing has vo be strengthened by renforee- font the tame ‘ey’ et ina columinslab intersection. If shear rein- orcemeat (asually bent up bars) is used, the permisble average scar siete may De inerasoa by 50%; i tel shearead ceinforce- iment i provided, the permissible average shear stress may be ine ‘ranged by 75%, 4n each eas the conevte suction can only be stressed to tho permissible stress value of 4/2 and the temainder has to be cneried by the veinforeement i, Investigation for one-way shear action begins by investigating the footing mat inthe @ieetion in which tho distanoe between Tooting edge and critical sootion is largest, The eitial section for128 HANDBOOK OF CONCRETE ENGINEERING re t aaV | Fig, 530 One-way sh one-way shay rans parallel to each pier face, and atthe distance d say fom i, arose the emtite footing mat, be ig. 5-30 dpa tp 13.0 Se sasn 69 BONS sas: =69 0 end), 69-26 Au oa 2 iB 13.02 46.6.2 Fou Aust 46.6 & 5.7 = 268 Rips 268.0 x 1000 S503 x 126 = 18 pe “The permissible shear stress for one-way action ie Yu * 2ViE* 10 ps NOTE: In essonc, tho note provided atthe end of Step 3a applias he also. (ACI 318-71, Section 11,10.3) Step 4° Ivestiaton for fen. Af the projection of the footing Devon whe etal sett vais the New nests has 0 be inade for each diction, In each case the calcal section extends Eos the srt footing. Tor conerote piers OF coking th cial ston i loca at the face of the ples (ACI 318-7, seston 15:42), (See nso Ps $26,17= 39) ‘. Wlsofal computation is the dieetion of the longer footing dimension Ipely 30-1 ro 75 f= 69 in a 515 My = bay 65% = 13.0% 5.15% 5.7 *25= 1220 kip od OBIE oo ange 22 139 12,905" TRo00 "88 Bw Mul os =0004. Ay= ppd = 0.008 (13 x 12)26=162 in? Minimum reinforcement required (ACI 318-71, section 7.13) Pmin = 0.0018. As vin = Pins! = 0.0018 (13 x 12)31 = 8.8in2 For evaluation of h soe blow, Ag? 16.2;in? governs. b. Flexural computation in the erection of the shorter footing sitiension 139-20 22082 55 115 66, Mecheontt tao sss «08 PETS seabove Minimum reinforcement required (AC! 218-11, setion 7.13) min 0.0018) Aq ebyal = 0.0037 (13 x 12)26= 15.0 in? governs NOTE: MLwoud be theoretical coect to we a diferent d-ahue for the Mexunt computatian In cach diction besnse the rei foyeament is paced In fvo layers The request of pecs 8 Certain ayer blow the other one i, economicaly, oni seldom Worth he etfert, and. praca ditealt to contol unless the Character of the two layers Gaxtially diferent. man oblong footing where the longer bare ae anally spect fo be placed in the ft layer from the bottom. For she Tootings tf 2Orsble to say on te safe se, and design the remforcement into cee tins for the sorter effective depth d. Cae as to be exercied in te section of the ba Huo tat eva be used for be ohforsomen, tecause bar development (anchorage) alveys etal in members ‘ich are highly eso by shear Sine every ar as to be aly choad at other eof te il vee he re ash ‘hich se ~ 3m) wl govern the ces, se Fg ean be sen tom fable 10m bic handbook towing he bar derelopment lengths forthe varios tras tha for the example Under conideation, any deformed bar up fo ze No. Il can be {sed for dis purpose Bar ses greater than oT are commony ot ‘use for footings althguah thor go Code testi fn as respect. 1789 4g" 17 in* > 1622) wl be provided in each Srction ae dpe in.=05-362in, Fig.5:31 Ger devolooment jancheraee, ‘The total thickness of thé footing can be found, under considera sion af the cove, 36 sown in Fig, 32. Neds 1Sdp + @g= 26415 X 11343 =307 in =310in, Tita | {j= o— + rosso sree det twat tt EXAMPLE 5.2: Below, ex. 5-1 is solved with the help of footing {ables and graph contained in the "Ultinata Stongtl Detign Hand book SP-I7.” Sven J and Step 2 have to be pexformed as befor, aes ee ee eaepao step 3 ete Rooting Grp of USD SP? Py _Pou Pian _ 380.0% 1425.0 % 10 . Ae IpX dp “paie —*22 Kipin center graph ith Pld Sree ato of dlbp = 1.38. “The szaph was prepared for square piers, but i also can be used for sigitly eotangular pes ifthe reetanglo is transformed into & fquane of equal area, The te of the equivalent square is then BUSS bee TB = 202, d= 1.28 X 20.7 = 26 in, (Since the inter Beton with the qygurves cannot be read with accuracy itis com fended fo verily td seletod value by ealclation) ‘prom Footing Tables of USD SP-17, select the able whic is closest to the required q oF interpola if nesasary, Footing Teble foray = 6.67 will be on the safe side. By entering thi table with the Elected depth © 26 in, (nterpoate between 24 and 28), we find tbe appropriate ap-vale equal to 78.25 in. Ths value represents the Insvintumprojestion that can be used for One-way shear action Shnce the maximum projection , in the example i 69 in. (which is ‘aller than 78.28), the selected depth of 26 i. is sustaciory. ‘Sep 4: The footing must also be deep enough to develop the Se dowel a ane con Hove wee ee IESE Ot Ticks Hecenary development leng is said by the depth of the focting, n cate the dowels have to be anchored for compression nly, tie 2g must be amaller than of equal to 26 in which is ‘stdied by #11 bars. In ease of tension, the anchorage can be In ‘cessed through hooks or bends 2.21 and read at intersection with ay = ‘Siep 5° The same footing ible ean be used to determine these fereement. Enter the table with the value of d = 26 and a = 69 in Double intorpolation furnishes a value of 1.22 in for he eine foroenent in c2eh diction, Tho total sequined tenfercement 5 therefore Ay* Ayift (ror Table) x by 1.22 x 13 #159 in? ‘gainst 16.2 in? found by exleulation in Step 44) of Ex. 5-1, ‘Tho column atthe right hand side ofthe Table indicates the maxi ‘muna bar size that ean be used corresponding to each projection EXAMPLE 5-3: Without the help of footing tbles and graph, Eyes chlng et els eat e alovrag conden rene ened ih thon ex 3 excep ‘hat the width of the footing is restricted to 8 ft, andthe long sie ‘of the pior is, for architectural ratons, peependicula to the long Sle of the Tooting. Step 1; Determine footing size from sevice | ‘he minum bate sea Tenvans unchanged 1, Evaluation of A= er Stet footing see bey MT Ape 16810 Step 2: Detezino bearing prossure to be used in strength design Unchanged hom eae REE 5° 5.7 ipl Step 3: Determine the thickness of the footing. In the case of an oblong, concentrically Yoaded, spread Footing, the footing thickness fs often governed by oneaway (beam) shear action, depending on the