lubricants

Article
Experimental Evaluation of Brake Pad Material
Propensity to Stick-Slip and Groan Noise Emission
Alessandro Lazzari 1 , Davide Tonazzi 1 , Giovanni Conidi 2 , Cristian Malmassari 2 ,
Andrea Cerutti 2 and Francesco Massi 1, *
1 DIMA, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, “La Sapienza” University of Rome,
00185 Roma, Italy; alessandrolazzari1993@gmail.com (A.L.); davide.tonazzi@uniroma1.it (D.T.)
2 BREMBO S.p.A., Advanced R&D Department, Viale Europa 2, 24040 Stezzano, Italy;
Giovanni_Conidi@brembo.it (G.C.); Cristian_Malmassari@brembo.it (C.M.);
Andrea_Cerutti@brembo.it (A.C.)
* Correspondence: francesco.massi@uniroma1.it




Received: 5 October 2018; Accepted: 6 December 2018; Published: 11 December 2018


Abstract: Frictional and dynamic responses of brake pad materials, when sliding on brake disc
counterfaces, are at the origin of noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) issues such as brake noise
emissions. In more detail, groan is a low frequency noise emission often associated to the stick-slip
frictional response of the brake system. The instability of such contact is the result of the coupling
between the system dynamics and the frictional response of the materials in contact. In this work,
an experimental approach is proposed for measuring the frictional response and the propensity to
generate stick-slip of different lining materials, coming from commercial brake pads, when sliding
on a worn surface of a brake disc, under the same controlled boundary conditions. The proposed
methodology allowed for comparing the propensity of the tested pad materials to stick-slip vibrations,
which is in agreement with feedback from automotive industry on groan emission.

Keywords: Stick-slip; lining materials; groan prediction; friction-induced vibrations; brake noise

1. Introduction
In brake industries, one of the main concerns is the warranty cost due to NVH issues, originating
from the brake frictional interface and involving the dynamic response of the whole brake system.
Friction-induced vibrations are an ever-present effect of frictional contact between two solids in
relative motion [1–6]. As a function of the interface materials, the boundary conditions and the system
dynamics, the system response can result in either stable or unstable vibrations [7–9]. This leads to
different contact scenarios [10,11], such as stable sliding with “friction noise” [12–15], macroscopic
stick-slip instability [16–19], or mode coupling instability [3,20–23]. In the brake industry, the different
noise emissions, resulting from the contact between the lining material and the disc surface during
the braking phase, are associated to these different frictional scenarios. In fact, while high frequency
squeal noise is more likely to be associated to mode coupling instabilities [24–28], groan noise is more
likely to be associated to stick-slip instabilities [29,30].
Such phenomena are related to an unstable vibrational response of the frictional system, due to the
coupling between the system dynamics and the transient behavior at the frictional interface [16,17,19].
A difference between static and dynamic friction coefficient [31] or a negative friction-velocity slope
have been commonly associated with the occurrence of macroscopic stick-slip in a dynamic system;
however, recent studies showed that macroscopic stick-slip can occur even with a local constant
friction coefficient, when accounting for fast dynamics (wave generation and propagation) at the
interface [16,17].

Lubricants 2018, 6, 107; doi:10.3390/lubricants6040107 www.mdpi.com/journal/lubricants

Lubricants 2018, 6, 107 2 of 17

In automotive, and more generally, in brake literature, several papers attributed groan
noise emission to the stick-slip events occurring at the pad/disc interface for low braking
velocities [29,30,32,33].
Jang et al. [30] investigated the creep groan propensity of different frictional materials. The results
allowed for the assertion that creep groan can be reduced by materials showing a slight difference
between the static and dynamic friction coefficients. By analytical and theoretical approaches, several
reduced order models have been developed in literature for reproducing the creep groan vibrations of
a full brake system [29,34], also accounting for the nonlinear nature of such phenomena [32].
Nevertheless, because the stick-slip instability is a result of the coupling between system dynamics
and contact response, and because the dynamics of a commercial brake system is extremely complex
and sensitive to several uncontrollable parameters, it is not possible to reliably evaluate how prone the
material is to destabilize the system dynamics through tests performed on a full brake system.
With this purpose, in this work, the brake materials are tested on a simplified set-up, which allows
for the imposition that the relative motion between samples of pad and disc materials, under well
controlled boundary conditions. The vibrational response is monitored in parallel to the macroscopic
contact forces, in order to provide information about the material response as a function of the main
investigated parameters. Finally, a discussion on the obtained results is presented, with respect to
feedbacks by the automotive brake industry on the material propensity to groan noise emission.

2. Materials and Methods

When measuring vibrations due to the frictional contact between solids, the resulting vibrations
are due to the system dynamic response to the contact broadband excitation [13]. In order to focus on
the material contribution to the stick-slip occurrence, it is then necessary to decouple the contribution
related to the contact excitation from the one due to the dynamic of the system, which will modify the
frequency distribution and amplitude of the vibrational response. To decouple the two contributions,
one can either extract the spectrum of the contact excitation from the response, by inverse methods [15],
or compare the vibrational response under identical dynamic conditions. In fact, ensuring the testing of
different materials under the same system dynamics and under the same boundary conditions allows
for a direct comparison of the material propensity to promote stick-slip instabilities, by directly
comparing the vibrational response. The results are then discussed with respect to the frictional
response (macroscopic friction coefficient) of the tested materials.

2.1. Experimental Set-Up

The experimental set-up, named TriboAir, used for the experimental campaign is presented in
Figure 1. This system is especially designed for reproducing and measuring contact-induced vibrations
without introducing parasite noise from other contact interfaces. During the tests, the only contact
interface, in sliding or rolling, is the tested one. With this purpose, the test bench is composed by:
(i) A base on four air bushings, allowing for the relative motion of the lower contact sample along
the tangential direction; (ii) other two air bushings holding the upper sample and allowing the
application of the load, by dead weights, along the normal direction with respect to the contact; and
(iii) a voice-coil linear motor for imposing the desired motion law at the lower sample, commanded by
a servo drive and a linear optical encoder.
During the imposed sliding between the two samples, the normal and tangential forces are
measured by a measurement table, composed of two tri-axial force transducers, while the relative
motion is recovered by the encoder. An accelerometer is used for measuring the vibrational response of
the system during the movement, while a laser vibrometer is pointed on the brake lining upper sample,
at about 1.5 mm from the surface, in order to detect the contact-induced vibrations as close as possible to
the frictional interface. The accelerometer and the laser vibrometer measure the vibrational acceleration
and vibrational velocity along the sliding direction between the pad and the disc (along X axis,
Lubricants 2018, 6, 107 3 of 17
Lubricants 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

with respect to the scheme in Figure 1). The signals are acquired by an 8-channels-acquisition-card
disc (along X axis, with respect to the scheme in Figure 1). The signals are acquired by an 8-channels-
(NI 4472) with a sampling frequency of 100 kHz and then post-processed by Matlab ©.
acquisition-card (NI 4472) with a sampling frequency of 100 kHz and then post-processed by Matlab ©.
In order to perform tests at different temperatures, two infrared (IR) emitters are placed on the
In order to perform tests at different temperatures, two infrared (IR) emitters are placed on the
side of the samples in contact, and two thermocouples are placed for monitoring the temperature of
side of the samples in contact, and two thermocouples are placed for monitoring the temperature of
the samples.
the samples.

