Ceramics Making Raku

Using the Raku Glazing Process to

Show Oxidation-Reduction in Chemistry
(Whitaker, G. 1983. Prepared as a master's thesis, Westem Washington
University, Bellingham, Washington)

Introduction
The art of raku was conceived and developed in Japan during the last
quarter of the sixteenth century, specifically for the production of ceramic
wares for use by the Zen Buddhists in the Tea Ceremony. The name
"raku" meaning "pleasure or enjoyment," was given to the descendants of
the famous sculpture-potters. Raku applies solely to the art and products
of the raku family masters but it has also come to mean a ceramic tech­
nique that has been traditionally used by them. Raku is committed to the
basic premise that the pot is the product of a process of mutual interaction
and refinement between man and nature and that through this involve­
ment man discovers his own significance. Raku places great reliance on
maintaining a close and intimate relationship between the pot and its
maker at all stages of production, and particularly so during the moments
of truth when the pot is subjected to severe and sudden changes (Cooper).

The Making of Raku Ware

Raku wares are made by carving and refining forms down from larger •
leather-hard ones, which have been raised by a pinching technique. The
Raku forms made by the joining techniques must have particular attention
paid to welding the parts into a totally unified structure. Otherwise the
wares will later split apart under the stresses of thermal shock. After
drying the wares should be bisque fired, (bisque firing is the initial firing to
vitrify (harden) the form) to a temperature of 850 0 to 900 0 Centigrade. It is
important that raku bodies never approach their maturation temperature
during firing. After the forms are removed from the kiln (see Figure 6.9),
they are placed in a safe place to cool.

Oxidation and Reduction

Simply, oxidation is the addition of oxygen. Thus, when iron and steel are

allowed to become wet and are exposed to the air, the subsequent proc­

ess of rusting, in which the metallic iron acquires oxygen from the air, is

known as oxidation. An example of this process is:

4 Fe + 3 0 2 -> 2 Fe 20 3
The metallic iron becomes an oxide and is said to have been oxidized. In

ceramic firing, processes of oxidation are commonplace. Most ceram­

ics and most metal enamels are fired in an oxidizing atmosphere with

a copious air supply, so that all materials actively seeking oxygen can

acquire it during the process (Shaw).

6.56 U.S. Department of Energy, Pacific Northwest Laboratory

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 Ceramics Making Raku

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Figure 6.9. Small circular raku kiln burning coke or smokeless fuel. The
saggar is the heart of the kiln and the main wall follows its profile. The walls
may be made of common brick for a temporary kiln or of firebrick for a more
permanent structure. The belly of the kiln is transversed by a number of fire­
bars that both support the saggar and contain the fuel. The rectangular air
intake tunnel may be used to direct fire from a flame gun to the center of the
kiln if fast firing is desired. The kiln may be lit either with wood and the coke
gradually added from above or by means of the flame gun. The chimney is a
commercial chimney pot, and the whole kiln has an insulation of banked earth.
The development of the glazes within the saggar may be observed at intervals
through the viewing tube that may be made of metal or clay. The kiln will
reach glazing temperature in 2 to 3 hours.

Reduction
There is an old Chinese legend that tells of a potter who lived many
centuries ago. One day he was firing his kiln and was having a lot of
trouble. It was one of those days when everything goes wrong. The fire
wouldn't burn properly, the chimney wouldn't draw, the place was full of
smoke, and the air was filled with a horrible odor. The potter was afraid
that most of the ware, which he had glazed with a lovely green copper
glaze, would be ruined.
When he opened the kiln he found his fears were justified, for piece after
piece came out blistered, blackened, and dull. But in the very center of the
kiln, there was one vase that was a beautiful blood red. Such a color had
never been seen before on any piece of pottery. The potter's neighbors
and co-workers marvelled at it. It was so beautiful that it was sent to the
emperor as a gift. The emperor in turn admired the color so much that he
had the vase broken and the fragments set in rings as though they were
precious stones. Then he sent the potter an order for a dozen more red
vases.

The potter's troubles began. He tried again and again but he could not
reproduce that red color. He checked his glaze formulas carefully and
used exactly the same ingredients that he used that day, but all the pots
came out green. The emperor grew impatient. Messengers arrived from

U.S. Department of Energy, Pacific Northwest Laboratory 6.57

Ceramics Making Raku

the palace, saying produce or else! Finally our potter was in despair. He
decided to fire one last kiln and loaded it with vases covered with glazes
as before. But during the height of the fire, his courage failed him. He
opened the door of his kiln and jumped in~
His assistant ran up quickly. The kiln fire was smokey and there was a
bad smell in the air. They shut down the flames and allowed the kiln to
cool, and when they opened it, what did they find? No trace of our poor
potter, but yes, you've guessed it-the kiln was full of beautiful red pots.
And there, according to the legend, was discovered the secret of reduc­
tion. The potter's assistants reasoned that if a human body produced such
results, maybe a dead pig would work and they tossed a pig into the next
fire. Again they got beautiful red pieces. Then they tried substituting such
things as wood and straw, and still the trick worked.
Reduction results when the fire is overloaded with carbon. When this hap­
pens, the green oxide of copper loses some of its oxygen and becomes a
red oxide.
2 C + 4 CuO -> 2 Cup + 2 CO 2
Likewise, a red oxide of iron loses some of its oxygen and becomes a
black oxide. This reduction process is shown by the chemical equation:
Fe 20 3 + CO -> 2 FeO + CO 2
Iron oxide exists in several different combinations, and each proportion of
iron to oxygen has a characteristic color as follows:

Ferric iron red

Ferrous-ferric yellow
Ferrous iron black
Metallic iron no color
Red oxide of copper produces the sang-de-boeuf or ox blood color, while
the black oxide of iron produces the gray-green color known as celadon
(see Table 6.2).
Reduction is obtained in the down draft type of kiln by closing the damper
and adjusting the burners so that the flame does not get enough air and
bums yellow (see Figure 6.9). This sends free carbon into the kiln. There
is loss of heat during this process, so in high fire work the potter has to
alternate periods of oxidation and reduction. With the muffle type of kiln,
it is not so easy to produce controlled reduction, for the flames do not
touch the ware, and, if the muffle is tight, even though the flame releases
free carbon it will not get a chance to act on the pieces. Reduction can be
produced, however, by putting some organic material such as sawdust,
straw, or dry leaves, which will ignite instantaneously inside the muffle. In
the case of low fire luster glazes, organic material is actually mixed with
the glaze itself (Kenney).
An American version of the classic Japanese raku technique also involves
a reduction process. A specially prepared glazed pot is fired to a deep red
color, then while still glowing red hot, it is quickly plunged into a container
filled with organic matter such as straw, sawdust, or oil. The pot will acquire
a smoked appearance, and I a copper glaze will give a red color due to
the now present copper or a luster glaze due to metallic copper forming.

6.58 u.s. Department of Energy, Pacific Northwest Laboratory