TEE POWER ENGINEERING SERIES 1 Power circuit breaker theory and design Edited by C.H. Flurscheim Peter Peregrinus Ltd. ‘on behalf of the Institution of Electrical Engineers Revised EditionPublished by: Peter Peregrinus Ltd., London, UK. First published 1975 © 1975: Institution of Electrical Engineers Second impression 1977 Revised Edition 1982 Reprinted 1985 with minor corrections Alll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means — electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise — without the prior written permission of the publisher. While the author and the publishers believe that the information and guidance given in this work is correct, all parties must rely upon their own: skill and judgment when making use of it. Neither the author nor the publishers assume any liability to anyone for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such error or omission is ‘the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all such liability is disclaimed. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Power circuit breakers. — Rev. ed. — (IEE power engineering; 1) 1. Electric circuit-breakers 1, Flurscheim, C.H. H. Series 621.317 TK2482 ISBN 0-906048-70-2page Authors v Foreword viii 1 Development of circuit breakers 1 C. H. Flurscheim, B.A., Fel. 1.E.EE., C.Eng., F1.Mech.£., F1.EE. 1.1 The function of circuit breakers 1 1.2 Development of circuit breakers: oil 4 1.3. Development of circuit breakers: air 9 1.4 Development of circuit breakers: airblast 10 1.5__ Development of circuit breakers: SF. 14 1,6 Development of circuit breakers: vacuum 14 1.7 Development of circuit breakers: special systems 16 1.8 Summary 17 1.9 References 18 2 Physics of circuit-breaker arcs 20 Wi. P, Reece, BSc., Ph.D., C.Eng., FLEE. 2.1 Introduction : arc as switching element in circuit breakers 20 2.2 Types of arc used in circuit breakers 21 2.3 High-pressure arcs 21 2.3.1 Characteristics of high-pressure arcs 2 2.3.2 Electrode regions 23 2.3.3. Arc column 25 2.3.4 — Tonisation in arcs 25 2.3.4.1 Thermal ionisation 26 2.3.4.2 lonisation by collision 26 2.3.4.3 __ Formation of negative ions 27 2.3.5 Recombination 29 2.3.6 Electron and positive-ion velocities in arc column 30 2.3.7 ___ Current flow, conductivity and power dissipation in arc column 31 2.3.8 | Magnetic phenomena in arcs : circumferential fields 32 2.3.9 Magnetic phenomena in arcs : transverse fields 32 2.3.10 Thermal phenomena in arc 33 2.3.10.1 Temperature distribution in arcs 34 2.3.10.2 Arc boundary 36 2.3.11 Static arc characteristics 36 2.3.12 Arc in transient state 38 2.3.13 Dynamic are equations and arc extinction 39 2.3.14 Post zero currents and arc time constants 45 23.15 Current chopping 47 vit Contents 2.4__Vacuum arc 47will Contents 2.4.1 Definition of vacuumare CA 4.2 The two vacuum-arc regimes 48 Diffuse vacuum arc 48 2.4.3.1 Cathode spot 48 2.4.3.2. Plasma region 49 2.4.4 Transition from diffuse to constricted arc 51 2.4.5 Fully constricted vacuum arc 52 2.4.6 Interrupting ability of vacuum arc 52 2.4.7 Current-zero processes in diffuse arc 52 2.4.8 Post-zero currents 53 25 Methods of measurement of arc properties 55 Category (a): measurements 56 2.5.1.1 Voltage 56 2.5.1.2 Current 56 2.5.1.3 Pressure 37 2.5.1.4 Arc geometry 57 2.5.2 Category (b): fundamental studies 58 2.5.2.1 Arc temperature 58 2.5.2.2 Gas density 59 2.5.2.3 Electron densities 59 2.6 Acknowledgment 59 2.7 References 59 3 Network switching conditions 64 M. W. Kennedy, B.Sc., Ph.D., Mem. .E.E.E., C.Eng., M.IE.B. 3.1 Introduction 64 3.2 Short-circuit switching : power-frequency phenomena 64 3.2.1 Three-phase