Iengeh to width raiho of the footing. It is thertore necestay to investigate the footing for this condition fist, and cheek the tentatively selected thickness afterwards for two-way (lab) shear action (ee also Step 3 of Example Sl). The tentathely selected footing thickness must sso be checked for dowel anchorage and Axara requirements '. When investizating for one-way shear action, consider that the stitial section for one-way shoar extends across the entire footing Parallel to each pier face at tho distance d away from it. Similarly fo Siep 3 of Example 5-1, we assume the footing depth, in this ‘ane to be 36 in, see Pg. $83. Foorwes 129 mit. a L a Fig, 533. Onewsy sheer in cbtong footings. a leolp, N0-10 100 ft» 120i, z z ena), 120-36 7 Ay Boye BE 0 56.0108 Vye= Ar gg” 560% 5.7 = 3120 kip Pe 312% 1000 So Sigd “Vase Tx Te 1 “Te permis shea ses for one-way actions 2Vff= AGO = 110 ps 1. Investigation for twosvay se BAY, © Up # 24/2) (by + 2d) = 8 +36) 24+ 36) = 3240 in.? = 22.4 117 Vou" Ayn ds ly ¥b- SAW) as = (80% 210-224) 5.12 8300 Bp ay = Yaulbgd = #20 % 1000/0.85254 + 60)] 36 120 pi hh is wel below the permis value of & FF = 220 ps. The Tovtectnes of thi rest gbestonabe, Ire fok at the plan athe footing in Fig. $4 which Jr seating the condition, An Sven trbution ofthe io-way sear along the perimeter ik Fry probe i we conser the nerow with of the influence 2seu pal fo ie short side othe pi ‘N nrerossnabl rel obalnd I we die te inuence ares In Tour portions, and snvestigit the greatest sear sess caused iy ench part sparately Jen Gp ta) _ 22.0% 12-08 +36) Speco crested ere an is? 2 “oT By ee a BY Teen Fig. 6-26 Twounty seer in eblong footings,190 HAND8OOK OF CONCRETE ENGINEERING Vay = A'vaas* 6895 X 5.7= 365 kip Pi 365 x 1000 3G, +a” VasaNs IOI whichis considerably greator and more relate than the fist value ‘f Uy found abore, but sll within the permiesible ni of 220 ps Step 4: The depth of 36 in, will permit the use of any bar size Tor dowels, regarding thelr development in compro ‘Step 5: Investigation for Moxie. The oblong shape of the Footing requires the design To be made independently for both directions. tsgood practice, nd reazonabe, to stsume thatthe reinforeement in the long direction wil bo placed at the bottom in order {0 utlize » greater depth 1! Is safer, however, and recommended, t0 design both layers for the shorter effective depth to stay indepen dent ofthe fet inspection. 2, Inthe long dsseion ofthe mat Yau = 200 psi ape 2ld dineeeres Ma eanbranth P= by€2)92,000= (8 X 12) 364/12,000 » 104, Ky = 2280/90.4 = 218 y= 2.85, from Hlexure Table 1-2 fn Chapter 1 of this handbook i, 20 aa” Tae ‘The minimum availble anchorage length in tis oction isay ~ 3= 10x12 3= 117 in, Tecan be seen from Tablog 10 Sn Chpter J of thi handbook that this fength permits the use of any bar se ‘up fo #11. Select Asn 1S~ #11, Age 284 in? 1, In the short diection ofthe mat = 2.2in? Ay _ BOR1S : 305% 32 My etyaa%S = 3.28 21x 5.1% 235 e650 pt pow EP G1 x1 x36? 272, ky= B= 20 ¥2,000 “ ~“T2,000 ia ay 296 only minimum reinforcement wil be required, 133My 1.33% 3X S40 5 og? Saad 39x IE OF Armin = Palit = 0.0018 (21 X 12941 = 18.7 in? For evaluation of se below, The smaller value cam be used ‘The minimum available anchorage length inthis dreetion is g~ 32% 12) = 3= 33 in. According to Tables {-10 i Chapter I (of this handbook, the maximum permissible bar size which ex be ‘sein this vespeet Is #9, Recwtse of the farpe footing. engl) & fetes mumber of bar is desirable and we select #7 bats. 1m an oblong footing, section 15-44 of ACI 318-71 requires that 2 portion of tho reinforcement in the short direction Ay, be di- ‘wibuted over 2 width by and the balance of the teinforesvent be spread evenly ovr the ret ofthe footing length, 9. (15-1). I Ayr ~ total roquired reinforcement in the short diection, then Agee? 6ax2 An oD Ben im S=Uplog = 2118 = 265 To avoid unequal spacings of reinforcement, the total weinforce ‘ment yz say be increased 0Ayy tn order 10 ba epread evenly over the entre length of the footing. 2dypS _ 2X 68x 265 Gr)” aeeD Reinforcement used is 31 #7 bars, 4p 18.6 in? and the tot ‘thickness oP the Footing An = 9.82 all ese than 18.7 in? (085 = 41 in, where dpy, and dg afe the bar diameters inthe long and short Aizocton EXAMPLE S-4: Stepped footing. IF the thickness of the footing investigated in ex. 53 & consideied to bo uneconomical os other io excesshe, itimay be desizned asa stepped footing and required to be east monolithicaly, see Fi. $-27 1 is common practice to maks the cap (the upper portion) about 6 by long, however this length should be checked as described boost, The cap thickness usually essumed with a fegction of the total footing thickness depending on the number of eps toe nse. Tn this case the shear investigations of ex. 53, for one-way and for twoway shear, ae applicable only as Jong as the eiical Sections fall within the extent ef the cap otherwise, the depth oo- ‘uring at the eitcal gsction has to be used, The shesreone or Dyrarald must not snersect the sep, ox the sve of the exp hae to Be hjusted as needed, The entire shoar investigation has tobe repeated along the perimeter ofthe cap. In the flexural investigation, cere as to be exercisod so that only ‘tat portion of the eross section (hac in compression i utilis for determining the Hralve, b42/12,000, and consequently the amount of reinforcement, In addition tothe meximom moment ‘curring at the cxtcal Section, the amount at the edgo of each step has to be Investigated, and the amount of reinforcement at these locations eheokee forthe reduced avaible depth, (AMPLE 5-5: Stretural lain concrete footing column dead toed: 40 kipe column lve load: _60 Kips total column losd> 00 Rips ‘sorvice) allowable soll pressure y= 40 bp? $000 Psi, poe size 12 12 in, footing size 109 oe a2 Baws, or sxsit Start with the flexural investigation because It governs the design ‘of a square, structural plain concrete footing supperting a square column or per. See ig. 535. Pup 40.0% 14* 56.0 kins Pu * 60.0% 1.7 » 102. kips Pee 158.0 ips Pu 138 a 6.35 hips? ‘The permissible Sloxural suength it, seeding to seotons 15.7.2 and 9.2.15 of ACE3I871 fr 50% 0% STE 5 x 065 J3ED)= 179 piMy 12,000 _ 63.5 x 12,000 te Ts 4230 10H? 17 = 423, = 205 i Sptreguied) 230 say 24 in bein pacina| | fe2e int ated Fig. 85 Flexural doign of structural plain conerete Footings Sy r naa Fig, 5.36. Twomay ser inetructural lala concrete footie Chock footing thickness for two-way shear (or ustative pur poses oni). See Fig. 5-36. BY ass c2 vara (2} na Vay ® BA Ka 155% 68° 48 kipt Py~ Py 1S8-48= 110 kip aun Ct SPD, 110% 000. bod ARSENAL permisble dus 4eVZ= 4x 0.85 X IOOB™ 187 ost 5.