Figure 1.
Figure Experimental set-up
1. Experimental set-up picture
picture (top)
(top) and
and scheme
scheme (bottom).
(bottom). (1)
(1) Voice
Voice coil
coil engine,
engine, (2)
(2) lining
lining
sample support, (3) air bushings, (4) accelerometer, (5) disc sample, (6) brake lining sample,
sample support, (3) air bushings, (4) accelerometer, (5) disc sample, (6) brake lining sample, (7) (7) force
force
transducers, (8)
transducers, (8) linear
linear optical
optical encoder,
encoder, and
and (9)
(9) laser
laser vibrometer
vibrometer focus
focus point.
point.

2.2. Friction Material Samples and Test Protocol

For the analysis presented in this work, 4 different automotive friction pad materials have been
tested. The materials have been tested both in new and used conditions. The used pad have been
Lubricants 2018, 6, 107 4 of 17

2.2. Friction Material Samples and Test Protocol

For 2018,
Lubricants the analysis presented
6, x FOR PEER REVIEWin this work, 4 different automotive friction pad materials have4 been of 17
tested. The materials have been tested both in new and used conditions. The used pad have been
obtained by machining brake pads subjected to a SAE J2521 protocol [35], on a full brake disc
dynamometer, for for aa total
totalnumber
numberofof25002500brake
brakeevents
events forfor
each pad.
each When
pad. Whenanalyzing the used
analyzing pad
the used
sample,
pad attention
sample, was placed
attention to runtothe
was placed runexperiments along along
the experiments the friction direction,
the friction given by
direction, the sliding
given by the
groovesgrooves
sliding visible at the pad
visible surface
at the (Figure(Figure
pad surface 2). The2).
brake
The pad
brakehas been
pad hasthen
beenmachined to obtain
then machined small
to obtain
samples
small of padof
samples material with a with
pad material contact surfacesurface
a contact of 10 × of
1010mm.× 10Onmm.
the other
On the side, a sample
other side, aof 100 × 20
sample of
× 36×mm
100 × 36
20 of themmdiscofhasthebeen
discmachined directly from
has been machined a commercial
directly brake disc brake
from a commercial (Figuredisc
1). (Figure
Hereafter,1).
the tested materials
Hereafter, the testedwill be named
materials willas
beMAT-x,
namedwith x referring
as MAT-x, withto the material
x referring number.
to the All number.
material the material
All
samples
the havesamples
material been obtained by machining
have been obtained bycommercial
machining friction pads. MAT-1,
commercial frictionMAT-2, and MAT-4
pads. MAT-1, are
MAT-2,
low steel
and MAT-4 materials.
are lowWhile
steel MAT-1 andWhile
materials. MAT-4MAT-1
are medium braking
and MAT-4 areperformance
medium brakingmaterials, MAT-2 is
performance
an advanced
materials, MAT-2braking
is an performance
advanced braking material. On the contrary,
performance material. MAT-3 is an NAO
On the contrary, (Non-Asbestos
MAT-3 is an NAO
Organic) friction
(Non-Asbestos material.
Organic) friction material.

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Samples
Samples from
from aa new
new (upper)
(upper) and
and used (lower) pad
used (lower) pad with
with its
its support
support in
in bi-component
bi-component resin.
resin.

In the nominal conditions, each test is conducted with an imposed normal load of 20 N (0.2 MPa) MPa)
and at ambient temperature (23 ◦°C). C). The test protocol consists in a series of tests at constant and
profiles, according
variable velocity profiles, according to
to the
the sequence
sequence reported
reportedin inTable
Table1.1.
Tests performed
Tests performedwith
withan animposed
imposedconstant
constantvelocity
velocityareare used
used to to identify
identify thethe occurrence
occurrence of stick-
of stick-slip
and to measure the stick-slip instabilities. On the other hand, variable velocity tests are used toused
slip and to measure the stick-slip instabilities. On the other hand, variable velocity tests are to
detect
detect
the the potential
potential frictionfriction coefficient
coefficient dependence
dependence on velocity,
on sliding sliding velocity,
as well asasthe
well as thevelocity
critical critical range
velocity
at
range at
which which stick-slip
stick-slip may occur. may occur.
Lubricants 2018, 6, 107 5 of 17

Table 1. Protocol for test sequences.

Time Displacement Number of Acceleration

Velocity (mm/s)
Sequence (mm) Cycles (mm/s2 )
Constant velocity tests
1◦ 10 18 10
2◦ 0.1 3 3
3◦ 0.5 10 3
4◦ 1 18 3
5◦ 5 18 3
Variable velocity tests
From 0 to 5 mm/s
6◦ 18 3 1.5
linear velocity ramp
Validation test
7◦ 1 18 3

As shown in Table 1, the first test is always conducted at a constant velocity of 10 mm/s for
10 cycles. This choice has been made in order to obtain a stabilized behavior of the sample, which
could be affected by slight defects or deposits on the surfaces. The following tests are performed at
constant velocity ranging from 0.1 to 5 mm/s.
Afterwards, the variable velocity test is carried out. The acceleration is selected in order to
obtain the wanted maximum velocity within the single stroke, with a linear increase and decrease of
the velocity.
Lastly, a test is conducted at a constant velocity of 1 mm/s and compared with the one performed
before. This final verification test is performed with the aim of identifying potential differences of the
sample behavior after the performed set of tests. If this last response is the same as the previously
obtained one, the robustness of the whole set of tests, with respect to the sample wear, is validated.
Even if, when testing the same material, the different topography of each sample results in
a slightly different response for each tested sample, the general trends and mean values are well
reproducible. Moreover, different tests carried out on the same sample, after being disassembled
and reassembled, showed a negligible difference of the measured frictional response, assessing
the robustness and repeatability of the test protocol. Even considering the slight variability
among the single tested samples, due to its local topography, the general trends obtained after the
measurement campaign can still be considered robust and representative of the frictional response of
the tested material.

