Defining Project Management

A project is "a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or

result."
Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing and managing resources to
bring about the successful delivery of specific project goals, outcomes, and outputs.

The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of a project's goals,

outcomes, and outputs, while honoring the preconceived project constraints related to
scope, budget, schedule, and quality.

To retain control of projects – and thereby promote project success – project managers
need to develop the skills required to proactively identify the challenges that could
impact their project, and to effectively manage their projects even when these challenges
occur.  

Project Management Challenges

Managing projects in the development sector is anything but simple. To succeed, the
project manager must proactively and decisively manage the many challenges that are
encountered during the life of a project.

Even the simplest projects will be confronted with challenges. Take, for example, a
project intended to build a tree swing. While this seems like it would be a simple project
to complete, there are any number of ways it could go wrong. Click the items in the list
below to learn more about each hazard of project management.
Poor Analysis
What if the project team doesn't fully understand what is needed?
Project teams must invest in a needs analysis to be clear what the end users want (and need) from
the project. 

Poor Design
What if the project design is flawed?
A project is only as good as the product it delivers. Even in cases where the project is completed
on time and on budget, if the design of the project is poor, then the deliverables could be useless
(or even worse, harmful).

High Expectations
What if the user expectations are unrealistic?
While the needs of the end users are extremely important, the project team also needs to manage
expectations and ensure that these expectations are aligned with project resources (time, budget,
and other resources).

Inadequate Resources
What if project resources are unavailable?
Even when budgets are available, attempting to build a tree swing will be seriously challenging if
the team doesn't have access to rope or wood. 

Delays
What if the project encounters unexpected delays?
Even the most organized project plans will be challenged to manage project delays, whether it be
the availability of resources, the accuracy of schedule estimates, or the time spent performing
unexpected work. 

Low Quality
What if the quality of the project products is poor?
Even projects that deliver what they promise, on time and within budget, can fail. This is
especially true if the quality of the product is poor.
What are the minimum standards for the work of the project? How long are products intended to
be sustained following the end of the project?
Project vs. Program vs. Portfolio
Management
Before we go any further, let's take a look at some important terms and how they are
defined. This will help clarify what is meant by project management.

Project Manager
Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, and managing resources to bring
about the successful delivery of specific project goals, outcomes, and outputs.

The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of a project's goals, outcomes,
and outputs, while honoring the preconceived project constraints related to scope, budget,
schedule, and quality.

Program Management
Program management is the process of managing a group of related projects in a coordinated
way to obtain benefits and control not available through managing them individually.

Programs, unlike projects, are often managed via centralized management, which aims to
coordinate a group of projects to achieve a program's strategic objectives and benefits.

Program management is especially important within the development sector because projects
managed via a coordinated program have the potential to realize change (or benefits) that would
be impossible if they were managed separately.

Portfolio Management
Portfolio management oversees the performance of the organization's collection of project and
programs. Portfolios are generally managed by a senior team at the highest level of an
organization or by a specific unit of an organization (regional office or headquarters).
Portfolio management is not concerned with day‐to‐day project tasks, but focuses instead on
selecting, initiating, and managing the overall collection of projects in a way that addresses the
strategic objectives of the organization.

Portfolio management often includes choosing which projects not to do, which to start earlier, or
which to stop doing in order to optimize the strategic fit of the projects being undertaken to
fulfill the organization's mission.

Constraints of Project
Management

Now let's take a look at constraints of project management. Most project managers have
participated in projects that were challenging. Some projects take longer than anticipated,
and delays can lead to reductions in features. Other projects are cancelled before
completion. Still others end in failure. How can these outcomes be avoided?

Here are the three key considerations of project management, each of which acts as a
constraint.
 Cost/Resources. The cost of a project is a key constraint. The project management
must consider what money, materials, and effort are available to deliver the
project product/services. What will be required to complete the comprehensive
work of the project?
 Scope/Quality. Scope is another important constraint on a project. The project
manager must consider the full extent of the work required to deliver at the level
of quality needed. What are the products/services that the project will produce
and what is the work required to produce these deliverables?
 Time/Schedule. Finally, the project manager must consider time as a constraint.
What amount of time is required to complete the components of the project?
 The Five Principles of Project
Management in the
Development Sector
Next let's consider project management in the development sector, specifically. There are
two things to keep in mind about this sector.

For one, each development organization is unique. It would be unwise to apply the best
practices and approaches described in this course indiscriminately to all projects and by
all organizations. Instead, take care to acknowledge the unique demands and
characteristics of the project and group. 
In addition, acknowledge that there is a set of principles that apply broadly in this sector.
This course identifies Five Principles of Project Management in the Development
Sector.
Let’s explore them together…

Project Management is balanced!

Projects should be managed in a balanced way, applying equal rigor through all of the phases of
the life of the project.
Project Management is Comprehensive!
Project management disciplines should be applied to manage consistently and deliberately all the
work of the project through the entire life of the project.
Project Management is Integrated
All aspects of project management should be aligned and coordinated as a means to ensure that
all elements of project design, planning, monitoring, and implementation run smoothly. 

Project Management is Participatory

Project management should include a variety of stakeholders in identification, design, planning,
implementation, and monitoring of the project, which helps to ensure transparency, improve
quality, increase human capacity, and strengthen buy-in at all levels.
Project Management is Iterative!
Revisit and repeat project management processes through the life of a project to confirm that the
project designs, project plans, and intended results are still relevant. This practice also provides
the opportunity to improve the accuracy of existing project estimates and to plan for the next
steps in the project.

Approaches to Development
Projects
Development projects are unique in a number of ways. For one, development projects
aim to address complex problems of poverty, inequality, and injustice. They are
responsible for delivering not just tangible outputs, but also less tangible outcomes
related to promoting social change and/or behavior change.

Development projects are less likely to focus on the delivery of concrete products as the
ultimate goal. Instead, development projects consider concrete products as a means that
leads to improvements in the well-being of the project's target populations.

Development projects tend to operate in exceptionally challenging contexts: limited

resources, high risks, complex procurement networks, unstable political/financial
environments, and unsafe conditions.

In these projects, project implementation is often managed through a complex array of

stakeholder relationships (partner agencies, government ministries, community-based
organizations, contractors, anglobal consortia).
The Project Approach
The project approach is often as important as the outcomes themselves (including a high
priority placed on participation, rights-based approaches). Transferring knowledge and
learning to the target population is a priority during each and every phase of the project.

Do you see how these projects are different? Use the flashcards below to solidify your
understanding of what characterizes development projects.

-Development projects are responsible for tangible and less tangible outcomes.