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE FOOTINGS WITH CONCENTRATED REACTIONS (PILE CAPS) 8.5.1. Genoral Principles Where soil conditions do not favor the design or construc tion of shallow foundations (spread footings), but a firm Foorines 131 soil stratum can be found at greater depth, piles ean be used to transfer the Joads from the superstructure down to the soil stratum, where the required resistance is available. The piles may develop this resistance by end bearing (bearing piles) on the firm stratum; or by skin friction (friction piles) Geveloped by driving the piles into the firm stratum. Foune ‘dation piers or caissons can also be used for similar pur poses but do not form a part of this discussion, ‘Similar to the action of a spread footing, a footing on piles (commonly called pile cap) has to distribute the cal- tumm Toad to the piles in each group, which in tur will tvansmit it fo the subsoil. The main difference between the two types of footings lis in the application of the base re- actions which, in the ease of a focting on piles, consists of fa number of concentrated loads, If we divide the sum fof all pile reactions in group, just for reasons of comparison, by the base area of the pile cap, we obtain fan equivalent bearing pressure caused by the bearing capacities of the individual piles, Such an average bearing pressure would be quite high because of the large bearing ‘capacities of the individual piles. These large rile capacities wore brought about by great progress made in the theo retical understanding of the soil resistance; by ianprovement fn the quality of the materials used; and by the higher power and reliability of modern driving procedures and equipment. "The allowable beeting capacity that can be expected from a pile is usually based on the information gained from exploratory soil borings, and eveluated with the help of soil mechanical principles; it should be confirmed, how- ever, by performance tests made on the site to ascertain the ‘actual conditions. Depending on the availability of rock, hardpan, or other firm soil stratum and on their dis- tance below grade, the engineer will decide whether bear- Ing piles can be used economically. Otherwise, he hes to resort to friction piles of some sort to utilize the available soil condition, ‘Lack of a firm soil stratum at reasonable depth can some limes be treated algo with the help of Moating (boatlike) foundations which do not form a part of this discussion ‘The structural design of pile cap is, in principle, not af- fected by the type of pile to be used, because itis primarily dependent on the magnitude of the pile reaction; however, 4 few explanations are necessary for a better understanding in the evaluation of the basic design approach, 5.5.2 Number of Pil In the case of a sprond Footing, the size of the footing is determined from the total Joad on the footing and the al- lowable bearing pressure; hence, the size of the footing is rather made to order. In the cast of « pile group, however, ‘the number of piles is determined from the total group and the allowable load bearing capacity of each individual pile. Since the addition of a pile will raise the capacity of the whole group hy a considerable amount, some of the pile groups may have, in order to be on the safe side, a capacity that exooeds that of the column load by a substantial amount, Furthermore, it is common practice to use, for reasons of stability, 2 minimum of three piles in a’ free standing pile group! a minimum of two piles if a founds- tion beam or similar provides lateral support; and a single pile only’ if lateral support can be provided in two direc Hons, These minimum requirements have to be satisfied even if the capacity provided by the pile aroup far exceeds the amount of the load to be supported. Its good practice to design the pile caps in any ease for the full allowable capacity of the group. This is done whether required by the column load oF not, and in spite of the waste that may Required182 HANDBOOK OF CONCRETE ENGINEERING be connected with it, to permit full utilization of the pile capacity under any circumstances, in the ease of bearing piles, every pile in a group may be considered fo act as an independent pier dawn to the beas- sng stratum and to share equally in the carrying of the load, In the ease of friction piles, the number of piles in a group affects their catrying capacity, especially that of the it ferior piles. Although this deficiency is usually averaged over the entire pile group, as far as the capacity of the group i concerned, the vatiations in the capacity of each Invlividual pile. sequites, sometimes, considerstion in the design of the pile eap. In either case, whether we are dealing with bearing piles ‘or friction piles, there is always a chance that some piles Jn the group may develop a smaller (or greater) resistance than others; a pile eap ought to be stiff enough Lo equalize this condition. It ie therefore advisable not to keep the effective depth of a pile cap down to the minimum re- fguired, but Lo increase it somewhat wherever possible, The design of a pilo cap follows in general the same rules and regulations as that of a spread footing, except that the base reactions (pile reactions) ate applied as concentrated Toads in the center of each pile. Attention is drawn to se tion 155.5 of ACI 318-7] which states that “in computing {the externel shear om any section through a footing sup- ported on piles, the entire reaction from any pile whose Eenter is located dy/2 (dp is the pile diameter at the upper fend) or more outside the section shall be assumed as pro- ‘ducing, shear’ on the section, The reaction from any pile Whose center is located dp/2 ox more inside the section Shall be assumed as producing no shear on the section. For intermediate positions of the pile center, the portion of the pile reaction to be asmuined as producing shear on the se tion shall be based on straight line interpolation between full value at dp/2 outside the section ané zero value at dp/2 inside the Section.” ‘For evaluation of pile reactions under various loading conditions see