3. Frictional and Dynamic Response of the Tested Materials

3.1. Frictional Material Response

Figure 3 shows an example of signals recorded during a test at a constant velocity of 0.1 mm/s.
The friction coefficient, computed as the ratio between the recovered tangential force and the normal
one, is also shown as a function of time (red curve in Figure 3: Example of acquired signals.
From the top: Normal force, tangential force, friction coefficient, imposed displacement, and laser
velocity measured at 1.5 mm from the contact interface (MAT-3 (USED)). The measured laser velocity
(last curve in Figure 3) provides information on the local vibrations close to the frictional interface.
In order to account for the frictional response of the tested materials as a function of the relative
velocity, tests are carried out at variable velocity. As an example, Figure 4 illustrates the measured
friction coefficient as a function of the imposed velocity, when ranging from zero to 5 mm/s.
The curve in Figure 4 is composed by two branches, for both negative and positive velocities.
The branches marked with the black arrows correspond to the acceleration phase, with the imposed
velocity ranging from zero to 5 mm/s. The branches marked with the green arrows correspond to the
Lubricants 2018, 6, 107 6 of 17

Lubricants
deceleration
Lubricants 6, 6,
2018,
phases,
2018, x FOR
x FOR PEER
with
PEER theREVIEW
imposed velocity ranging from five to 0 mm/s. The intermediate branches
REVIEW 6 6of of1717
with high slope, marked by the dashed blue arrows, are representative of the system, sample, and
sample,tangential
sample,
interface andinterface
and interface tangential
tangential
deformation deformation
deformation
during during
during
the tangential thetangential
the
loading,tangential loading,
loading,
before the before
before
occurring the
the
of the occurringofof
occurring
macroscopic
themacroscopic
the
sliding macroscopic
at the contact sliding
sliding atatthe
interface the contactinterface
contact
(tangential interface (tangential
(tangential
stiffness stiffness
stiffness
of the frictional ofofthe
system).thefrictional
frictional
This system).
system).
curve wouldThisThis
be
curvewould
curve
vertical would
in the be bevertical
ideal vertical
inin
case of thetheideal
infinite ideal caseofofinfinite
case
tangential infinitetangential
stiffness tangential stiffnessofofthe
stiffness
of the system. thesystem.
system.

Normal
Normal Force
Force
0 0
[N]
[N]

-50 -50

4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 14 14 16 16 18 18 20 20 22 22 24 24

Tangential
Tangential Force
Force
10 10

0
[N]

0
[N]

-10 -10
4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 14 14 16 16 18 18 20 20 22 22 24 24

Friction
Friction
0.5 0.5

0 0

-0.5 -0.5
4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 14 14 16 16 18 18 20 20 22 22 24 24

Imposed
Imposed Displacement
Displacement
0 0
[mm/s]
[mm/s]

-10 -10

-20 -20
4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 14 14 16 16 18 18 20 20 22 22 24 24

Laser
Laser Velocity
Velocity
0.2 0.2
[mm/s]
[mm/s]

0 0

-0.2 -0.2
4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 14 14 16 16 18 18 20 20 22 22 24 24
Time
Time [s] [s]

Figure 3. Example of acquired signals. From the top: normal force, tangential force, friction
Figure
Figure 3. 3. Example
Example ofof acquired
acquired signals.
signals. From
From the
the top:
top: normal
normal force,
force, tangential
tangential force,
force, friction
friction coefficient,
coefficient,
coefficient, imposed displacement and laser velocity measured at 1.5 mm from the contact interface
imposeddisplacement
imposed displacementandandlaser
laservelocity
velocitymeasured
measuredatat1.51.5mmmmfromfromthe
thecontact
contactinterface
interface(MAT-3
(MAT-3
(MAT-3 (USED)).
(USED)).
(USED)).

0.40.4
MAT-4
MAT-4 (NEW)
(NEW)

0.30.3

0.20.2

Acceleration
Acceleration Phase
Phase
0.10.1
Friction coefficient
Friction coefficient

Deceleration
Deceleration Phase
Phase

0 0 Before
Before Sliding
Sliding

-0.1
-0.1

-0.2
-0.2

-0.3
-0.3

-0.4
-0.4
-5 -5 -4 -4 -3 -3 -2 -2 -1 -1 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5

Imposed
Imposed Velocity
Velocity [mm/s]
[mm/s]

Figure 4. Example
Figure of friction coefficient measured withwith
respect to thetoimposed velocity. In green is the is
Figure 4. 4.Example
Exampleofoffriction
friction coefficient
coefficient measured
measured respect
with respect to thetheimposed
imposed velocity.
velocity. InIn green
green is
deceleration phases, in black is the acceleration phases (MAT-4 (NEW)-Sample04).
the
the deceleration
deceleration phases,
phases, inin black
black is is the
the acceleration
acceleration phases
phases (MAT-4
(MAT-4 (NEW)-Sample04).
(NEW)-Sample04).

When
When looking
looking atat the
the friction-velocity
friction-velocity curves,
curves, the
the presence
presence ofof a potential
a potential negative
negative friction-velocity
friction-velocity
slopecan
slope canbebefound
foundininthe thegreen
greenbranches
branchesofofthethecurve,
curve,where
wherethethesystem
systemisisalready
alreadyininrelative
relativesliding
sliding
conditionatatthe
condition theinterface
interfaceandandthe
theimposed
imposedvelocity
velocitydecreases
decreasestotozero.
zero.
InInfact,
fact,ininthetheblack
blackbranches
branchesthe thesystem
systemshifts
shiftsfrom
fromsticking
stickingtotosliding
slidingcondition,
condition,and andthetheslope
slope
inin the
the branches
branches cancanbebe affected
affected byby the
the inertial
inertial contributions
contributions due
due toto the
the initial
initial transition
transition from
from the
the static
static
Lubricants 2018, 6, 107 7 of 17

When looking at the friction-velocity curves, the presence of a potential negative friction-velocity
slope can be found in the green branches of the curve, where the system is already in relative sliding
condition at the interface and the imposed velocity decreases to zero.
In fact, in the black branches the system shifts from sticking to sliding condition, and the slope in
the branches can be affected by the inertial contributions due to the initial transition from the static
contact Lubricants
force to2018,
the6, dynamic one. For this reason, this transition is not representative of7 of
x FOR PEER REVIEW the
17 friction
coefficient variation with the sliding velocity. In the proposed example, since only the green branches
contact force to the dynamic one. For this reason, this transition is not representative of the friction
have to be considered, there is not a significant negative friction velocity slope. On the contrary, the
coefficient variation with the sliding velocity. In the proposed example, since only the green branches
black curves
have to canbe be exploited
considered, to estimate
there the difference
is not a significant negativebetween static and
friction velocity dynamic
slope. friction the
On the contrary, coefficient.
black curves can be exploited to estimate the difference between static and dynamic friction
3.2. Stick-Slip Analysis
coefficient.
The last plot in Figure 5 shows the detail of the velocity signal recorded during a test with imposed
3.2. Stick-Slip Analysis
velocity of 0.1 mm/s where the presence of stick-slip instability is evident. In fact, the trend of the
The last plot in Figure 5 shows the detail of the velocity signal recorded during a test with
velocity shows successive periodical responses to impulsive excitations, due to the sudden switches
imposed velocity of 0.1 mm/s where the presence of stick-slip instability is evident. In fact, the trend
betweenofsticking and sliding conditions [10,16].
the velocity shows successive periodical responses to impulsive excitations, due to the sudden
When the stick-slip excitation
switches between sticking occurs,
and sliding the spectrum
conditions [10,16]. of the vibrational response is a function of
the system When
dynamics, whichexcitation
the stick-slip is excited by the
occurs, impulsive
the spectrum excitation,
of the vibrational and responds
response with its
is a function of natural
the system
frequencies dynamics, in
(spectrogram which is excited
Figure 6). Theby the impulsive excitation,
spectrogram shows and the responds
frequency with its natural
content related to
frequencies
the analyzed (spectrogram
stick-slip. The in Figure 6). Thepulse
characteristic spectrogram
of theshows
single thestick-slip,
frequency content related
associated totothe
thedrop of
analyzed stick-slip. The characteristic pulse of the single stick-slip, associated to the drop of the
the tangential force, results in a broadband frequency excitation (vertical lines on the spectrogram).
tangential force, results in a broadband frequency excitation (vertical lines on the spectrogram). After
After the
thespike,
spike,the
thelower
lower frequency modes
frequency modes still
still vibrate,
vibrate, while
while the higher
the higher frequency
frequency modes modes are quickly
are quickly
attenuated by the system and material damping.
attenuated by the system and material damping.