-Development projects aim to address complex problems of poverty, inequality, and

injustice.

-Development projects often operate in contexts with limited resources, high risks,
unstable political environments, and unsafe conditions

-Stakeholders may include partner agencies, ministries, community-based organizations,

contractors, and global consortia.

-The project approach is often as important as the outcomes, including a high priority
placed on participation, rights-based approaches.

-Transferring knowledge and learning to the target population is a priority during each
and every phase of the project.

Key Responsibilities and

Competencies
The purpose of project management is to plan, organize, and manage resources to bring
about the successful completion of specific project goals, outcomes, and outputs. The
 project manager is responsible for ensuring the overall success of the project. This does
not mean, however, that the project manager is personally responsible for completing the
project work. In fact, this is seldom the case in the development sector. Instead, the
responsibility of the project manager is to ensure that the work of the project is carried
out.
Take a moment to think about a project you have worked on in the past. What are some
of the responsibilities and competencies of project managers?

Responsibilities of the Project Manager

 Work closely with stakeholders to complete the work of the project.
 Design and assign work packages to others, monitor their performance, and check
the interfaces between them and other work packages.
 Ensure that team members understand what they need to do, when it is due, and
when the project manager needs to intervene.
 Identify project risks and set project expectations correctly.
 Address project challenges resulting from poorly planned schedules, inadequate
budgets, or unclear project scope.
 Resolve internal conflicts among the project team. It is ultimately the project
manager who is accountable if a project team has poor morale and is missing deadlines.

Project-Based Approach
The skill level a project manager needs to effectively manage a project will vary in
accordance to the size, complexity, and risk of the project.
However, despite their differences, all projects would benefit from a project-based
approach in order to ensure that: 
 The activities are comprehensively identified, prioritized, and sequenced.
  The time schedule is thorough and identifies the interrelated elements of the
project plan.
 Procurement processes (for both materials and contractors) are identified and
implemented.
 Communication norms for appropriate stakeholders are in place and executed.
 Personnel systems exist for staff, volunteers, and implementing partners.
 Risks are anticipated and monitored.
  a system is in place to ensure that the projects meet acceptable quality standards.
 a change management process is in place and managed.

Competencies of the Project Manager

The PMD Phase Model organizes competencies into four areas: technical, leadership,
personal, and international development.

International Development Competency: This is the ability to apply the technical,

leadership/interpersonal, and personal/self-management competencies in the context of
international development projects. For example, can the project manager identify, select,
and employ the right tools and processes that are unique and specific to international
development sector needs and also within the cultural context of the project?

Technical Competencies: These are often referred to collectively as the science behind
project management. Can the project manager identify, select, and employ the right tools
and processes to ensure project management success?
Personal/Self-Management Competency: This is the project manager's ability to self-
manage. For example, can the project manager effectively prioritize, manage time, and
organize work?
Interpersonal/Leadership Competency: This is the ability to apply the technical,
leadership/interpersonal, and personal/self-management competencies in the context of
international development projects.

Skills Survey
Now that we have considered competencies, let's look at the specific skills that a project
manager needs in order to successfully manage development projects. The survey linked
below lists a set of skills in each competency area. Select the ones that you have used in
your previous experience managing projects.

Pay attention to the skills you do not check and note whether you would like to develop
those skills in the future. Once you have completed this survey, you will receive an email
copy for your records.

Review Competencies
The project manager is responsible for the overall success of the project. The skill level
will vary in accordance to the size, complexity, and risk of the project. To be successful,
project managers need to have skills in four key competency areas. Do you remember
what they are?

Introduction to the PMD Phase

Model
A strong Design, Monitoring, and Evaluation Plan is not sufficient to guarantee project
success! A project must also commit to investing similar levels of resources and effort in
other elements of project management. 

Did you give the correct answer? Whether you answered this question correctly or
incorrectly, there is much more to explore on this subject. And of course it is all related to
the PMD Phase Model. Let's get started.
The PMD Phase Model, Step by Step
The purpose of the PMD Phase Model is to provide a balanced and comprehensive
project phase model that covers the entire life of a project.
Let's consider the steps of the model and what each one involves.
 Project Identification and Design
• Define needs, explore opportunities
• Analyze the project environment
• Design alternatives for project design

 Project Set Up

• Officially authorize the project

• Define overall parameters
• Communicate to the main project stakeholders
• Establish high-level project governance structure
 Project Planning

• Develop a comprehensive and detailed implementation plan

• Provide a model for all the work of the project

 Project Implementation

• Lead the team

• Deal with issues
• Manage the project team
• Integrate the different elements of the project plan
 Project Monitoring, Evaluation, and Control
These activities continue through the entire life of a project, to measure the project’s
progress and identify appropriate corrective actions in situations where the project’s
performance deviates significantly from the plan.

 End of Project Transition

• Implement all the transition activities that need to occur at the end of a project
• Confirm the deliverables with beneficiaries
• Collect lessons learned
• Complete the administrative, financial, and contractual closure activities

The next lesson presents these phases in a diagram, revealing additional characteristics
and showing how they related to one another.

Decision Gates
Decision gates are the major control points used to conclude and accept the products for a
particular phase of the project and to move on to the next phase. The decision gates are
shown in yellow in the project phase model diagram below.

As projects progress through the six phases, it is recommended that the project team
revisit the justification and planning of the project through these formal decision gates.

At each decision gate, the project team has the opportunity to decide whether the initial
justification for the project is valid, whether any major changes are required, or whether
project investments need to be halted altogether.

There is no single road map to managing projects. Every project and organization will
have a different approach to decision gates.
The most frequently used decision gates tend to be those that are found in the early
phases of a project. These include the concept papers and project proposals that comprise
the input documents to decide whether to move forward with potential projects. It is
advisable, however, to also include decision gates in later phases of a project.

The Project Management

Disciplines
While there is no single road map to managing projects, the PMD Pro identifies six
project management disciplines that are especially important when managing projects in
the development sector.

Explore the Six Disciplines

More details about the disciplines will be covered in other modules within this training
course.

Scope Management
The American baseball legend Yogi Berra famously said, "If you don’t know where you are
going, you will wind up somewhere else." That’s why scope management is so critical for
successful project management.

A well-defined project scope identifies where the project team is going and how they will get
there. There are two components of scope management:

1. Product scope – the required deliverables of the project and the agreed upon specifications.
(What is going to be delivered?)
2. Project scope – the work required to deliver the product scope. (How will deliverables be created and
delivered?)

Time Management
Have you ever worked on a project that encountered time management problems? If so…
What was the problem? Did the project allocate insufficient time to complete the deliverables?
Were key project tasks delivered late? Was the project schedule based on estimates of resources
(manpower, machinery, other) that weren’t realistic?