the following section. "Fe considerable intensity of the concentrated pile reac- tions sequires that more than usual attention be given to the design for shear in the conorete cap and the develop- jnent (anchorage) of the reinforcement in the section. Due to the importance of a orack free entity of a pile cap in the Gistribution of the column load to the supporting pile roup, the use of plain concrete is not permitted for Pile caps, 5.5.3 Evaluation of Pile Reactions 1235 kip ‘no increase inthe aumber of piles is quired due to wind EXAMPLE 5-8: Sttongdh desln of pile cap. The column loud and Mlowabe pl capaci ste sae ae 86 J 3000 ps, and fy 60,000 ps Pier ste 6 22 X 22 in, the Butt dlameter of the piles i 14 fn. De- termine the thckaess and reinforcement of the pile cap. ‘The strength deen of the ple cap i based on the Ryy, which is determined from the factored loading, similar tothe dy for the spread footing, and has also here no other significance. from dest loud 400 14 ie 56.0 kip from lve load SOK AT SOKA sea ‘The factored pile reaction is then 56,0 + 88.4 = 144.4 Kips iis however, recormendsd to design the ple cap Tor the maximum ‘etored pile reaction based on the average lo acto. verae load factor 400% 1.4 #520017 90 2 ‘maximum factored pile eseton due te column lod is 935% 16 150kip Fig, 538 stows the layout For a tempile cap and the vatiour proaches dit need to be feiowed fn the evaluation of is stength ese Step J: For two-way shear section (3), s€ indeated tn he lower Toft quadrant of Te. 3-38, et us assume that the necessary dopth Dag boon evaluat with 30 in and is checked herewith: tho etitieat (ne way shear Twi - way shear (ob Evel 72%, Fig. 6.38. Stat evaluation in pile caps.12 HANDBOOK OF CONCRETE ENGINEERING Dose size of the tincated pyramid ig 22-42 x 30/2.= S2 in. The tcl ahenr fore Wye then Vay 2 6X 190.0#2% 16 32 Kip ete the contribution of the outer ples Joeated om the p= exis s 5 tp 180x Pe 16kip, dp = 44 in, F-85415 In ge Tie 2932 X 1000 aH” ous SDN 30K OS which ie smatier than 4 VFE= 220s Two-way hese action (6), i inéestod in the upper fr quadrant cof ig, $38.1 can be vealoed, by inspection of Fig. $26, that he ctl shear distibution fs uncgual and willbe much greater in the fone direction, IT we take an approach similar fo ex. 5-300) We Yequie a much greater eap thickness, at evauated inthe approach {a} deserved above, I ths respect we divide the shear action agsin fato two portions separated by #43" tine placed at the corner ofthe truncated pyramid bu. Lot us assume, gain thatthe neceary thjckaese of 34 in bas been evaluated before and f checked blow. "The cite) bese sizeof the uncated pyramid ls here 22 + 2% 34j2'~ so in. and the shear Tone for the most slesed quadrant iccomes 10ps ¥4 where the contibution of the outer piles is 150 x 10/14 107.0ip, dp/2-+3* 10m Pau _ 364 x 1000 “Doao” 56K MK 08S 1x 150 42% 107 = 364.0 kip co 225 > 220 pst bot aoceptable. The greater depth of 34 in. therefore, selected ‘Step 2: One-way shear action, as indicted in the upper right durant of Fig, 538, Tho ental line is 22/2 * 34> 43 in. away from ie yy txt The eit shes fore it then Vay = 150.0 Kip, age Hu «150% 1000 ‘u* yas” VK SAK 088, ih s smaller dan 2J7E= 110 ps ‘Sep 3: ‘The ttn setions for Sexut, a8 indicated in the lower right quadrant of Pig, $-38, aro at the face ofthe pier; the moments in rinforeements ste determined for these rections 56 psi csi setion 1 . = 8.4 in, omin iat 3 As aud 437K 34 ie 50,000 pee ae 13in2, oF 1.33% B4=11.2in A sein = 0.0033 X 99% 4 which governs stil section 2: My = 3X 150% 205/12 © 770 Kips Max? 72,000 m0 Anat = 5.1 in? aad Assn" ein B4= 0.0033 X 144 X 34 16.1 m2, oF 1.33. $.1= 68 in? which governs ‘The sletian and distibution of the bar is done as deseibed jn example $-1, Step 4b, The maxieaom ber sie that ay be used hae to be selcted In such a vay that the development (ancher) tnath ofthe bar fe smaller oy equa than the shortest avalable embedment length ofthe barat either side of the critical section. 5.6 RETAINING WALLS 5.6.1. General [A retaining wall ie a structure designed for the purpose of providing one-sided lateral confinement of soil or fill. ‘All retaining, walls, with the exception of true cantilever walls anchored to rock, sre in principle gravity walls, i their action depends primarily on their developed weight Jn common practice, however, only those retaining walls are called gravity walls where the dead weight required 10 Imake the resultant vector intersect the base within safe allowable limits is made up solely by the dead weight of the comerete. Such walls are usually designed unreinforced, Fig, $-39a, The commonly called cantilever wails are in principle gravity walls where reinforcement Is used to re- fluce and modify the cross section of the concrete in such ‘2 way that portions of the soil or fill are utilized for devel- oping the necessary rightening moment, Fig. 5-38b. in every retaining wall design, regardiess of the type used, three resultant forces, namely, the lateral confinement pres: sure, Q, the total developed weight, ?, and the soil reaction lr bearing resistanco, Rave to be brought into equilibrium Fig. 5-40a; in addition all internal stresses in the structure and all external soll reactions have to be within the per- missile limits, Retaining walls of the commonly called cantilever type can be gubdivided into two main groups: 1, Continuous walls of constant cross section, where every foot of wal length is providing its own equii~ sium, Fig. $-39b. 2. Sectional walls, where crosswalls introduced af certain Pay i rir rot free dapts { ‘ i Fig. 698 Typer of retaining wallsFoorincs 195 1: 640. Conditions of aauiibrium fo etsining walls spacings, provide all stability requirements and the walls between them act only as intermediate elements, Fig, 5-396. Where the crosswalls are visible in front they are called buttresses, where they are behind the wall and inside the soil, they are called counterforts, Some retaining walls ate designed to have both, “The portion of @ continuous cantilever wall or erosswall which is pressed downward into the soil is called the toe, snd the portion which is lifted upward is called the heel ‘The vertical portion is ealled the stem, Fig. 5-390. “The footing of a continuous retaining wall or crosswall must be large enough 1, to resist the resultant vector due to confinement pres- sues, dead weight of the concrete