short-circuit switching : power-frequency recovery voltage 64 3.2.2. Asymmetric short-circuit switching 66 3.2.3 Effect of neutral earthing 66 3.3 Short-circuit switching :natural-frequency phenomena 67 3.3.1 Transient recovery voltage 67 3.3.2___Short-line faults 7 3.4 Load and system switching 83 3.4.1 Effect of load power factor 83 3.4.2 Out-of-phase switching 89 3.4.3 Single-phase switching 92 3.4.4 Closing and reclosing on long transmission lines 95 3.5 Reactive-current switching 100 3.5.1 Current chopping with small reactive currents 100 3.5.2 Capacitance switching 109 3.6__References 119 3.7 General bibliography 122 3.8 List of symbols 123 4 125 4.1 Introduction 125 4.2 _Interrupters : design and principles 127 4.2.1 General 1274.2.3 Axial arc-control units 129 4.2.4 Fico controlling performance 129 1 Speed of break 129 2 Speeds of make 130 3 Gass generated during circuit breaking 131 4 Typical interrupter characteristics 133 4.2.5 Interrupters in series 134 4.2.6 — Features of construction 135 4.3 Contacts and conductors: design principles 139 4.3.1 General 139 4.3.2 Normal current carrying 139 3, 44 General 148 Energy levels 150 Trip-mechanism chain 152 Latches 155 Electromagnetic actuators 157 4.4.5.1 General 157 4.4.5.2 Series-connected trippingdevices 158 4.4.5.3 Shunt-connected tripping devices 158 4.4.6 Features of construction 160 4.4.7 __Pneumatic-hydraulic mechanisms 162 4.5 Insulation: design principles 162 4.5.1 General 162 4.5.2 Coordination of insulation 164 4.5.3 Effects of carbon and water 165 4.5.4 Constructional features Cid 45.4.1 Materials dS 45.4.2 Bushings NGG 4.5.4.3 Stand-off insulation 169 4.6 Construction of circuit breakers 169 General 169 Open-type dead tank circuit breakers 169 4.6.2.1 General 169 4.6.2.2 69 kV dead-tank circuit breakers 171 4.6.2.3. 161/220 kV dead-tank circuit breakers 172 4624 300-380 kV dead-tank circuit breakers __‘'174 46.3 Open type live-tank k equipment 175 46. Si reak type 175 4.6. 2 Multibreak type 177 4.6.4 Metalclad circuit breakers 179 4.1 General 179 6.4.2 Metalclad dead-tank type 179 4.6.4.3 Metalclad live-tank type 180 4.6.5 Insulation-clad circuit breakers 180x Contents 4.6.6 Features at the interface of application 180 4.6.6.1 General 180 4.6.6.2 Secondary control features 180 Foundations 183 Low temperatures 185 5 Earthquake conditions 185 4.6.6.6 _ Slow opening and closing 185 4.7 E.HLV. oil citcuit breakers of the future 185 4.8 Acknowledgments 187 4.9 References 187 Ait-break circuit breakers 189 J. S. Morton, B.Sc., C.Eng., FLEE. 5.1 Airbreak circuit breaking 189 5.1.1 Principles of arc extinction 189 5.1.2 Power-balance theory of arcing 190 5.13 D.C. circuit breaking 190 5.1.4 A.C. circuit breaking 190 5.2. Are control 192 5.2.1 Contacts and arc initiation 192 5.2.2 Are chutes 194 5.2.2.1 Bare-meta-plate type or cold cathode 194 5.2.2.2 Insulated steel plate 196 5.2.2.3 Insulated plate with external iron circuit 199 5.2.2.4 Insulated plate with external blowout coils and no iron circuit 201 5.2.2.5 Insulated plate ‘solenare’ 202 5.2.3 Ferformance characteristics 203 5.2.3.1 Aching time/current characteristics 203 5.2.3.2 Voltage/current characteristic 205 $.2.3.3 Interruy formance 206 5.3 Construction 208 5.3.1 D.C. circuit breakers 5.3.1.1 Insulated plate arc chutes 209 5.3.1.2 Cold-cathode are chute 211 5.3.2 Low-voltage a.c. air-break circuit breakers 219 5.3.3 High-voltage circuit breakers 222 5.4 Mechanisms 224 5.4.1 Closing-mechanism design parameters 224 5.4.1.1 Design problems 225 5.4.2 Tripping mechanism and design parameters 227 5.4.3 Mechanism linkages 227 5.5 Fused circuit breaker 231 