Delivering projects on time is one of the biggest challenges faced in project management. That is
why it is so important for project managers to develop accurate schedules and to implement them
through the life of the project.
Project Management
Project resource management is the arrangement and deployment of resources available to
a project, and the project manager must juggle them all! 

The PMD Pro focuses on three areas of project resource management that form the core of
project support services:

1. finance management
2. supply chain management
3. human resources management

Risk Management
Risk is the potential effect of uncertainty on project objectives.

There are two key related concepts to keep in mind:

1. Probability – Risk can be seen as relating to the probability of uncertain future events, while
project issues are risks that have become a reality.

2. Impact – Risk has the potential to impact your project. Most project teams focus on negative
risk that has the potential to harm the project (time/calendar, cost/resources, quality, scope, etc.)
In general, negative risks are to be avoided. Project teams can assume positive risks if they see a
potential opportunity, along with a potential for failure. This is referred to as intelligent risk
taking.
Project Justification Management
Projects investments are made because of the potential value the project will provide to the
stakeholders involved. As a result:
• the donor organization needs to be convinced that an investment in this activity will be a
worthwhile investment.

• the community where the project will work needs to perceive that its participation will result in
concrete benefits.

• the leadership of the development organization needs to be assured that the success of the
project will contribute to its larger program (or portfolio) goals.

Stakeholder Management
Development projects are complex and impact an array of stakeholders: individuals, groups, and
organizations who are actively involved in a project, or whose interests might be positively or
negatively affected by execution or completion of the project.

Experience shows that when stakeholders are overlooked, misunderstood, or excluded during
project planning and implementation, it can often result in unexpected and undesirable outcomes.

Can you think of a time where you had to juggle the wants of stakeholders versus the needs of
the community?

PROJECT IDENTIFICATION AND DESIGN

Welcome to this module: Project Identification and Design. In the previous module, you
learned about the phases of project management and got acquainted with the PMD Phase
Model. In this module, we will consider the Project Identification and Design phase of
the PMD Phase Model. 

The Project Identification and Design phase consists of three subphases: data collection,
data analysis, and project logic. Each of these subphases is covered as a separate loop of
our journey through this module. Here is a summary of each one.

1- Data Collection
 During this phase of the journey, you will be guided to seek answers related to the
following key questions:
 What is the purpose of data collection?
 What is the importance of triangulation?
 What are the four types of community needs?
 What type of data is collected?
 What are the six categories of stakeholders?
 What are the purposes and constructs of stakeholder analysis tools?

2- Data Analysis
During this phase of the journey, you'll seek answers related to these key questions:
 What is the purpose of data analysis?
 What are the approaches and tools for data analysis?
 What criteria determine what is included in project interventions?
 What are problem-based and asset-based approaches?
 What are problem and objective trees?

3- Project Logic
During this phase of the journey, you'll seek answers to these key questions:
 What is the purpose of a logical framework?
 What is the vertical logic of the logical framework?
 What is the horizontal logic of the logical framework?
 What are the key parameters of the logical framework?
The Project Identification and Design phase is indispensable in helping to answer the
question: "Are we doing the right project?" Performing the subphase steps in order (data
collection, data analysis, and project logic) can help you achieve success.
 The map for our journey features three loops, one for each subphase. Achieve the topic
milestones by following the exit signs!

introducing the Data Analysis

Phase
The second subphase in Project Identification and Design is Data Analysis. We represent
it as the second exit on the module map.
The Purpose of Data Analysis
The purpose of data analysis is to order, organize, and interpret the raw data so that useful
information can be extracted from it. This analysis will allow you to manage the
justification of the project.

Recall that during this process it is still important to stay open minded! 

Approaches and Tools

Now let's consider the various approaches to data analysis and the tools available. There are two
types of data analysis.
 Current state analysis is the starting point. It is the process of understanding the current
status, condition, trends, and key issues that affect people and people's livelihoods, ecosystems,
and institutions in a given geographic context. 
 Future state analysis is the next step. It involves asking questions about how the
project will improve the livelihoods, ecosystems, or institutions of the project participants.
What tools exist that can help project managers complete the current state analysis? How do they
choose which is best? Current state analysis tools are selected based on the objective of your
analysis. So the first question you should ask yourself is: What am I trying to accomplish? The
graphic below provides a list of objectives and the current state analysis tools that are most
appropriate for each.
 Criteria for Project Interventions
Maria used current state analysis tools to organize the data and gain an understanding of
the current status. Now she's ready to move on to future state analysis. 

Maria begins the future state analysis process by considering where will the Delta River
Project will lead and by asking herself:
 What will be different in the future if this project is successful at meeting expectations?
 What will project beneficiaries be able to do that they can't do now?
 What social change will be enabled?
Within future state analysis there are two main categories of criteria. Considering these in your
future state analysis can help you identify what will (and will not) be included in the scope of
your project.
Let's review them one at a time…
Community Considerations
To evaluate community considerations, there are four criteria you need to consider. For this
process, you'll use information collected through needs and assessment analysis.
 Needs Prioritization: What needs received the highest level of emphasis during the
assessment? Which have the highest potential for impact?
 External Program Considerations: Who else is working in the proposed area of
intervention? What are their strengths?
 Appropriateness: Is the proposed approach acceptable to the target population and
key stakeholder groups? Will it be appropriate for their religious and cultural norms?
 Institutional Capacity: What are the strengths and capacity levels of your
organization and the implementing partner?
Organizational Considerations
 Use information about the organization and its resources to evaluate organizational
considerations.
 Resource Availability: Is funding available? Are there any opportunities to leverage
resources?
 Financial/Economic Feasibility: Is the rate of return for the investment
acceptable?
 Technical Feasibility and Sustainability: Given the technical aspects of the
project, can it be realistically accomplished and maintained over time?
 Internal Program Considerations: What are the strengths of your organization? What are
its strategic priorities within that geographical area?
 Portfolio Considerations: Does the project fit within the larger portfolio of projects in the
organization?

Problem-Based and Asset-

Based Approaches
Now that community and organizational considerations have been identified, let's look at what
the project manager needs to do. Here are the steps involved in justification management:
 Identify the justification for projects.
 Communicate the justification to a larger audience.
 Track the project's progress in achieving the value that justifies its existence.
In other words, the project manager needs to identify what they are going to achieve,
communicate that to others, and track the project's performance in achieving those goals. To
accomplish that, they must build on the data they have analyzed.
First, let's look at how to use questions to identify community needs.
Two Approaches to Identifying Needs
The two approaches to identifying needs are differentiated by the first question asked of the
community. If the question is, "What problems do you have?" then this is the problem-based
approach.  If the question is, "What is going well?" then this is the asset-based approach.