and developed ‘weight of the soil by means of safe bearing pressures; and 2. tokeep the wall safely from overturning 5.6.2. Confinement Pressure ‘The magnitude and distribution of the lateral pressures ex- cexted by the confined soil or backfill depends on the kind cof material, its moisture content, existence and depth of the groundwater, slope of backfil, and eventual surcharge due to live loads, storage, building loads, etc. applied close enough to be of influence, These pressures and their dis tribution have to be evaluated by principles of soil mechan- ies and do not form a part of this discussion. Most text- books on Soil Mechanics contain detziled information on this subject °° ‘The resultant of these pressures is located at the centroid of the pressure wedge. The angle of inclination between the resultant and a line perpendicular to the back of the wall indicates the wall friction and is usually expressed as fraction of the angle of internal friction, 6, of the fil ma- terial; itis often assumed with 4/2. It is, Rowever, impos- fant to Keep in mind that this angie is also influenced by the slope, material and compaction of the backfill, by the surface texture of the concrete (at the back of the wall) by the existence of ground water behind the wall, or merely, by moisture in the soil which ean act like a jubri- cant and reduce the friction angle to a minimal value. I is ommon practice with many designers fo disregard the wall friction and to apply the resultant perpendicular to the beck of the wall in order to be on the safe side. Spaced weep ‘holes or continuous backdrains are often provided to alleviste the heavy presture condition that can be caused by groundwater accumulating behind the back of the wal. Since weep lies and other drainage provisions say be clogged, it is recommended to investigate a retain- wall for a condition of full, or at least increased, water pressure, Such loading, however, represents an emergency ‘condition and it is up to the engineer's judgement to reduce the safety factor for such a design as he sees fit. 5.6.3 Bearing Pressure ‘The pressure distribution under the footing of « retaining wall follows the same rules and is determined by the same methods as the pressure distribution under an eccentrically loaded footing. It is of course desirable, and to be at- tempted wherever possible, to keep the intersection of the resultant of all active forces (confinement pressures and developed weight) within the kern of the footing base. (in the case of a strip footing under a continuous retaining wall, ‘the Kern distance is /¢ of the footing size in the direction ‘of the loading.) However, in many cases this is not cco: nomically feasible and gieater cccentricities have to be accoptod with a pressure distribution extending only over a part of the footing. The maximum edge pressure is then determined as discussed in sections 5.2.2 and 5.2.3 and shown in Fig, 55. 5.6.4 Overturning COverturning can also be treated similarly as for regular col- smn or wall footings. Where the base of the retaining wall is resting on rock of very hard soil, overturning may be cal culated about the pressed edge and the safety factor can be expressed by the ratio SF = Mg/Mp, where Mg is the overturning moment caused by he confinement pressures, acting about the pressed edge, and My is the resisting mo- ment consisting of the dead weight of the retaining struc- ture plus the developed weigit of the fill material and any dother frictional or passive resistances in the soil that may bbe mobilized during the overturning. The safety factor may also be expressed according to the “Suggested Design Pro- ‘cedures for Combined Footings and Mats”® as the ratio fof the distance of the pressed edge from the base centioid to the eccentricity, . In this ratio, e= Mp/P, where Mp is the sum of alll moments about the base centroid and P is the sum of all forces acting perpendicular to the base, The safety factor against overturning should customarily be not less than 1.5. Where the retaining wall rests on soil, the investigation regarding overturning may proceed along similar lines, ex- cept that the critical line about which the overturning and teslating moments are to be caleulated is not at the pressed ‘edge but somewhat inside, at the distance ey from the centroid which is the center of gravity of the pressure block ‘evaluated for an ultimate soil bearing condition. The evalus- tion of this condition is similar to the one described in sec- tion 5.2.1 and shown in Fig. 5-5e, Where the ultimate soilPgeeeeee 138 HANDBOOK OF CONCRETE ENGINEERING et Fig, 41 Lateral resistance t base for rtsining walls, pressure is not known, it may be assumed to be 2.5 times the allowable soil pressure.** 8.6.5. Sliding Resistance Lateral resistance against the horizontal component of the confinement pressure, commonly called resistance against sliding, has to be supplied by static friction at the footing base and by passive earth pressure against the embedded front portion of the retaining wall. Where this resistance is insufficient, the passive pressure can be increased by ex: tending a Key or lug into the soil below the footing base. Since the preference for the location of the lug can be argued about, it is probably located best where il is most practical with regard to construction and placement of reinforcement, Fig. 5-41. 8.6.6 Type Selection ‘The quality of the available subsoil and its allowable bear ing pressure, as well as the height of the wall itself and the available construction space in front of the slope, can in- fluence the selection of an economical typo of wall to # areat degree ‘Where the construction space is ample, the allowable soil pressure i reasonable, and the height of the structure is not excessive, gravity walls of structural plain concrete can be used with advantage, Their weight is usually large enough to develop all the necessary base friction; however, the pro- vision of Keys or lugs projecting into the firm subsoil are rather common, ‘Where the available bearing pressure is large and construc- tion space is avalable, the designer can utilize a Jong heel and develop much back fill weight co deflect the horizontal pressure resultant sharply down to the ground Fig. 5-40b. However, where the available heating pressuse is small, 100 ‘much of it would have to be used to carry the developed weight of the backfill In this