Figure 5. From the top: normal load force, friction coefficient, imposed displacement, and laser
Figure 5. From the top: normal load force, friction coefficient, imposed displacement, and laser velocity
velocity for MAT 1-USED material at 0.1 mm/s.
for MAT 1-USED material at 0.1 mm/s.
 Lubricants 2018, 6, 107 8 of 17
Lubricants 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Lubricants 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Figure
Figure Laservelocity
6.6.Laser
Figure
velocity
6. Laser
signal
velocitysignal
and
signaland
spectrogram
andspectrogram
(MAT-1 USED).
spectrogram (MAT-1
USED).
(MAT-1 USED).

Moreover,
Moreover,
Moreover,
because
because
because
the
the stick-slip
stick-slip
the
dynamic
stick-slipdynamic
instability
dynamicinstability
is more
instability is
more likely
is more
likelyto
likely tooccur
to occuratat
occur atlower
lower
lower relative
relative
relative
velocities,
velocities,
velocities,thethe
the critical
critical velocity,
velocity,
critical velocity, i.e.,
i.e., the
i.e.,the maximum
themaximum imposed
maximumimposed relative speed
imposed relative
relative speedat
speed atwhich
at whichstick-slip
which stick-slip
stick-slip takes
takes
takes
place, is
place,
place, taken
is taken
is taken into
intointoconsideration.
consideration.Figure
consideration. Figure 7 shows
Figure7 7shows
showsthe the vibrational
the vibrational velocity,
vibrational velocity, measured
velocity, measured
measuredby by
bythethe laser
thelaser
laser
vibrometer,
vibrometer,
vibrometer, for a
for for test performed
a test
a test performed
performed at a variable
atata avariable imposed
variableimposed velocity,
imposed velocity, from 0
velocity, from 00 up up to
up to 5 mm/s
to55mm/s
mm/s(05(0 → 5 mm/s).
(05mm/s).
mm/s).
The critical velocity range, in which stick-slip occurs, is thus identified. For
The critical velocity range, in which stick-slip occurs, is thus identified. For the tested materialinin
The critical velocity range, in which stick-slip occurs, is identified. For the
the tested
tested material
material in
Figure 7,
Figure stick-slip
7, stick-slip occurs
occurs between
between -0.88
-0.88 and
and +1.41
+1.41 mm/s,
mm/s, which
which brings
brings to a to a critical
critical
Figure 7, stick-slip occurs between -0.88 and +1.41 mm/s, which brings to a critical velocity range Δ = velocity
velocity range range
Δ =
∆ =Positive
Positive
Positive criticalcritical
critical velocity
velocity
velocity − Negative
– Negative
– Negative critical
critical
critical velocity
velocity
velocity 2.29=mm/s.
==2.29 2.29 mm/s.
mm/s.

Figure 7. Imposed
Figure 7. Imposedvelocity
velocity(blue
(bluecurve)
curve)and
and vibrational velocity, recovered
vibrational velocity, recoveredby
bythe
thelaser
laservibrometer
vibrometer
(green
(green curve),
curve), during
during a test
a test with
with variableimposed
variable imposedvelocity →5mm/s,for
velocity 005mm/s, forMAT-2
MAT-2NEWNEW material.
material.
Figure 7. Imposed velocity (blue curve) and vibrational velocity, recovered by the laser vibrometer
(green curve), during a test with variable imposed velocity 05mm/s, for MAT-2 NEW material.
Lubricants 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17

4. Material Comparison
Lubricants 2018, 6, 107 9 of 17
In this section, the frictional and dynamical measurements on the different material samples will
be presented and compared in order to discuss the different propensity of the investigated materials
4. Material Comparison
to promote stick-slip instability (groan noise).
In this section, the frictional and dynamical measurements on the different material samples
will be presented and compared in order to discuss the different propensity of the investigated
4.1. Material Frictional Response
materials to promote stick-slip instability (groan noise).
First, a comparison between the same material in new and used conditions is performed. As can
4.1. Material Frictional Response
be noticed in Figure 8, the comparison between new and used samples does not show relevant
differencesFirst,
among the tested
a comparison samples.
between All material
the same the materials exhibit
in new and used very littleisdifference
conditions performed. between
As can be NEW
and USED state,
noticed which
in Figure cancomparison
8, the be attributed to the
between difference
new in the sample
and used samples does nottopography.
show relevantIn fact, it should
differences
among the tested samples. All the materials exhibit very little difference between NEW and USED
be kept in mind that brake linings are made of composite materials, with a structural matrix and
state, which can be attributed to the difference in the sample topography. In fact, it should be kept in
severalmind
additive and fillers. Each sample, machined from the whole pad, will have a different
that brake linings are made of composite materials, with a structural matrix and several additive
topography and surface composition.
and fillers. Each sample, For this
machined from reason,
the whole only
pad, willmacroscopic and
have a different repeatable
topography anddifferences
surface in
the values and trends
composition. ofreason,
For this the friction coefficients
only macroscopic and have to be
repeatable accounted
differences for,
in the when
values andcomparing
trends of the
materials.
the friction coefficients have to be accounted for, when comparing the materials.

0.5
MAT-2 USED
0.4 MAT-2 NEW

0.3

0.2

0.1
Friction coefficient

-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

-0.4

-0.5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Imposed Velocity [mm/s]

Figure 8. Comparison of the friction-velocity curves for new and used sample conditions for the friction
Figurematerial
8. Comparison
MAT-2.
of the friction-velocity curves for new and used sample conditions for the
friction material MAT-2.
The comparison between different pad materials is then showed in Figure 9. The comparison
The comparison
between MAT-1 andbetween differentthe
MAT-2 highlights pad materials
presence is then
of a clear showed
negative in Figureslope
friction-velocity 9. The comparison
in MAT-2,
between MAT-1 and MAT-2 highlights the presence of a clear negative friction-velocity
which is not recorded in MAT-1. On the other hand, the comparison between MAT-3 and MAT-2 slope in
shows
an important difference in the value of the mean friction coefficient. Moreover, it can be noted that
MAT-2, which is not recorded in MAT-1. On the other hand, the comparison between MAT-3 and
MAT-3 is not affected by any variation of the friction coefficient with the imposed velocity. MAT-4
MAT-2presents
showsan anintermediate
important behavior.
difference in the value of the mean friction coefficient. Moreover, it can
be noted that MAT-3 is not affected by any variation of the friction coefficient with the imposed
velocity. MAT-4 presents an intermediate behavior.
Lubricants 2018,
Lubricants 2018, 6,
2018, 6, xx FOR
6, 107FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 10
10 of 17
Lubricants 10 of 17
of 17

Figure friction materials (used conditions).