Problem-Based Approach

The intent of this approach is to identify shortcomings that can be solved. The challenge
is that when you look for problems, you often find them!

          • Define the problem

          • Fix what is broken

          • Focus on the negative

This approach is sometimes replaced by an asset-based approach.

Asset-Based Approach

The intent of this approach is to see the positive and uncover opportunities instead of
problems. The focus is on reinforcing what is going well.

          • Seek solutions that already exist.

          • Reinforce what is working.

          • Focus on the positive.

Problem and Objective Trees

The Problem Tree
The problem tree is one tool project managers can use to communicate their ideas to
others. Using the problem tree, you can communicate:

• The core problem

   • Direct effects of that core problem

   • Underlying root-causes that contribute to the problem

To summarize, the problem tree is built on causes and effects. First, the core problem is placed in
the middle of the view. Second, the direct effects are placed at the top. Third, the root causes are
included on the bottom. Directional arrows are used to indicate the causal relationships.
The Objective Tree
The information from the problem tree can be used to develop another tree, the objective tree. In
this process, each problem statement is turned into a future-state objective statement.
 In conclusion, a problem tree represents the cause and effect relationships, and an
objective tree represents the means-to-an-end relationships by showing how the
objectives can be achieved.

Introducing the Project Logic

Phase
he third and final subphase in the Project Identification and Description phase is Project
Logic. This is represented as Exit 3 on our module map!

The Purpose of the Logical

Framework
 A systematic tool for organizing project thinking and the relationships between
resources, activities, and project results.
 A risk management tool to identify and assess risks inherent in the project.
 A monitoring tool to measure progress through indicators and sources of verification.
 A visual communication tool to present and share the project intervention logic.
The logical framework goes by different names in different organizations, but it is always
intended to serve the same underlying objectives.
The Structure of the Logical Framework
The logical framework is a matrix with 16 cells. The headings across the top are always
the same: Project Description, Indicators, Means of Verification, and Assumptions. The
column on the far left of the matrix provides space for the project manager to record the
goal, the outcomes, the outputs, and the activities associated with the project. These
characteristics determine the structure of the matrix. They provide the guidelines for
making entries in the other cells. 

The Project Description Column

As you saw in the previous lesson, the logical framework is a 4 x 4 matrix. The top row
provides the horizontal structure of the matrix; that is, it contains the headers for each
column. The headers are: Project Description, Indicators, Means of Verification, and
Assumptions. This lesson focuses on the Project Description column.

The Project Description column is used by the project manager to record the deliverables
for the project: Goal, Outcome(s), Outputs, and Activities. 

The goal is the end result or impact to which the project contributes at the highest level desired.

Outcomes are what the project is expected to accomplish at the beneficiary level and the

changes it is expected to contribute at the population level. Outcomes should help bring about the

accomplishment of goals over time. At the beneficiary level, outcomes might be the use of

knowledge and skills in actual practice over time or transportation of goods on constructed roads

over time. At the population level, outcomes might be reduced malnutrition, improved incomes,

and improved yields.

Outputs are tangible deliverables resulting from project activities. They include

products, goods, services, and changes that aggregate and contribute to outcomes.
Possible outputs are people trained with increased knowledge and skill and quality roads
built.

Activities are actions through which inputs (financial, human, technical, material, and
time resources) are mobilized to produce the deliverables (training, constructing, etc.) of
a project for which staff can be held accountable and which, when aggregated, produce
outputs.

These are the items that need to be defined and entered in the framework for the Delta
River Project. Let's see how the framework looks once Maria has started working on it.
A Logical Framework for the Delta River Project
Here is what Maria has done so far with her logical framework for the Delta River
Project. Note the text that she entered in the Project Description column.
Vertical Logic
Now we can start to see the vertical logic of the framework, which starts from the bottom
and moves up.

Activities are actions we take in order to produce outputs.

Outputs are deliverables of the project, which contribute to outcomes.

Outcomes are what the project is expected to accomplish, which lead to the attainment
of goals.

Finally, goals are the highest level end results or impact of the project.

The Assumptions Column

One of the purposes of a logical framework is to serve as a risk management tool. This
leads us to the other side of the logical framework, to the Assumptions column.
In order to successfully meet those four criteria recorded in the Project Description column, we

must identify the external factors that could potentially hinder success. These are the

assumptions, and they are outside of the project's control. These are noted under the

Assumptions column.

The assumptions define the horizontal logicof the matrix. This creates an if–then

relationship, which maintains that if the assumptions in each level of the framework hold

true, then the project's vertical development pathway is likely to succeed.

The Indicators Column

Now let's take a look at one of the other columns in the logical framework: Indicators. An

indicator is something specific that allows the team to determine the extent that the

projects outputs, outcomes, and goals are being or have been achieved. The project

manager specifies an indicator for each row of the framework.

Noting the assumptions can help you manage risk and, if necessary, explain why a project

was unable to achieve all of its objectives.

Goal indicators are longer-term impacts that are not specific to a single project. Rather, they are

program, subsector, or sector objectives to which several other projects and variables will also

contribute. It is important to note that while the project team is responsible for contributing to the

goal indicators, they are not held responsible for meeting them. 
Outcome indicators at this level are crucial but can be more difficult to determine. Change is

sought among extended beneficiaries, target populations, collaborating institutions, and local

partners.

Output indicators represent tangible goods and services to be delivered by the project.

All outputs have to be accomplished by the end of the project's implementation period
and according to the time schedule included in the project plan.

Activities indicators are almost directly related to the description of the activity itself,
though not all development organizations develop indicators at the activity level.

The Means of Verification

Column

Finally, let's examine the third column of the logical framework: Means of Verification. 

The means of verification are significant in that they help a team test whether or not the

indicators listed in the Indicators column can be realistically measured. This is easier to

understand through an example, so let's try this in the context of the Delta River Project.

Identifying the Means of Verification for Delta River

Maria is ready to complete the logical framework. The final column is the Means of
Verification. Starting at the top row, she indicates that the goal verification is to check the
municipal hospital and clinic records. This will help her determine whether the project
has achieved its goal of improving the health of children under five, specifically among
low-income families who live by the river.
Summary of Module 2

Take a moment to review the material covered in this topic.

Data collection

The purpose of data collection is to broadly explore a variety of issues. Considering at least three
perspectives or methods through triangulation improves the validity and credibility of your effort
and helps maximize the team's ability to make informed decisions.