case, the designer will have to be satisfied with a smaller totel dead weight which will de- tease the inclination of the resultant, Consequently he will have to increase the toe to keep the resultant suff ently within the dase to satisfy the allowable bearing pressure, and to keep the wall from overturning Fig. 5-40¢. For ordinary conditions it may be considered good prac tice to Keep the sizes of heel and toe about the same. The base of the toe hss to be placed at frost free level Butresses and/or counterforts are used presently only for retaining walls of greater height (more than 20 to 25 ft, unless buttresses are architecturally desired) because of the reat expense usually involved in the formwork. This type (of design may see a kind of revival in combination with the use of precast wall panels, Tor the enclosure of underground storage or extra large basements areas, freestanding retaining walls are sometimes used a5 basement walls In certain cases retaining walls are designed 10 act as such oly tesnporarily until a full tie-in with the rest of the struc- ture is achieved. In other eases such walls are designed only for the final loading condition, but not for the loading during construction, and will therefore require temporary shoring to maintain their stability. Some retsining walls may during construction change from s fully independent free standing structure to 2 top and bottom supported basement wall and in such a case every condition of load- ing ought to be considered for their stability ax well as for their strength, ‘The use of precast sections may also here see a consider- able field of application in the future, Such sections may, in the form of sheetings or in the form of entire wall panels, be driven or inserted into the ground before the main excavation has taken place. In such 2 case the same wnit may serve successively 28 protective sheeting, retaining wall and final basement enclosure.” Free standing retaining walls may also be constructed entirely of precast units. Such designs may simulate either the action of @ sectional cantilever wall as shown in Fig. 5-39c, or that of e gravity wall in which case they are called cribbings. 5.6.7. Cribbings**" Cibbings consist in general of two types of units, namely, face and anchor units, also called stretchers and leaders, ‘The structural design of cribbings is usually based on an empirical evaluation, The open faced units provide excellent drainage; in other cases drainage has to be provided to pre vent groundwater from backing up and exerting pressure and unsightly leakage. ‘The satisfactory behavior of such procast eribbings de- pends to a considerable degree on the quality of the coni- acted backfill, which shall be installed in close coordina: tion with the placement of the sections. "The face units are straight precast members of various cross sections, often with protruding lugs at their ends to jonnect them to the adjacent face and/or anchor members. Face members cau be designed to open, closed, and flusi= type manner, depending on the architectural requirements They are usually set with o batter of about 1:6 at the frowt ang can also be placed so as to form a curved face, up to 20°, without special units. The anchor units usually come in two types of design, fishtail units or continuous back units. A fishtail unit is # ‘T-shaped, precast section, placed perpendicular to the face ‘of the wall with the purpose of tying two adjacent face units together end anchor them back to the fill material Continuous back units are used together with cross wall uunits to form box like openings that are filled with com- acted soil, There exist also combined units, where face and anchor units are cast together, simplifying erection where ttansportation permits 5.6.8. Pile Supported Retaining Walls Retaining walls may also be supported on piles which is ‘often the case along waterfronts, or where the subsoil dots not have a sufficient bearing capacity or lateral stability,Jn such designs the vertical component of the pressure re~ sultant is to be taken by the piles similarly as for a strip footing and the horizontal component is to be taken either by batter piles, tie backs, or similar devices. ‘Where the subsoil is also capable of providing uplift an- chorage for the piles, the necessary developed weight may be reduced accordingly. 5.6.9. Design Procedure The static design and the stability investigation of 2 retaining wall shall be based on service load conditions; the size of the footing and its location with regard to the wall itself is, therefore, entirely governed by the actual fill and/or liquid pressures under consideration fof the allowable soil bearing pressures and allowable values for sol friction and passive resistance. The structural design of the stem and footing sections and their reinforee- ‘ment, however, shall be based on the ultimate strength design method. For this purpose, the actual loads and active confinement pressures have to be multiplied by the appropriate load factors, and the resulting bearing pressures and other resistances have to be evaluated from these fac- tored loading conditions. The procedure is not always easy to be executed because of variations in eoventrcities that ‘may be caused by it (Gee ex, 5-9, section 7), Its important to keep in mind, just asin the case of the ordinary footing, that these reactions are only caused by assumed factored loading conditions, but have no relationship to ultimate soil bearing values or similar. ‘After the ultimate loadings and corresponding reactions have been determined, every part of the retaining wall (stem, toe, or heel) has to be designed independently as & fully restrained cantilever section protruding from a mass center and carrying all applied loads. ‘The design 10 be performed for the service load condi- tions consists ofa trithand-erzor approach, ‘The result is not too sensitive to slightly incorrect assumptions and can FooTines 197 usually be adjusted in a second trial, if so desired. Due to the multitude of possible combinations it is rather difficult to arrive at reliable recommendations in this respect, how- ever, if the conditions are not too much out of the ordinary’, the footing size perpendicular to the wall dizections ean be assumed to be about ¥5 to % of the total wall height, the footing thickness about '% to Yiz of the footing size, and the base of the stem about Yio to Y/r2 of its height, The following example has not been cut down to the minimum size, i, it could be adjusted and recalculated for further favings; such a procedure would be mostly repetitive and more confusing than helping. ‘The top of the stom should not be made less than & in. to be able to place into it two layers of reinforcement, if so sequired. It is customary 10 place a second layer of reinforcement inside the exposed Tace for shrinkage and cracking control, It is practical to coordinate the reinforcements of stem and toe in such ‘way that the reinforcing bars of the stem can be bent right into the toc. For greater wall heights it is economical to run only @ past of the vertical wall reinforcement to the top and stop the remainder at lower elevations. EXAMPLE S.9: Design 2_continaous _setany ‘all for be following éowdtons ‘4 The difference between upper and lower fevel ie 12. 