Figure 9.
9. Friction-velocity
Friction-velocity curves
curves obtained
obtained for
for the
the different
different friction materials (used conditions).
In order to obtain an evaluation of the frictional response of the tested materials, at least two
In
In order
order to obtain an
an evaluation of
of the
the frictional response of the tested materials, at
at least two
samples, bothto inobtain
NEW and evaluation
USED conditions, frictional
have been response
tested of forthe tested
each materials,
material. The bar least
charttwo
in
samples,
samples, both in
both in NEWNEW and USED
and USED conditions, have been tested for each material. The bar chart in
Figure 10 exhibits the maximum (at 0conditions,
mm/s) frictionhavecoefficient
been tested (infor
red)each
andmaterial. The bar
the stabilized (at 5chart
mm/s) in
Figure
Figure 10
10 exhibits
exhibits the
the maximum
maximum (at
(at 00 mm/s)
mm/s) friction
friction coefficient
coefficient (in
(in red)
red) and
and the
the stabilized
stabilized (at
(at 55 mm/s)
mm/s)
friction coefficient (in green), detected for each sample. When there is no difference between the
friction
friction coefficient
coefficient (in(in green),
green), detected
detected for for each
each sample.
sample. WhenWhen therethere isis no
no difference
difference between
between the the
maximum and stabilized friction coefficient, only the stabilized friction coefficient is shown. The bar
maximum
maximum and stabilized friction coefficient, only the stabilized friction coefficient is shown. The
and stabilized friction coefficient, only the stabilized friction coefficient is shown. The bar
bar
chart is related to variable velocity tests conducted at V = 0→5 mm/s and a normal load equal to 20 N.
chart
chart is
is related
related to to variable
variable velocity
velocity tests
tests conducted
conducted at at VV == 05
05 mm/s
mm/s andand aa normal
normal load
load equal
equal toto 20
20
This chart points out some important characteristics of the tested materials:
N. This chart points out some important characteristics of the
N. This chart points out some important characteristics of the tested materials: tested materials:
• MAT-2 has evident negative friction-velocity slope in all NEW and USED tested samples;
•• MAT-2
MAT-2does has
has evident
evident negative
negative friction-velocity
friction-velocity slope
slope in all
in in NEW
allany
NEW and
andor USED
USED tested samples;
• MAT-3 not show negative friction-velocity slope NEW USEDtested
testedsamples;
samples;
•• MAT-3
MAT-3 does not show negative friction-velocity slope in any NEW or USED tested
does not show negative friction-velocity slope in any NEW or USED tested samples;
samples;
•• MAT-2
MAT-2 has the highest maximum friction coefficient, on average; on the contrary, MAT-3 has the
• MAT-2 has has the
the highest
highest maximum
maximum friction
friction coefficient,
coefficient, on on average;
average; on on the
the contrary,
contrary, MAT-3
MAT-3 has has
lowest
the friction
lowest coefficient,
friction on average;
coefficient, on average;
the lowest friction coefficient, on average;
•• MAT-1
MAT-1 shows aa slight friction-velocity slope for only some of the tested
tested samples; MAT-4
MAT-4 has an
• MAT-1 showsshows a slight
slight friction-velocity
friction-velocity slope
slope for
for only
only some
some of of the
the tested samples;
samples; MAT-4 has has an
an
intermediate
intermediate behavior
behavior between
between MAT-1
MAT-1 and
and MAT-2.
MAT-2.
intermediate behavior between MAT-1 and MAT-2.

Figure 10. Maximum

Figure 10. Maximum (at mm/s)
mm/s) and
(at 00 mm/s) and stabilized
and stabilized (at
stabilized (at 55 mm/s)
mm/s) friction
mm/s) frictioncoefficients
friction coefficients for
coefficients for the
for the tested
the tested material
tested material
samples, calculated at 20 N of normal load
load and
and 05
0 → 5 mm/s
mm/s variable
variable velocity
velocity
samples, calculated at 20 N of normal load and 05 mm/s variable velocity tests. tests.
tests.
Lubricants 2018, 6, 107 11 of 17
Lubricants 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17

4.2. Material
4.2. Material Stick-Slip
Stick-Slip Propensity
Propensity
In order
In order to to quantify
quantify the
the propensity
propensity ofof the
the materials
materials inin contact
contact to to generate
generate stick-slip,
stick-slip, aa comparison
comparison
on the amplitude of the stick-slip response has been performed in the same
on the amplitude of the stick-slip response has been performed in the same boundary conditions. boundary conditions.
Moreover, the
Moreover, the width
widthofofthethevelocity
velocityrange
rangeininwhich
which stick-slip occurs
stick-slip occursamong
among thethe
different materials
different has
materials
also been compared.
has also been compared.
Tests at
Tests at aa constant
constant velocity
velocity of
of 0.1
0.1 mm/s
mm/s areare used
used to
tocompare
compare the the stick-slip
stick-slip amplitude,
amplitude, meanwhile
meanwhile
tests conducted
tests conducted atataavariable
variablevelocity,
velocity,050→mm/s,
5 mm/s, are are
usedused for assessing
for assessing the critical
the critical range range for
for stick-
stick-slip occurrence.
slip occurrence.
Figure 11
Figure 11 exhibits
exhibitsthe
thedetected
detectedstick-slip
stick-slipamplitudes
amplitudes at at
V=V0.1 mm/s.
= 0.1 mm/s. It can be be
It can noted
notedthatthat
stick-slip
stick-
is always
slip present
is always at aat
present constant velocity
a constant V =V0.1
velocity mm/s
= 0.1 mm/s forfor
allall
the
thetested
testedsamples,
samples,except
exceptfor forMAT-3.
MAT-
MAT-3
3. MAT-3 is is
completely
completely unaffected
unaffectedbybystick-slip
stick-slipfor
forthe
theNEW
NEWpad padsamples,
samples,and and shows
shows only
only some low
some low
amplitude events
amplitude events forfor the
the USED
USED ones.
ones. OnOnthe
thecontrary,
contrary,MAT-2
MAT-2 showsshows the the highest
highest stick-slip
stick-slipamplitude.
amplitude.