There are four types of community needs: felt, expressed, normative, and comparative. The
presence of all types of needs can indicate a real need within a community. 

In practice, there is a place for multiple data sources and mixed methods for almost every
project. There are secondary and primary data sources to choose from. 

There are six categories of stakeholders. Projects are positively impacted when their needs and
interests are considered. Stakeholder analysis tools such as the Venn Diagram and Stakeholder
Analysis Matrix can help you with this process.
Data analysis
The purpose of data analysis is to order, organize, and interpret the raw data so that useful
information can be extracted from it. Using the data to understand the current status is called
current state analysis. Asking questions to see how the current situation might be improved as a
result of the project is called future state analysis. 

There are two main categories of criteria which you need to consider: community considerations
and organizational considerations. Considering these in your
future state analysis can help you identify what will (and will not) be included
in the scope of your project. 

Two approaches to identify needs include the problem-based and asset-based approaches.
Problem and Objective Trees can assist the team in thinking through the details of the project and
assist in communicating ideas to others.
Project logic

A logical framework can help the team plan, monitor, and evaluate the project. The vertical and
horizontal logic are critical to communicating the reasoning behind your project. 

Project deliverables are included in the far left column of the matrix. Activities are actions we
take in order to produce outputs. Outputs are deliverables of the project, which contribute to
outcomes. Outcomes are what the project is expected to accomplish, which lead to the attainment
of goals. Finally, goals are the highest level end results or impact of the project. 

The team must identify the external risks that could potentially hinder success, as well as

assumptions of the project. If the assumptions in each level of the framework hold true,

then the project's vertical development pathway is likely to succeed.

Welcome to Project Set Up

Welcome to this module: Project Set Up. In this module you will continue your study of

the PMD Phase Model.

 There is a discovery process in the Project Set Up phase. While the process of discovery

may feel unsettling, there are proven tools and techniques that can help you along the

way.

The Three Subphases of Project Set Up

There are three subphases in the Project Set Up phase, and they are represented on the
map below. We will look at each of them in this module.

Project Governance

The first subphase in Project Set Up is Establishing a Project Governance Structure. During this
part of the journey, you will explore the following key questions:
 What is the purpose of a project governance structure?
 What are options for establishing project governance models?
 What are the advantages of different governance models?
 The first topic addressed in the Project Set Up phase is project governance. A clearly defined
governance structure helps establish clarity with regard to two critical questions: Who is
accountable for project success? And who has the authority to make decisions related to the
project?

For example, the project manager is responsible for ensuring the overall success of the project,
but who shares the project manager's commitment to project success?
These are questions of project accountability and project authority.
Project Accountability
The project manager is responsible for ensuring the overall success of the project. A strong
project governance structure clarifies project accountability by:

 Ensuring there is organizational commitment to, and accountability for, the

project
 Identifying individuals who are committed to advocating for the project
 Providing a network of supporters who assist and advise the project manager,
especially on issues that exceed the span of control of a project manager

Project Authority
As the project manager, you need to know the limits (tolerances) of your decision-making
authority. A strong project governance structure clarifies project authority by:

 Identifying which decisions are within the span of control of the

project manager (and which are not)
 Identifying who has power to make decisions outside of the
project manager's authority
 Identifying who has the power to terminate the project if it is no
longer needed or is experiencing serious problems

Project Governance Models

Let's look at two project governance models: Project Sponsor and Project Board. In both cases,
the project governance structure serves to address similar responsibilities. 

First, the structure promotes accountability:

 By ensuring that the organization is committed to the project and accountable for its
results
 By advocating for necessary organizational support and resources (money, staff time, and
other assets)
 By supporting and advising the Project Manager on the management of the project,
especially on issues that extend beyond the span of control of a project manager
Then the structure clarifies decision-making authority:
 By deciding on issues related to scope, budget, calendar, and more, that extend beyond
the project manager's agreed tolerances
 By overseeing the project, monitoring the ongoing viability of the project, and making
the decision to revise or terminate the project if necessary
So what does a project governance structure look like? It depends on the organization and it
depends on the project.
The Project Sponsor
In some cases, especially when a project is relatively small and low-risk, the project
governance structure can be made up of a single individual who serves as the project
sponsor.  

The Project Sponsor

The project sponsor supports the project manager by sharing accountability for the success of the

project and by making decisions that are outside of the project manager's authority.

The Project Board

The preferred project governance model (especially when the project is significant in
terms of value and risk) is the Project Board.  

The Project Board

The Project Board is made up of a group of project stakeholders who represent multiple

perspectives (executive, supplier, user). Together they support the project manager by sharing

accountability for the success of the project and by making decisions that are outside of the

project manager's authority.

While it is true that there is no single project governance structure, the project board governance
model has the following advantages over a project sponsor governance model:

1. Improved project manager support. Because the project board includes representatives

from a variety of stakeholder groups, the project manager is receiving advice and support from
multiple sources.

2. More comprehensive decision-making process. Since project boards make decisions based

on multiple criteria perspectives, the data that informs decisions is more robust.
3. Improved accountability. It is recommended that the project boards include representatives
from the project end user group, thereby improving the accountability of projects to their target
population.
What characterizes a project board?
A project board is distinctive in size, composition, and responsibilities. In addition, there are
specific expectations regarding board meetings. Find out more in the clickable list below.

Size
The Project Board Governance Model (unlike the Project Sponsor Governance Model) is
designed to include participation from multiple stakeholder groups, both internal and external to
the implementing organization.

While there is no standard size for project boards, the following guidelines apply to most project
boards.

Minimum size: 2 representatives

Normally: 3-5 representatives

Composition
Project board representative perspectives include, but are not necessarily limited to, three
categories:

1. An executive perspective, assessing whether the project is providing the funding and
resources necessary to obtain that value. There is only one representative with an executive
perspective on the board.

2. A senior user perspective, establishing that the project is meeting the needs of the people
who will be directly working with the project's outputs.

3. A senior supplier perspective, providing confidence that the project's outputs (from which
value will be derived) can be achieved with available resources and at the required level of
quality.

Responsibilities
Collectively, the project board owns the project, completing all the project governance
responsibilities related to accountability and decision making.

However, it is important to recognize that not all voices on the project board hold equal authority
on all decisions. For example, with issues related to budget or calendar, it could be that all
members of the project board are consulted but the ultimate authority for the decision resides
exclusively with a single board member (most likely in this example the executive perspective)
or a small group of board members.

Meetings
–
Project boards should convene for regular meetings where the agenda is set by the project
manager in cooperation with the executive representative. While agenda items will reflect any of
the project governance responsibility areas, it is especially important to convene prior to decision
gate events through the life of the project.