5.6 Acknowledgments 234 5.7 References 234 Air-blast circuit breakers 235 5. M, Gonek, C.Eng., FLEE. 6.1 Introduction 235 6.2 Properties of compressed-air medium 238 6.2.1 General 238Contents xi 2 Static electrical properties 238 6.2.3 Dynamic electrical properties 6.2.4 Mechanical properties 28 6.3 Interrupter types 253 6.4 Circuit-breaker types and basic arrangements 255 6.4.1 ‘Open-terminals’ type 255 6.4.2 Metalclad type 257 6.4.3 Isolators 259 6.4.4 — Voltage-control impedances 261 645 Contacts 6.4.6 Valves and air engines 64.7 Silencers 280 6.5 Operating sequences and requirements 281 6.5.1 General 281 6.5.2 Closing 282 6.5.3 Opening 284 6__ Examples of typical circuit breakers 284 6.7 Acknowledgments 302 SF, cirenit breakers 303 Part E, Maggi, Dr. Ing. 7.1 Historical 303 7.2 Properties of SF, 303 1.2.1 ___ Physical properties 303 1.2.2 Chemical properties 304 1.2.3 Electric properties 305, 7.3. SF¢ circuit breakers 308 7.3.1 Methods of current interruption 308 7.3.2 Metal-enclosed double-pressure types 309 7.3.3 Insulated-construction double-pressure types 311 7.3.4 Gas drying for double-pressure types 314 7.3.5 — High-voltage impulse (or puffer) types 315 7.3.6 Distribution impulse types 320 7.4 Nozzles for SF circuit breakers 326 7.5 Future developments in SF¢ circuit breakers 327 Part II: Recent developments in SF¢ circuit breakers (1981) C. A. Fawdrey, B.Sc., C.Eng., MI.E.E. 7.6 Methods of current interruption 328 7.7 SE¢ citcuit-breaker types 329 7.7.1 Metal-enclosed double-pressure types 329 1.7.2 E.HLV. puffer types 331 .V, puffer types for distribution voltages 336 .7.4 — Metalclad gas-insulated types 337 7.7.8 Self-extinction types 340 118 ‘Operating mecchemiemes 18. mechanisms 34 7.8.2 Pneumatic mechanisms 343 7.8.3 Hydraulic mechanisms 345 7.9 Gas mixtures 345 7.10 Acknowledgments 346 TAL References 346xit Contents 8 Vacuum circuit breakers M. P. Reece, B.Sc., Ph.D., C.Eng., FLEE. 8.1 8.2 8.5 kate mu 8.9 8.10 8.1L Introduction Arcing phenomena in vacuum related to contacts for vacuum interrupters 8.2.1 Basic processes 8.2.2 Spiral petal contact 8.2. Contrate contact Design and construction of power vacuum interrupters Interrupting ability of the vacuum interrupter 8.4.1 Interruption 8.4.2 Reignition in vacuum interrupters 8.4.3 Capacitance current switching 8.4.4 Interruption of small inductive currents Design of vacuum circuit breakers 8.5.1 General form and geometry of vacuum circuit breakers 8.5.2 Interrupter mounting 8.5.3 Mechanical-drive arrangements 8.5.4 Moving-contact guidance 8.5.5 Connections to moving-contact stem 8.5.6 Current feed to the interrupter 85.7 Contact pressure 8.5.8 Contact stroke 8.5.9 Contact speed (closing) 8.5.10 Contact speed (opening) 8.5.11 Accelerating forces 8.5.12 Contact wear 8.5.13 Interrupter cooling 8.5.14 Mechanical biasing 8.5.15 Insulation Vacuum tests for vacuum interrupters Vacuum circuit breaker types Examples of vacuum circuit breakers 8.8.1 Circuit breakers for distribution and utilisation “Second generation’ distribution circuit breakers 25 kV railway trackside cireuit breaker Railway rooftop circuit breaker E.HLV, circuit breakers um interrupters since 1975 Developments in vacuum interrupters Developments in contact structures Developments in contact materials Interrupter ratings currently available Interrupter unit voltage ratings Continuous current ratings Short circuit current ratings jum circuit-breakers since 1975 1 Developments in vacuum circuit-breakers 10.2 Vacuum circuit-breakers for distribution systems 8.10.3 Service experience Acknowledgments $2 92 £0 92 go D0 gm oe oe Bien PR cme : P EER ee eeoo eRe nm Suavawred8.12 References Special switching systems M.N. John, B.Sc., Sen. Mem. LE.E.E., C.Eng., FLEE. 