1b The upper level shall sustain « surcharge of 200 1b/N (we- ium heavy packing). Soll of satisfactory bearing cnpacity is encountered ot a depth fof 4 ft below Lower level (must be equal or giester than Irostfre depth). b, Provide weep oles (© relieve water pressure; maximum ex ‘pected ground wate eve 31 above lover level Ure conte with mininum f= 3000 psi, and ceinfoscing steel having a minimum yield point of 60.000 pa f Soll mechanical considerations provided the following values ‘The bearing sol is medium donse, sity sand with an allow able bearing pressure 9€ 3000 Ib/T, The weight of the mod- ‘rately dry tll can be asumed with 100 Tbyift? and its ene of meena fiction 9 © 32", a} (centever 02 kip nee ATUL cl & 2 I i & fn Tae ——4 be ia 31 0in Dad : _ wed) | be \ one | Least emai, e194 ein —5) Fig. 642. Loadings and seactions for retaining wall, Example 68,128 HANDBOOK OF CONCRETE ENGINEERING <1. Asvumption of size and evaluation of loedings—Based on the requirements and other informations given above, the. Gelgner ‘makes an assumption for the shape, sizes, and othe relationships, and arrives at an arbitrary eross section as given in Fg. $42. Using these assumptions he anives atthe fllowing values: total dond load P= Py Pa 4s +24 = 1088 kip/foot of wal eccentrelty of total dead load P from centroid of base area, 0 = Ps 005 ~ Py X 280+, 228 _ op = asi the aetive earth press a ahh as? (43" ~912) Introducing above values te presse Increment can be evaluated with Pg = 0.03 kip/ft? por foot of depth, Transforming the given forcharge into an equivalent heightof additional soil we obtain, for the active earth pressure at tho upper ive," 2 X 0.09 = 0.05 ‘ip/t, and atthe lower level pga = 14 X 0.03 0.42 pitt, Below this elvaton ie ative earth pressure remains constant, 01 205228 12-268 = 042% 40 total active earth pressure is 201 #03 © 4.56 kip of wal “The elevations at which they are applied are for Qs = 1.68 ips ctor (EBB) ce vaseas tots and for the resultant active earth pressure, Q "e 436 mate -2. Calelation of bearing presnres—The resultam eccentricity st the base of the retaining wal ean be fonnd from Mg#Mp _OXhgPKep Peete arate eee ‘The (2) sign deponds on the location of ep wit convoid, regard to the base 450% 6 ~ 1045 XLS _ 139 go Tas 10s which ‘The meximum toe presure can be calculated according to Fi 5538 sey mi eke dns e814. ae, axs0as @" Sm” 3625-1531 <3. overurnng-Overtring according to Fig. $-5¢ cae com- dutta fotowe Pass t0as aye Taser 2.55 kip(ft? < 3.0 kip? Passat " a 355 spe 33 oa39> Ea 2230215 COvertuming under ful water pressure is compute using: the total water pressure above bass elevation : au=tr0x onc 28-589 andthe additional moment due to the waterpressur about the base 1 dy= 155% 2s s6kips 3 “The eccontilty under tis exteme condition would be 9.0- 121436 Mg +Mp+My 2.0% os Frep ‘The P in this equation was reduced to aecovnt for the buoyancy ofthe submerged portions. ert sauce Bespin is “4. Shite footion coetTieiont of 0.45 was assumed from si ‘icchanical comigeations. The total horizontal Tore fs Q = 4.56 kip, sistance that ean be developed atthe ave i R= OASP= 045 X 1045 © 4.75 Kip “Tho passive earth proseure that can be developed at the font of the setaining walls jen the fictional e- Ry= Ppp hi2= 13x Abe 26 kip 2 “The tora resistance is therefore ReRpeRps 415+ 260= 735kip and the satety factor 138 gro Ta 16> 15 ‘This safety factor appears tobe satisfactory. However, under full water presse the notzontal force willbe lager and the Frictional resistance smaller due to the lubriceting effect of the water, Pro ‘sion ofa oy atthe base is therefore recommended <5. Detign of concrete thickezses ond renforcement—bn order to proceed with the strength design of the elements the actal sevice Tosds ave to bo multiplied by the appropriate loud factors, and the respective strengths of the elements be evaluated under considers: tion oF the appropsiate efector. 6, Stem design—Momant about base of stem 2.75)" be 38.2 kip for 2. concrete protection, egg 12-25 9.5 in bd? _1ax9st * Tp.008 My Tang "00% Kure ay ftom Table 1-2 of Chapter 1, ay = 4.03 Ag Myleyd = 3821403 X9S* 1.01 in? #77eck orf wate pte: 7 = 1.25)" = are [ = aoc 2-129) 29824 1411.04 1.9) = 40.95 Kips 4095 O As Fox98 My 04, OK, <7, Toe design =i i advisable 10 check the shear condition tit. in connection with beeing pressres, iis sometimes dificult to apply the corresponding load factors properly ifthe bearing pres Ses were caused by loadings with different losd factors. Such « procedure may sometimes cause relocation of the resulting eo entices snd load to pressure distributions that are in principle Giferent from those obtained under servioe load conditions. Since this fs rot considered (0 be tho intont of tho design jt is recom yonded to seloct in sich cass ether the highest load factos, 1.7, fn order to bo on the safe side or to select by Judgment an ap ‘rovimate load factor between 14 and 1-7, to apply tothe Bearing presses obtained from the investigation of the service Joad onaitions Tn this example a Joad factor of 1.7 was sed. 115i. | ot fe-4in [_—st028- 1521-8190} ein Fig. 543. Toe Design agg 15-35" 11.5 in 12 (529) 55 uate ean = BVI = 10 Pst For flexure, the bearing pressue outside the ctitia Tine (fae of seni 192852) 4- 120% ‘The centroid of the trapezoidal presse distbution 3s 2.25 fi say from the faoe of the stem, Hence wax i1s? My= 134 - BxUs’ | y= 130X225" 295Skio4t, P= “ES = 0.132 2S. . 