Figure 11. Comparison

Comparison ofof the
the average
average stick-slip
stick-slip amplitudes
amplitudes (peak
(peak amplitude
amplitude of
of the impulsive
responses), at constant imposed velocity V = 0.1 mm/s,
mm/s,between
betweenthe
thetested
testedpad
padmaterials.
materials.

amplitudes and the friction coefficient behavior

A comparison between the average stick-slip amplitudes
(Figure 10) leads to the following considerations:

•• The highest stick-slip

stick-slip amplitude
amplitude is is detected
detected forfor MAT-2,
MAT-2, whereas
whereas for
for MAT-3
MAT-3 there is almost a
total absence of stick-slip. MAT-2
MAT-2 is is characterized
characterized byby the
the presence
presence of a significant negative
friction-velocity
friction-velocity slope,
slope, for
for all tested samples. MAT-3 MAT-3 does
does not
not show
show any
any slope
slope in
in any
any of its
samples, instead. As As a result, a relationship between stick-slip amplitude (and occurrence) and
negative friction velocity slope can be identified.
•• Even
Even ifif MAT-1 and MAT-4
MAT-1 and MAT-4 show
show only
only slight
slight friction-velocity
friction-velocity slopes,
slopes, they
they present
present aa higher
higher mean
mean
friction coefficientwith
friction coefficient withrespect
respecttotoMAT-3.
MAT-3.AsAs a consequence,
a consequence, they
they show
show an an intermediate
intermediate stick-
stick-slip
slip amplitude between MAT-2
amplitude between MAT-2 and MAT-3. and MAT-3.
The
The following
following barbar chart
chart (Figure
(Figure 12)
12) illustrates
illustrates the
the stick-slip
stick-slip critical
critical velocity
velocity range
range found
found for
for each
each
sample, tested at a variable velocity V = 05 mm/s and for a normal
sample, tested at a variable velocity V = 0→5 mm/s and for a normal load of 20 N. load of 20 N.
A
A very
very first
first insight
insight into
into the
the obtained
obtained results
results shows
shows the
the absence
absence of of any
any critical
critical range
range for
for MAT-3
MAT-3
NEW
NEW samples and only a narrow critical range identified among the USED ones, confirming the
samples and only a narrow critical range identified among the USED ones, confirming the
“stability” of
“stability” of such
suchmaterial
materialwith
withrespect
respecttotostick-slip.
stick-slip.Moreover,
Moreover,it itis isconfirmed
confirmed that
that thethe wider
wider range
range of
of critical velocity interests the MAT-2 material.
critical velocity interests the MAT-2 material.
Lubricants 2018, 6, 107 12 of 17
Lubricants 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17

Figure 12. Stick-slip

Stick-slip critical
critical velocity
velocity range
range of
of all
all tested
tested samples,
samples, at
at 20
20 N of normal load and when
varying the velocity linearly from 0 to 5 mm/s.
mm/s.

Therefore, aacomparison
Therefore, comparisonbetween
between thethe
frictional response
frictional response (Figure 10) and
(Figure 10) the
andcritical velocity
the critical range
velocity
(Figure 12) leads
range (Figure 12)toleads
the same
to the considerations
same considerationsdrawn from drawnthe comparison with the stick-slip
from the comparison with theamplitude.
stick-slip
The results obtained on the stick-slip propensity of the tested frictional materials are in agreement
amplitude.
with Thethe groan
results propensity
obtained ofonthethe same materials
stick-slip on commercial
propensity of thebrake tested systems: MAT-2
frictional is a low-steel
materials are in
friction material
agreement with the forgroan
high braking
propensity performances
of the sameand strongly
materials on affected
commercial by groan
brake noise;
systems:on MAT-2
the otheris
ahand, MAT-3
low-steel is a NAO
friction material
material with braking
for high lower braking performances,
performances but best
and strongly performances
affected by groan in noise;
reducingon
groan
the noise
other appearance;
hand, MAT-3 isMAT-1a NAO and MAT-4with
material are medium performance
lower braking low-steelbut
performances, materials, withMAT-4
best performances
alsoreducing
in having a groan
low coppernoisecontent,
appearance;with intermediate
MAT-1 and behavior
MAT-4regarding
are medium the propensity to creep
performance groan.
low-steel
Considering all the results, it can be stated that:
materials, withMAT-4 also having a low copper content, with intermediate behavior regarding the
propensity to creep groan.
• When negative friction-velocity slope exists, stick-slip always occurs in all tested samples, and
Considering all the results, it can be stated that:
both the amplitude of the stick-slip vibrations and the critical velocity range increase with the
• When
increasenegative friction-velocity
of the difference between slope
staticexists, stick-slipfriction
and dynamic alwayscoefficient.
occurs in all tested samples, and
• both the friction
A higher amplitude of the stick-slip
coefficient vibrations
leads to stick-slip, and
even thenegative
if no critical velocity range increase
friction velocity slope is with the
detected.
increase ofthe
Anyway, thestick-slip
difference between and
amplitude staticcritical
and dynamic
ranges arefriction
lower coefficient.
with respect to the samples for
• A higher
which friction
negative coefficient
slope is observed.leads to stick-slip, even if no negative friction velocity slope is
• detected. Anyway,
Both stick-slip the stick-slip
amplitude amplitude
and critical and ranges
velocity critical areranges are lower with
in agreement with respect to the
the frictional
samples for which negative slope is observed.
response of the material and with the feedback on the groan occurrence on commercial brakes.
• Both stick-slip amplitude and critical velocity ranges are in agreement with the frictional
All these of
response remarks are related
the material and withto antheaverage
feedback behavior.
on the In fact,occurrence
groan each sample oniscommercial
characterized by a
brakes.
unique surface and superficial topography, which results in a slightly different response downstream of
each All these remarks
performed areifrelated
test, even testingto ansame
the average behavior.
material. In fact,
However, theeach sample
general is characterized
trends obtained afterby thea
unique surface and superficial topography, which results in
measurement campaign are robust and thus representative of the material response.a slightly different response downstream
of each performed test, even if testing the same material. However, the general trends obtained after
the measurement
5. Effect of Boundary campaign are robust and thus representative of the material response.
Conditions
Hereafter,
5. Effect the effect
of Boundary of a variation in load and temperature is presented and discussed. In fact,
Conditions
while the contact pressure varies continuously during the braking, the temperature of a commercial
brakeHereafter,
can rangethe effect
from of a variation
ambient in load
temperature and
up to temperature
some is presented
hundred degrees and
Celsius discussed. In fact,
(◦ C).
while the contact pressure varies continuously during the braking, the temperature of a commercial
5.1. Material
brake Response
can range from VS Load temperature up to some hundred degrees Celsius (°C).
ambient
In order to evaluate potential differences when increasing the normal load, the test protocol
5.1. Material Response VS Load
has been repeated with 50 N (0.5 MPa) as normal load. A first remark concerns the friction coefficient.
In order to evaluate potential differences when increasing the normal load, the test protocol has
been repeated with 50 N (0.5 MPa) as normal load. A first remark concerns the friction coefficient. As
Lubricants 2018, 6, 107 13 of 17
Lubricants 2018,6,6,x xFOR
Lubricants2018, FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 13 of
13 of 17
17

can
As can
canbe
be
beobserved
observedfrom
observedfrom Figure
fromFigure 13,
Figure no
13,13, significant
nonosignificant differences
differences
significant arise from
arisearise
differences the
the comparison
fromfrom comparison
the comparisonbetween
between the
the
between
friction
the curves obtained at 20 and 50 N. The same result is obtained for
friction curves obtained at 20 and 50 N. The same result is obtained for all
friction curves obtained at 20 and 50 N. The same result is all
obtained the other
for all tested
the material
other tested
samples.
samples.
material samples.