Project Launch
Do you remember decision gates? If your project has been following a decision gate
model, a number of go/no-go decisions have already taken place.

Throughout the Project Identification and Design phase, go/no-go decisions might have taken
place as the project concept paper, expression of interest, and project proposal documents were
developed and reviewed.
The Project Charter
During the Project Set Up phase, it is important to ensure that the project is formally authorized
by the project governing body (a project sponsor or a project board). The recommended tool to
use for official authorization of a project is a project charter.

Project Charter

The project charter is a document that provides a high-level description of the project. Once the

project board (or the project sponsor) signs the project charter, the project manager can officially

launch the project. 

In the international development sector, the project charter document may have different
names and formats. However, regardless of the form it takes, the charter should serve to
accomplish the following purposes:

1. Communicate the high-level scope and objectives of the project.

2. Formally authorize the initiation of project work.
3. Give the project manager the authority to apply resources to the project.
4. Ensure there is shared understanding of the project.

Let's find out more about the contents of the project charter.

Purpose and deliverables

–
 This section of the project charter identifies the need the project will address and articulates the
scope of the project, including the project goal, the outcomes, and the major outputs.
High-level project estimates
–

The project charter provides a high-level overview of the estimates for the project, including a
high-level summary of the project activities, the project schedule, and the project budget. It also
includes a preliminary list of the human resources required to implement the project.

Tolerances and change control

–

The project charter should identify the decision-making authority of the project manager and the
tolerances within which the project team is expected to work (budget, schedule, deliverables, and
risk). Furthermore, the project charter should establish a change control process for when the
project exceeds the tolerance levels in any of the project areas.

Project risks
–

The project charter should outline the assumptions and risks that underscore project success.

Assumptions are factors considered to be true for planning purposes. They imply a degree of
risk; for example, if an activity requires special equipment, the project manager may assume that
the equipment will be available, but will it?

The project charter should describe any organizational, environmental, and external assumptions,
including any factors or characteristics deemed critical to the success of a project and, in the
absence of which, the project would be challenged or would fail.

It should identify the potential events that could significantly impact the project. At this stage in
the project, the project team will have only an initial understanding of the potential risks that
could confront the project, but the major risks are likely to be apparent.

Once the project is officially authorized, the next step is to communicate the launch of the
project activities to the many stakeholders who have interests in the intervention.

Regardless of the tool used to communicate the project launch, the purpose of activity remains
unchanged:
 To formally acknowledge the beginning of project
 To ensure that key stakeholders have a consistent understanding of the project
 To introduce stakeholders to the project

Risk Management
 To an extent, the job of the project team is to anticipate and manage risk. This involves
answering questions like:
 What could possibly go wrong?
 How could that impact the project?
 Do we need to prepare for this risk? If so, how?
While risk management is a core discipline that is present through the entire life of the project,
the Project Set Up phase provides an especially important opportunity to begin to identify,
assess, and plan responses to potential project risks.

Project risk

Project risk is a term that is often used loosely, without consistency, and sometimes incorrectly.

In the context of this course, risk is the potential effect of uncertainty on project objectives.

Examples of project risk might include armed conflict, unpredictable exchange rates, scope

creep, vendor disputes, inflation, and staff shortages.

The 4 Steps of Risk Management

There are four steps in risk management. As you review each one, think about a project you have
worked on and consider how you could apply improved risk management techniques in that
context.
 Risk Identification. The project team and stakeholders work together to identify and
document all the potential risks that could impact the project.
Risk identification involves two principle activities: defining the major risk categories of the
project and identifying specific risks that fit into each category.

 Risk Assessment. For each risk listed in the identification step, the project team needs to
estimate the risk's probability and potential impact. 

Based on the results of the risk assessment activities, the project team can begin to identify their
risk tolerances and start to prioritize the most significant risks. 
 Risk Response Planning. After reviewing the results of the risk assessment activities, the
project teams decide what actions are needed to reduce or remove threats.  Risk response
strategies include risk avoidance, risk reduction/mitigation, risk transference, and risk
acceptance.
Risk Monitoring and Control. The activities associated with the first three steps of risk
management begin to take place in the Project Set Up phase, but risk monitoring and
control takes place primarily during the implementation of the project. That's when the
project team continually monitors the status of risks, or if risks turn into issues.

Risk Management Tools

Let's look at two tools that can help project teams as they begin the risk management process
during the Project Set Up phase.
The Red Flag List

The purpose of the red flag list is risk identification. The red flag list is especially useful when
the project is relatively small, low-risk, or especially time challenged.

To use the red flag list as a tool, the project manager convenes a group of team members (and
key stakeholders) and brainstorms a simple list of risks that could impact the project.

The red flag list

The red flag list is periodically reviewed (and updated) during team meetings and meetings with

key stakeholders.

The Risk Register

The risk register is for risk identification, assessment, and response planning. It is
appropriate for all projects but is especially useful when the project is relatively high
risk. 

A risk register document provides a more formal and more detailed identification of risks
and the plan for addressing them. Similar to the red flag list, it provides project managers
with a list of significant risks. 

However, the risk register also contains information about the magnitude of probability
and impact of risk occurrence. It may also include proposed mitigation responses,
"owners" of the risk, and current status of the risk. The risk register can also include
information about the cost and schedule impacts of risks. 

While the format of the risk register can vary by organization or by the project, an
example of one format would include the information below.
The structure of the risk register

Let's look at the columns of the register and how they are used.

Risk Category. Project teams must survey the content of their specific project and
develop a set of risk categories that is appropriate to their unique needs. Some potential
categories of project risk include: unsatisfactory contractual arrangements, poor
leadership, inadequate authority of key personnel to fulfill roles, poor staff selection
procedures, lack of clarity over roles, inadequate design, and scope creep.

Probability/Impact. For each of the risks in the register, there are two key ideas that
need to be assessed. One is probability: How likely is it that the risk will occur? The
second is impact: How seriously would the risk event impact the project if it were to
occur?

Risk Response. When considering whether to respond to a risk, four options exist to

respond:

Risk avoidance. Do not do, or do in a different way, some portion of the scope that carries
high-impact and/or a high probability of risk.

Risk transference. Shift or share the risk for some aspect of the project to or with another
party.

Risk reduction/mitigation. Act to reduce the probability and/or impact of a potential risk.

Risk acceptance. If the perceived probability and impact risk is assessed as reasonable, an
organization can choose not to take action.

Who/When. The final two columns of the risk register concretely identify who is
responsible for managing the risk response and when the response will be implemented.