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Power fuses 9.2.1 HLR.C. fuses 9.2.2 Expulsion fuses 9.2.3 Explosive fuses 9.3 Current-variation systems 9.3.1 Scope for applications 9.3.2 Resonance links 9.3.3 Controlled transformer-type interconnectors 9.3.4 Switched-resistor current-linking device (c.1. 9.3.5 Superconducting short-await limiter 9.4 Synchronised switching 9.4.1 Short-circuit testing 9.4.2 _ System applications 9.5 HL.V.D.C. switching systems 5.1 The need for switchgear Circuit-breaker duty Methods of interruption H.V.D.C, vacuum circuit breakers High-speed oil-cooled h.v.d.c. circuit breaker conductor switching Static circuit breakers 9.6.2 Power thyristor string design 9.7 Acknowledgments 9.8 References Circuit-bresker specification and testing JA, Sullivan, C.Eng., FLEE, 10.1 Specification 10.2 Environment 10.3 Normal service conditions 10.3.1 Ambient air temperature 10.3.2 Altitude 10.3.3 Atmospheric conditions 10.4 Mechanical testing 10.4.1. Mechanical-endurance type test 10.4.2 Operating limits 10.4.3 Component testing 10.5 Withstand-voltage tests 10.5.1 Design tests 10.5.1.1 Up-and-down method 10.5.1.2 Fixed-voltage multi-shot method 10.5.1.3. Cumulative frequency method 10.5.1.4 Contour-lines method 10.6 — Power-factor test 10.7 Partiatdischarge testing 10.8 Radio-interference tests 9.6xiv Contents 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 Temperature-rise tests Test arrangement Temperature measurement Control and auxiliary circuits Main circuit resistance 10.9.5 _ Interpretation of results Shortcliotlt testing 0.10.1 Testing standards lode franasat recovery voltages 10.10.3 Inherent circuit parameters 10.10.4 Methods of test 10.10.5 Voltage distribution 10.10.6 Unit testing 10.10.7 Point on wave 10.10.8 Arrangements for test 10.10.9 Failure diagnosis Synthetic testing 10.1.1 Voltage injection 10.11.2 Current injection 10.11.3 Validity of synthetic testing 10.11.4 Current interrupted 10.1.5 Rate of change of current 10.1.6 Pre-zero current period 10.1.7 Post-arc duration 10.11.8 Recovery voltage 10.11.9 Injection time 10.11.10 Synthetic test procedure 10.11.11 Multiloop testing 10.11.12 Resistance-switched circuit breakers 10.11.13 Short-line fault: current injection 10.11.14 Making capacity 10.11.15 Composite test duties Test facilities 10.121 Short-circuit generators 10.12.2 Short-circuit making 10.12.3 Master circuit breaker 10.12.4 Transformers 10.125 Current-timiting reactors and resistors 10.12.6 Connections 10.12.7 Artificial transmission lines 10.12.8 Capacitors 10.12.9 Measuring and contro! equipment 10.12.10 Auxiliary plant 10.12.11 | Synthetic recovery voltage source 10.12.12 Spark gaps for synthetic circuits Reignition equipment for synthetic circuits Auxiliary circuit breaker for synthetic circuits Ca ive current switching 1013.1 Line charging current 10.13.2 Cable charging current 10.13.3 Capacitor bank current itch 478i 12 Contents 10.14 Low inductive current switching 10.15 Evolving faults 10.16 Circuit breaking in parallel 10.17 Special service conditions 10.17.1 Flammable atmospheres 10.17.2 Pollution 10.17.3 Earthquakes 10.17.4 Shipboard installations 10.17.5 Noise 10.18 References Design criteria for reliability, maintenance and safety J. A, Sullivan, C.Eng., FLEE, 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Operating statistics 11.3 Reliability 11.3.1 Toggles and bearings 11.3.2 Running fits 11.3.3 Auxiliary switches 11.34 Springs 11.3.5 Air and high-pressure oil leaks 11.3.6 Gas