0.5
0.5
Normal
NormalLoad
Load5050NN
0.4
0.4 Normal
NormalLoad
Load2020NN

0.3
0.3

0.2
0.2

0.1
0.1
Friction coefficient
Friction coefficient

00

-0.1
-0.1

-0.2
-0.2

-0.3
-0.3

-0.4
-0.4

-0.5
-0.5
-5-5 -4-4 -3-3 -2-2 -1-1 00 11 22 33 44 55
ImposedVelocity
Imposed Velocity(mm/s)
(mm/s)

Figure
Figure
Figure13.13.
13. Comparison
Comparison
Comparison ofof
of thefriction
the
the frictioncoefficient/velocity
friction coefficient/velocity curves
coefficient/velocity curves obtained
curves obtained for
obtainedfor different
fordifferent normal
normalloads
differentnormal loads
loads
(MAT-2
(MAT-2
(MAT-2 (USED),
(USED),
(USED), V=0=05
VV= →05 mm/s).
5 mm/s).
mm/s).

OnOn
On thethe
the contrary,
contrary,
contrary, whencomparing
when
when comparingthe
comparing thestick-slip
the stick-slip velocity
stick-slip velocity profiles
velocity profiles measured
profiles measured
measuredat atatthe
the two
twodifferent
thetwo different
different
normal
normal
normal loads
loads
loads (Figure
(Figure
(Figure 14),
14),
14), ananincrease
an increaseof
increase ofthe
of thestick–slip
the stick–slipamplitude
stick–slip amplitudeis
amplitude evident. In
is evident. In fact,
Infact, because
fact,because
becausethe the
thefriction
friction
friction
coefficient remains the same, an increase of normal force means a proportional increase in the value
coefficient
coefficient remains
remains the the same,
same, an an increase
increase of of normal
normal force
force means
means a a proportional
proportional increase
increase inin the
the value
valueof
of the tangential force at which slip occurs. Consequently, the energy release during the slip phase is
the of the tangential
tangential force force
at at
whichwhichslip slip occurs.
occurs. Consequently,
Consequently, thethe energy
energy release
release during
during the
the slip
slip phase
phase isis
higher,
higher,
higher, which,
which,
which, ininin turn,
turn,
turn, causes
causes
causes aaamore
moreenergetic
more energeticvibrational
energetic vibrationalresponse
vibrational response of
response of the
of the system.
the system.
system.
As can be observed from Figure 14, the response
As can be observed from Figure 14, the response amplitude for the test
As can be observed from Figure 14, the response amplitude
amplitude for
for the
the test conducted
conductedat
testconducted atat50
5050N NNis
isis
almost double
almostdouble
almost doublethat that
thatof of
ofthethe
thetesttest conducted
testconducted
conducted at at 20 N. The period
at 20 N. The period between
period between
betweentwo two successive
twosuccessive stick-slip
successivestick-slip events
stick-slipevents
events
isalmost
almost
isisalmost double,as
double,
double, asaswell.
well.Again,
well. Again,this
Again, this isis due
due to to the
the higher
the higher normal
higher normal force,
normal force, which
force,which allows
whichallows for
allowsfor foraa alarger
larger
larger
tangential deformation of the system before reaching the limit static friction
tangential deformation of the system before reaching the limit static friction (tangential) force.
tangential deformation of the system before reaching the limit static friction (tangential)
(tangential) force.
force.
7
7
Normal Load 50 N
Normal Load 50 N
Normal Load 20 N
6 Normal Load 20 N
6

5
5

4
4
Laser Velocity [mm/s]
Laser Velocity [mm/s]

3
3

2
2

1
1

0
0

-1
-1

-2
-2 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time [s]
Time [s]

Figure 14. Stick-slip comparisonatatdifferent

different normalload
load (MAT-2
(MAT-2 (USED),
(USED), V
V == 0.1 mm/s).
Figure 14.Stick-slip
Figure14. Stick-slipcomparison
comparison at different normal
normal load (MAT-2 (USED), V 0.1mm/s).
= 0.1 mm/s).
Lubricants 2018, 6, 107 14 of 17
Lubricants 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17

5.2. Material
5.2. Material Response VS Temperature
Response VS Temperature

Another relevant
Another relevantparameter
parametertotobebe considered
considered is the temperature.
is the temperature. In fact, brakebrake
In fact, material can reach
material can
high temperatures
reach high temperatures during during
braking.braking.
In order to In investigate the effect ofthe
order to investigate such parameter,
effect of suchconsidering
parameter,
that the investigated
considering brake noisebrake
that the investigated emissions
noiseoccur at low
emissions brake
occur pressure
at low brakeand low velocity
pressure and low(i.e., low
velocity
temperature),
(i.e., tests at 100
low temperature), tests°Catare100considered.
◦ C are considered.

To perform
To perform tests testsatathighhightemperature,
temperature, some
some modification
modification in the
in test
the protocol are necessary.
test protocol Each
are necessary.
test on
Each each
test on sample is conducted
each sample with an
is conducted imposed
with normalnormal
an imposed load ofload
20 Nofand 20 aNtemperature of 100 °C.
and a temperature of
To reach
100 the wished temperature, the two IR emitters are heated gradually, in order to have a
◦ C. To reach the wished temperature, the two IR emitters are heated gradually, in order to

homogeneous
have a homogeneous heatingheating
of theofpad and and
the pad discdisc
samples.
samples. WhenWhen thethetemperature
temperaturedetected
detected by the
by the
thermocouple reaches
thermocouple reaches 100 100 °C,
◦
the test
C, the test is
is carried
carried out.
out.
The first
The first considerations
considerations are are related
related to to the
the variations
variations of of the
the friction
friction coefficient.
coefficient. AA comparison
comparison
between tests
between tests carried
carried out out atat room
room temperature
temperature and and at at 100
100 °C
◦
is presented
C is presented in in Figure
Figure 15.
15.
The figure
The figureshows
showsa slightly
a slightly higher friction
higher coefficient,
friction at higher
coefficient, at velocities, on the teston
higher velocities, performed
the test
at high temperature. Conversely, not significant differences are observed at low velocity.
performed at high temperature. Conversely, not significant differences are observed at low This
velocity.
phenomenon
This phenomenon can be canexplained
be explained by accounting
by accounting for thefor surface
the surfacereactivity of the
reactivity of sample. Indeed,
the sample. the
Indeed,
increase
the increasein temperature
in temperature favors physiochemical
favors physiochemical interactions
interactionsbetween the two
between the surfaces, which
two surfaces, can thus
which can
reactreact
thus in shorter timetime
in shorter (higher velocity)
(higher velocity)andandwhich,
which, in inturn,
turn, are
areresponsible
responsiblefor foraahigher
higher macroscopic
macroscopic
friction coefficient.
friction coefficient. This results in
This results in aa decrease
decrease of of the
the negative
negative friction-velocity
friction-velocity slopeslope (always
(always detected
detected
and well
and well pronounced
pronounced in in MAT-2
MAT-2samples).
samples).