25 a ue FEO, tg 427, et TET #062 Since itis practical fo bend the stem reinforcementright into the toe, the provided stem reinforcement, 4y~ 1.08 in, is compared ‘ith the required one and found tobe ample. FoorINGS 139 “Heel design Qi, 28in r 4 15m be Nos ot t 280 rasin— — hassinet bain ey" 18-25" 128i, Fig. 5.44 Hoot Design ‘Te shear foree it fry x29 0.7, 255) Vyqe 17 (2XBS 07, BS) (ope gs 8) 1000 Vy _ 10003 6.0 ghd SK TX TES ‘The flexural moment to be resisted is 0 (ssi 3 xpyxnas-ia fee 8) 4 y= rovarsnaa 2B) 2 sii. rtps 12x 125? ta. 28 oss, yee Qt 16 lt ia axna GET eons in’, or 0.0038 % 12% 12.5 = 049 in Ag=0.28 in? governs A. bar sie hss to be selected for whic the development length i sinaller than the available embedrient 42 ~ 3 = 39 In. Use 8 bars @ 12 In, o¢. Soe Tables 110 of Chapter 1, The bars have 1 be ex tended forthe full development length beyond the face ofthe stem. NOTATION Ap =baseatea of footing, ap ors sectional asea of per, in? 4%, = average influence area per pile, 0? AP, = influence area of beaning pressure for one-way shear, £2 Aya influence aree of beeting pressure for two-way shear, ft? Ay, = base s2ea of truncated cone oF pyramid for two- way shea, a += Footing projection in genera, ft @%, = projection of footing beyond critical face in Tong direction, in. 4 "projection of footing beyond ritical face in short direction, in ay * factor used in determining Ay = My laud ° = width of combined footing, ft dy aide of square footing, ft by short side of oblong footing, fe140 HANDBOOK OF CONCRETE ENGINEERING = base perimeter of trumeated cone or pyramid for two-way shear, in ‘= dimension of pier paallel to footing side by, in. ‘concrete protection, in. ern distance, ft pile spacing, ft = dead loads or their related internal moments and foroes effective depth of section, in Dar diameter, in, diameter of Found or polygonal footing, ft ameter of opening in circular or polygonal footings, ft pile diameter, in tarthquake loads or their related moments and forces eccentricity of load resultant from footing centroid, ft = coeniricity, aa under e, causing fallure pressure ‘rat edge, fi jaximum permissible eccentricity to. prevent overturning, ft @?/12,000 wverage unit weight of footing + surcharge, kipytt? orizontal force, kip = lever arm of horizontal foree, ft hickness of footing, in. jver arm of force O, ft jepth of footing base below floor, ft = moment of inertin of concrete cross section, joment of inertia of footing base area, ft* moment of inertia of pile group, £2 factor used in determining = Aty/Ky ‘= coetficient of vertical subgrade reaction for » Ltt? area, tons}ft? te ive loads and their elated internal moments end forces = loug dimonsion of combined footing, ft stance between column centers, ft jevelopment length (anchorage) of bar, in. © Tong side of rectangular footing, ft jimension of pier parallel to footing side /y, in jexural moment, Kipit ‘= moment about base, kip-ft listance of eccentric lead from pressed edge of footing, ft general footing dimension, ft = number of pile rows of equal configuration low count of stendard penetration test = general footing dimension, {1 = number of piles in group number of piles in tow centroid of footing or ple group otal column load at base, kip = column dead load, kip ‘column live load, kip = resultant load, kip = active earth pressure, kip/ft? © passive earth pressure, Kip/fC? lateral force against retaining wall, kip «= bearing pressure, kip/ft? weight of footing + surcharge, kip/tt? = allowable bearing pressure, kip/ft? bearing pressure at base’ of column or pier, kipjin? effective bearing pressure (q~ Aq), kip/tt® bearing pressure at failure, kip/ft® bearing pressure due to moment, kip/ft? oa bearing pressure under concentric losding, kipite? 4% beating pressure at footing base due to factored loading, kip/te? R = lateral resistance, kip Rp frictional resistance at base, kip Rog, Ragu ® pile reaction due to moment, kip Rp. Rew. = pile reaction due to concentric loading, kip Rp, =allowable pile reaction, tons Reg effective pile reaction (2p, ~ Wp), kip 2 percentage of reinforcement s = ratio of long side to short side of footing 5 soil deformation Spe section modulus of pile group, ft Spe = section modulus of pile row, ft SF =safety factor u uplift force, kip Vow shear force for one-way shear, kip Vou shear force for two-way shear, kip Bau, Saverage shear stress for one-way shear, psi oa average shear stress for two-way shear, psi w ‘vind loads or their related moments and forces Wp = weight of pile footing + surcharge, per pile, kip w! = line load, kipitt wr live load on floor, kip/ft? z distance of extreme fiber from centroid, ft 2pq = distance of extreme pile from centroid of pite group, fe = distance of extreme tensile fiber from centroid, < ——_-B distance of reference line from centroid, ft REFERENCES S-1 Terzaghi, K., “Theoretical Soil Mechenies;” John Wiley and Sons, Ine,, New York, 1942. 5-2 Torzaghi, K., and Peck, R. B,, “Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice,” 2nd ed, Jolin Wiley and Sons, Inc,, New York, 1967, 5-3 ACT Committes 436, “Suggested Desion Procedures for Combined Footings end Mats,” Title 63-49 4CI Proceedings, 63 (10), 1041~1057, Oct. 1966 5-4 Hetenyi, M,, “Beams on Elastic’ Foundations,” Uni- versity of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1946, 55 Kramrisch, F., and Rogers, P., “Simplified Design of Combined’ Footings,” Proceedings ASCE, Paper No. 2959, 87 (SMS), Oct, 1961 546 Molitor, D. A., “A practical Treatise on Chimney Design,” Peters Company, Detroit, 1938, 57 “Beton Kalender,” Wilhelm Emst and Solin, Berlin, 1939. 5.8 Furlong, R., “Design Aids for Square Footings,” ACI Proceedings, 62, 363-371, March 1965. 5-9 Kramdish, F., “Structural Walls of Precast Concrete Sheet Piling,” Building Construction, 5 (11), 64-67, Nov. 1964. 5-10 “Concrete Crib Retaining Walls," Portland Cement ‘Astociation, Concrete Information No, ST-46. 513 Gaylord, E’ H., and Gaylord, C. N., “Structural En gineering Handbook,” MoGraw-Hill, New York, 1968, S12 Urquhart, L. C., “Civil Bapineering Handbook,” 4th ed, MeGraw Hill, New York, 1989, 5.13 Waddell, J. J., “Conerete Construction Handbook,” McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968 5-14 Winter, G., et al, “Design of Conerete Structures,” ‘Tih ed., MeGraw-Hill, New York, 1964 5.15 Everard, N, J, and Tanner, J. L., “Theory and Prob- lems of Reinforced Concrete Design,” Sehauim Pub- lishing Co., New York, 1966,