Summary of Module 3
Let's briefly review the topics covered in this module.
Establish a project governance structure

The purpose of project governance is to establish who is accountable for the project's success and
who has authority to make decisions during the project. 

There are two ways to establish project governance: project sponsor or project board. 

The project sponsor has the advantage of being a single person. This can speed up the decision
making process and allow for closer interaction with the project manager. The project board has
the advantage of including representatives from a variety of stakeholders who help provide more
support to the project manager and greater accountability. The project board also makes
decisions using more robust data from multiple perspectives.
Launching the project

The purpose of the project charter is to communicate the high level scope and objectives,
formally authorize the start of project work, give authority to project manager to apply resources
to the project, and ensure there is a shared understanding of the project. 

The purpose of project communications during the project launch is to formally acknowledge the
start of the project, introduce stakeholders to the project, and ensure key stakeholders have a
consistent understanding of the project. 
Initiate the risk management process
The risk management process is done via a four step process: Risk Identification, Risk
Assessment, Risk Response Planning, and Risk Monitoring. This process helps you not only
determine the types of risk that the project could face but also determine the level of impact,
develop response strategies, and monitor for risk development.

Welcome to Project Planning

Welcome to this module: Project Planning. In this module you will continue your study
of the PMD Phase Model. 
There are many aspects of project planning, and we will explore many of them in this
module. As you can see from the module map below, our journey will cover the five
principles of project planning, scope management, time management, and finance
management. 
Project Implementation Plan
The existing documents have helped identify a lot of high-level, broad information about
the project such as goals, scope, budget, and schedule. As project manager, Maria has an
important job ahead to make sure this project arrives on time, on budget, and according to
scope. The Project Implementation Plan will help her to reach this goal.

As she works through the Planning phase, she'd like your help making decisions based on
the important concepts you'll learn about related to project planning. 

Project Log Frames, Proposals, and Implementation Plans

The Project Implementation Plan is a necessary tool for a successful project. Let's see
exactly HOW it differs from the prior documents in terms of purpose, format, level of
detail, and audience. Let's also look at participation, that is, the number of people
involved in creating the Project Implementation Plan. And finally, let's look at the timing
of this document's development.

Purpose
–

Earlier documents aimed to obtain approval and funding for the project. The goal of the
implementation plan is:

 To ensure that the project arrives on time, on scope, and on budget

 To ensure that the project meets established quality parameters
 To emphasize comprehensive, logical planning
 To model the project for review by the project team and other
stakeholders.

Level of Detail
–

The level of detail in earlier documents is often limited due to the purpose, format,
anticipation, schedule, and timing of the documents. The level of detail for the project
implementation plan is developed by the project team and key stakeholders.

Audience
–

Earlier documents are prepared for donors and stakeholders who distribute resources,
but the project implementation plan is focused on the needs of the team implementing
the project activities.
 Format
–

Donor requirements or agency stakeholders responsible for investment decisions often

determine the format of earlier documents. The format of the implementation plan is
determined by the project team and key stakeholders.

Participation
–

Time constraints limit the scope of participation in the creation of earlier documents, but
the opportunity exists with the project implementation plan to expand participation to
include an array of stakeholders, including experts and technical advisors.

Timing and Schedule

–

Earlier documents are written under tight time constraints, sometimes months (or even
years) prior to implementation. The Project Implementation Plan is a living document
that can change throughout the project. Team members will develop/revise/update
plans at the beginning of project implementation or at key benchmarks of the life cycle.

In summary, the Project Implementation Plan is a necessary tool for a successful project. It
differs from the prior documents in terms of purpose, format, and level of detail, and it is created
for a different audience. More people are involved in creating the project implementation plan,
and it is a living document that team members will revisit and update throughout the remainder
of the project life cycle.

Five Principles of Project

Planning
This topic presents the five principles of project planning. You will visit each principle
shown on this map. 

According to the five principles of project planning, project planning is:

 Balanced – planning across all six phases
 Integrated – planning elements are all connected
 Iterative – planning continuously throughout the project
 Participatory – planning with a wide variety of people
 Comprehensive – planning all work required to complete the project
Balanced Planning
The project plan must ensure that all aspects of the project are performed. That includes
all the activities, budgeting, and scheduling required to conduct the work associated with
each one of the six phases. Project planning must be BALANCED!

Integrated Planning
Next, Maria meets with Ian to discuss integrated planning. Maria explains to Ian that each of the
elements is connected to the others. This led to a discussion of constraints.
Constraints
The three types of project constraints are cost and resources, scope and quality, and time
and schedule. Project constraints are connected, making it impossible to change one
without impacting the others. This dynamic is also present in the Project Implementation
Plan.

Project constraint triangle

Scope–Schedule
–

Resources, such as the project budget, are connected to decisions about project scope.
The greater the budget, the larger the scope.
Schedule–Resources
–

Project schedule (calendar) decisions are dependent upon the level of resources
available. With fewer human resources, for example, the project will take longer.
 Resources–Scope
–

The level of resources available impact the scope and quality of the project. Fewer
human resources and an inflexible schedule, for example, can have a negative impact
on project quality.

Again, the project constraints are connected, making it impossible to change one without
impacting the others.

Iterative Planning
It's Iterative!

The Project Planning phase is part of a loop with the Implementation phase. These phases are

also in a loop with the Monitoring, Evaluation, and Control phase. Together, all three phases

continually provide insights and learning that inform and update the Project Implementation

Plan.

Rolling Wave Planning

Rolling wave planning is an iterative process of providing increasing levels of detail to the
project implementation plan over time. Changes to the project implementation plan help provide
greater detail on schedule, costs, and resources required to meet the defined project scope. 
Advantages of Rolling Wave Planning
Let's look at some of the advantages of rolling wave planning.
 It provides greater detail on schedule, costs, and resources required to meet the defined
project scope. 
 Rolling wave planning can be especially helpful in situations where project information is
difficult to collect or is changing very rapidly. For example, it is helpful when operating in high
risk or emergency contexts. In these situations, as new project information is collected,
additional dependencies, requirements, risks, opportunities, assumptions, and constraints will be
identified.

Participatory Planning
Advantages of a Participatory Process
Here are some of the advantages of a participatory process.
Skills and Knowledge
–
Stakeholders will have skills and knowledge that can be leveraged when developing
accurate estimates regarding budgets, time requirements, level of effort, and other
resources required for completing the work of the project.
Project Risks
–

Stakeholders are often in the best position to identify potential project risks and make
plans to mitigate their impact.
Skills and Common Understandings
–

New staff and/or partner staff can benefit from improved project orientation when they
participate in planning activities. These activities help ensure a common understanding
of the outcomes, outputs, and of the project.
Leadership, Ownership, and Buy-In
–

Stakeholders involved in the project planning process are more likely to assume
leadership, ownership, and buy-in of project implementation activities. While at the
same time, stakeholders who oppose the project can be brought around by the project
team by listening to their concerns and reshaping the scope (or elements of the project)
to help overcome their concerns.