0.6
Room Temperature
100°C Temperature
0.4

0.2
Friction coefficient

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Imposed Velocity [mm/s]

Figure 15.
Figure 15. Comparison
Comparison between
between the
the friction
friction coefficient,
coefficient, as
as aa function
function of
of the
the sliding
sliding velocity, at room
velocity, at room
◦ C (MAT-2 (USED), V = 0→5 mm/s, 20 N).
temperature and 100 °C (MAT-2 (USED), V = 05 mm/s, 20 N).
temperature and 100

Then,
Then, the
the stick-slip
stick-slip material
material response
response isis investigated. Figure 16
investigated. Figure 16 shows
shows that
that the
the material
material MAT-2
MAT-2
results to be
results to be affected
affected by
by stick-slip,
stick-slip, both
bothatatroom
roomtemperature
temperatureand andatathigh
hightemperature.
temperature.However,
However, a
asignificant
significantdifference
differencein
in the
the stick-slip
stick-slip amplitude is detected. As it is depicted in the figure,
amplitude is detected. As it is depicted in the figure, the the stick-slip
stick-
amplitude decreases
slip amplitude when when
decreases the temperature increases.
the temperature This difference
increases. can be attributed
This difference to the increase
can be attributed of
to the
friction
increasecoefficient
of friction at higher velocities,
coefficient at higheri.e., to the smaller
velocities, friction-velocity
i.e., to the slope, which
smaller friction-velocity brings
slope, to a
which
reduction of the instability. This difference is as well coherent with groan occurrence
brings to a reduction of the instability. This difference is as well coherent with groan occurrence atat lower velocities
and
lowertemperatures.
velocities and temperatures.
Lubricants 2018, 6, 107 15 of 17
Lubricants 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 17

5
Room Temperature
100°C Temperature
4

3
Laser Velocity [mm/s]

-1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time [s]

Figure 16. Stick-slip comparison between a tests carried out at room temperature and at 100 ◦ C
Figure 16. Stick-slip comparison between a tests carried out at room temperature and at 100 °C (MAT-
(MAT-2 (USED), V = 0.1 mm/s, 20 N).
2 (USED), V = 0.1 mm/s, 20 N).
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
This paper presents an approach for comparing different friction pad materials, by measuring
This paperfrictional
their respective presentsresponse
an approach for comparing
and their propensitydifferent friction
to generate pad instabilities
stick-slip materials, by measuring
(groan noise
their respective
emissions), underfrictional
the sameresponse
dynamics, andandtheir propensity
boundary to generate
conditions. stick-slip
The tested instabilities
samples (groan
are machined
noisecommercial
from emissions),brake
under theand
pads same
are dynamics, and boundary
tested by sliding on a sampleconditions. The tested
of a commercial brakesamples
disc. are
machined from commercial brake pads and are tested by sliding on a sample of a commercial
A test protocol for comparing the material response has been first established. The main outcomes brake
disc. the experimental campaign can be summarized as follows:
from
A test protocol for comparing the material response has been first established. The main
•outcomes from theanalysis
The friction experimental campaign
allowed can be summarized
for recovering as follows:
and clearly identifying different frictional
responses for the different materials, with different mean friction coefficient and different
• friction-velocity
The friction analysis allowed for recovering and clearly identifying different frictional responses
trends;
for the different materials, with different mean friction coefficient and different friction-velocity
• The analysis of the stick-slip amplitude and the critical velocity range, in which stick-slip
trends;
occurs, allowed to clearly distinguish the propensity of materials to generate stick-slip instability.
• The analysis of the stick-slip amplitude and the critical velocity range, in which stick-slip occurs,
The material classification is robust and the results are coherent with returns on groan noise
allowed to clearly distinguish the propensity of materials to generate stick-slip instability. The
propensity from the automotive tests;
material classification is robust and the results are coherent with returns on groan noise
• The comparison between all samples has shown a significant relationship between the frictional
propensity from the automotive tests;
response and the stick-slip phenomenon, demonstrating how either a high friction coefficient or
• The comparison between all samples has shown a significant relationship between the frictional
the presence of negative friction velocity slope favor the onset of stick-slip.
response and the stick-slip phenomenon, demonstrating how either a high friction coefficient or
the presence
After definingofthe
negative friction and
test protocol velocity
the slope favor
indexes the onset of stick-slip.
representative of the material propensity to
stick-slip,
Afterand after the
defining comparing the set
test protocol andofthe
tested materials,
indexes an investigation
representative on thepropensity
of the material influence of
to main
stick-
contact
slip, andparameters is provided.
after comparing the setThe main materials,
of tested conclusions
anare:
investigation on the influence of main contact
•parameters
Load doesis provided.
not affectThe main conclusions
significantly are:coefficient. Instead, an increase in this parameter
the friction
• leads
Load to
doesan not affectof
increase significantly
the elastic the friction
energy coefficient.
cumulated Instead,
during an increase
the sticking in this
phases andparameter
released
leads to an increase of the elastic energy cumulated during the sticking phases and released
during the sliding phases. This results in a higher amplitude stick-slip response.
• during the sliding
Temperature entailsphases.
relevantThis results inboth
influences a higher
in theamplitude
dynamical stick-slip response.response of the
and tribological
• materials.
Temperature Theentails
frictionrelevant influences
coefficient both
increases in theat
slightly dynamical and tribological
highest velocities. response
Stick-slip of the
phenomena
materials. The friction coefficient increases slightly at highest velocities. Stick-slip phenomena
seem to be discouraged by the increase in temperature, due to the decrease of the friction-velocity
seem resulting
slope, to be discouraged by the increase
in lower stick-slip amplitude.in temperature, due to the decrease of the friction-
velocity slope, resulting in lower stick-slip amplitude.
Lubricants 2018, 6, 107 16 of 17

The next step of this work will be aimed to a quantitative comparison between the propensity of
pad materials to promote stick-slip and the groan occurrence obtained on full scale tests on a
commercial brake system. Moreover, other parameters such as humidity and wear rate should
be addressed with respect to both the frictional and dynamic response.

Author Contributions: All authors conceived and planned the experiments. All authors contributed to the
interpretation of the results and provided critical feedback and helped shape the research, analysis and manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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