valves 11.3.7 Gaskets 11.3.8 Shock loading 11.3.9 Finishes 11.4 Electrical failure 11.5 Maintenance 11.6 Simplicity 11.7 Reference Insulation applied to circuit breakers D. Legg, B.Sc., C.Eng., M.LEE. 12.1 Technique of insulation design 12.2 Gaseous insulation 12.2.1 Gases used for circuit breakers 12.2.2 Electric strength of air 12.2.2.1. Uniform fields 12.2.2.2 Nonuniform fields 12.2.3. Electric strength of sulphur hexafluoride 12.2.4 Conditioning effects 12.2.5 Effect of particles 12.2.6 Effect of electrode area 12.2.7 Effect of temperature 12.2.8 Surface flashover of insulating spacers in gases. 12.2. Vacuum insulation 12.3.1 Electric strength of a vacuum 12.3.1.1 Dependence on electrode separation Pressure effect Conditioning Electrode materiat Electrode shape wv 479 481 482 483 483 484 486 487 488 489 490 490 491 492 492 494 494 495 495 497 497 498 499 502 502 494 503 503 509 S10 510 512 516 Si7 519 520 $21 524 523 524 524 524 524 525 526xvi Contents 13 12.3.1.6 Flashover across solid insulation in a vacuum 527 12.4 Insulating liquids 527 12.4.1 Electric strength of mineral oil 528 12.4.1.1 Effect of impurities 530 Effect of oil volume 532 Effect of frequency 533 4 Effect of hydrostatic pressure 534 Flashover solid insulation in oil 534 12.5 535 535 535 Thermoplastics 536 Thermosetting plastics 536 Elastomers 538 12.5.3 Cast epoxide resin 539 12.5.3.1 Stress control 540 12.5.3.; 540 12.5.3.3 Mechanical strength 543 12.5.4 Reinforced plastics 544 12.5.4.1 Electrical properties of slass-seinforced epoxide resin 545 12.5.4.2 Mechanical Properties of glasereinforced epoxide resin 545 12.5.5 Paper insulation 547 12.5.5.1 Synthetic resin-bonded-paper (s.r.b.p.) bushings 548 12.5.5.2 Oil-impregnated-paper (o.i.p.) bushings 548 12.5.5.3 Epoxy-resin paper bushings 548 12.5.5.4 Stresses in circuit-breaker bushings 548 12.5.6 Porcelain 550 12.5.6.1 General properties 550 12,5.6.2 Design criteria 552 12.5.7 Electrical degradation of solid insulation 553 12.5.7.1 Thermal deterioration 553 12,5.7.2 Tracking 555 12.5.7.3 Voids and partial discharge 556 12.6 __ Acknowledgments 557 12.7 References 557 Cost effective design 563 C. H. Flurscheim, B.A., Fel..E.£.B., C.Eng., F.I.Mech.£., FLEE. 13.1 Cost effective approach to design objective 563 13.2 Specification of requirements 565 13.2.1. Specification of performance and rating 565 13.22 Specification of future rating requirements 565 13.2.3. Specification of special requirements 565 13.2.4 Specification of production requirements 566 13.2.5 Definition of the development programme 567 13.2.6 Specification of cost objectives 568 13.3 Cost effective design :standardisation 56913.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 Al M, P. Ree Contents Cost effective design : performance and simplification Cost effective design : use of materials 13.5.1 Porcelain 13.5.2 Cast epoxy resin 13.5.3 Laminated wood and fibreglass operating rods 13.5.4 Filament wound insulation Cost effective design : assembly and test ‘Changes in design Acknowledgments A _ Virtual current chopping rece, B.S¢., Ph.D., F.Eng., FLEE. A.1_ Introduction A.2_ Conditions for virtual chopping to occur A3 Causes of parasitic current zeros A.4 Likelihood of interruption at a parasitic zero A.5S Prospective overvoltage generated by virtual chopping A6 Sensitivity of different circuit-breakers to parasitic current zeros A.7 Forms of virtual chopping Chopping in the same phase Chopping on closing ‘Chopping in an adjacent phase A.8 Practical importance of virtual current chopping Index xvii 570 579 582 584 587 588 589 590 Sot S91 591 592 592 593 593 594 594 595 595 597