Comprehensive Planning
Elements of a Comprehensive Project
The comprehensive project plan will include details concerning each of the following elements
of project management.
Project Scope Management Planning
–

How will the project scope (its products, services, and the work required to deliver these
results) be managed and controlled throughout the life of the project?
Project Finance Management Planning
–

How will the project budget be established, managed, and controlled?

Project Time Management Planning
–

What processes and tools are to be used to estimate the time requirements of the
project? How will project calendars be managed through the life of the project?
Project Risk Management Planning
–

How will the project identify, analyze, monitor, and manage project risks?
Project Justification Management Planning
–

What is the need the project will address? Are the resources consumed by the project
(money, time, organizational reputation, effort) contributing effectively and efficiently to
the realization of that benefit?
Project Stakeholder Management Planning
–

Who are the individuals, groups, and institutions whose interests might be positively or
negatively affected by execution or completion of the project? How will these
stakeholders be engaged through the life of the project?
These elements can be depicted like this, where they are centrally coordinated.

Successful project management demands that all project teams comprehensively and
actively apply a diverse set of project management disciplines through the entire life of
the project. 

Now, Maria will provide her team members with tools that are especially helpful when
managing scope, time, and finances. The other aspects of comprehensive planning are
covered in more detail in other modules of this course.

Project Scope vs. Product Scope

Introduction to the Topic
This topic is about scope management. The content areas it covers are shown on the map
below. On this journey, we will consider project scope, product scope, the types of
negative outcomes that scope management planning can help to avoid, and the work
breakdown structure.
Let's begin with an examination of the difference between project scope and product scope.
Project Scope vs. Product Scope
Scope management is one of the components of comprehensive planning. It has two components:
product scope and project scope. Both of these components are critical to project success; they
need to be managed diligently. 
Project scope

Project scope relates to how the deliverables will be created and delivered. Project scope
provides a comprehensive and detailed description of the work that must be completed to deliver
the project deliverables. 

Project scope is provider-oriented, meaning it depends upon what the project team decides will
be the most appropriate way to deliver the product scope
Product scope

Product scope relates to what is going to be delivered. This is an unambiguous and

comprehensive description and specification of the products/services that are to be delivered.

Product scope includes all of the required deliverables of the project, meeting the agreed
specification. Product scope is customer-oriented; its definition must be agreed to by the
customer (the funders and users) of the project's deliverables.

Advantages of Scope
Management Planning
Well-developed scope management plans can help you understand exactly where to go on
the project and exactly how to get there. In the absence of a clear scope definition,
problems may arise. Let's look at a few of the possible problems that might come up:
unclear expectations, inaccurate estimates, and scope creep. 
Unclear expectations
–

Ambiguity in scope leads to confusion among project stakeholders with regard to what
to expect, and what not to expect, from the project.

A clearly identified scope helps stakeholders share a common understanding of the

benefits of the project and the work required to successfully deliver project outcomes
and outputs.
Inaccurate estimates
–
 Errors in scope definition often result in projects that fail to identify all the work required
to complete the project (conversely, poorly developed scope can result in unnecessary
work being included in the project). 

These scoping errors can cascade, resulting in errors in budget and time estimates.
These estimate failures can result in schedule slips and cost overruns.
Scope creep
–

The purpose of defining scope is to clearly describe and gain agreement on the
boundaries of the project deliverables and the project work.

Failure to control these boundaries leads to a scope-creep, a principle cause of project

delays and potentially never-ending projects.

To avoid creep, the scope document needs to be managed for the duration of the
project through a formal change process.
There are many advantages to managing scope carefully! Avoiding problems like unclear
expectations, inaccurate estimates, and scope creep are reasons enough to do this.

The Work Breakdown Structure

Now that you have seen the problems that can result from poor scope management, let's talk
about how to avoid them. There is a tool for this, called the Work Breakdown Structure.

The Work Breakdown Structure is a hierarchical task list created by decomposing the project
into components and breaking down the project process into increasingly detailed tasks.

A well-constructed Work Breakdown Structure can be used to: 

 Guide the process of activity identification and sequencing
 Provide a basis for more accurate estimates of project duration, project cost, resources
(vehicles, people, supplies, building materials)
 Identify required departmental, subcontracting, supplier services
 Communicate and agree the product and project scope with the project's stakeholders
 Show the hierarchy of work needed to complete a project and indicate the interfaces
between them
 Delegate the work packages to project team members, implementing partners or suppliers
The WBS is important as a process and as a tool. A WBS done quickly by one or two people -
which is not participatory, integrated and comprehensive - will be incomplete. It will lack detail
and it will lack many supporting activities and tasks.

The WBS process is an opportunity to get stakeholders (internal and maybe some external) to
really unpack the project in a lot of detail and work out which combinations of tasks are needed
to complete activities and how these activities will achieve the outputs.
What's Included in the WBS?
All activities required for project success, including both the direct work and the indirect
work, are included in the WBS.

The indirect work is often overlooked! It includes things like project planning and control,
stakeholder training, communications, reporting, procurement, and end of project transition
activities.
Two Formats
There are two formats of WBS, the graphic format and the indented format. Maria believes it is a
good idea to create both. Can you think of why?

It's a good idea to create both because people process information differently. For example, Cory
and Paul prefer information that is presented graphically. On the other hand, Bahati, Ian, and
Irene prefer lists. By creating both formats, Cory can be sure to communicate effectively with
everyone.
The graphic format

The graphic format provides an easy-to-read visual layout of the relative levels of the work of a
project.

This is an example of the Delta River Waste Sanitation Project WBS, partially built out in
a graphic format.

The main benefit of the graphic format is this image allows partners and staff to see the
relationships between elements of the WBS. They can see how smaller components of the
project roll up into larger ones.
In addition, the graphic format can be easily developed in a group setting using sticky
note papers that are easy to move from place to place. 

This format also facilitates adjusting the depth of detail that is appropriate for various
audiences. 
The indented format

The indented format has the advantage of being easier to create and edit on a computer. It
is also an easier format to load into project management software tools such as Microsoft
Project, and it's easier for printing reports and computerized monitoring.

This WBS provides an example of how the partial build-out of the WBS for the Delta
River Project would look like in an indented WBS format.