Field; issues & context

Term field-
● Refers to the members of a social group which is the prime object of study for
social scientists
● MN Srinivas strongly advocated for the field view of Indian society in place of
the book-view. The book-view of Indian society was largely championed by the
indologists like BK Sarkar, GK Ghurey, RadhaKamal Mukherjee, iravati Karve.
● The indologist claimed that Indian society could be understood only through
examination of the classical text manuscripts. archaeological artefacts should
be the starting point for the study of the present from which the present
reality departs considerably.
● field work involves dealing with people, the researcher must be empathetic &
flexible in his approach & employ the services of well trained field workers
● the data so collected has no existence independent of him, his data are
constructions, not reflections of facts or relationships alone.
● in the process of knowing external facts are seriously perceived & transformed
into conceptual knowledge. Thus the sociologist as a researcher in an active
factor in the creation of knowledge & not just a mere passive recipient
● The term field came to denote a distinct social group which was to be studied
in its unique social cultural & geographical settings.

challenges & problems-

1. problem of the choice of the field to carry out his field work. as no typical
field exist in reality
2. challenge of entry into the field, this implies that unless the researcher is able
to establish a good rapport with the native he would find it hard to carry out
his research in order to seek the cooperation of the native population for his
data collection the researcher must gain their acceptability
3. Holistic study appears impractical in study of complex societies, the
researchers should keep in mind that the segment he is studying is part of a
larger & more complex whole & should look for interrelationships
4. problem in the formulation of hypothesis & might have to reformulate or
modify his hypothesis, because hypothesis cannot be formulated in the vacuum,
without the knowledge of the field
5. issues of objectivity & ethical neutrality also need to address

Quantitative & qualitative

Difference between scientific method and scientific methodology-
● Method- it is a tool or technique used to collect data/ procedure for obtaining
knowledge based on empirical observations & logical reasoning.
 ● Methodology- description, explanation, justification of methods and not the
methods themselves.
It inquiries into plan & procedure for carrying out the research.
It refers to research techniques and strategy for obtaining valid information.
It is an approach to understanding phenomenon. It is not concerned with
building knowledge but how knowledge is built.

two broad traditions within sociology-

1. QN/POSITIVIST-those who advocate the use of scientific & QN methods
(comet, Spenser, durkheim)
○ Associated with techniques of data collection such survey, questionnaire,
structured interview and secondary sources of data
features of QN research in sociology-
● social facts-
○ comte> scientific study of society should be confined to collecting
information about phenomena that can be objectively observed &
classified. Sociologists should not be concerned with the internal
meanings, motives , feelings & emotions of individuals.
○ Durkheim> argued social facts, belief systems customs & institutions of
a society should be considered as things
● statistical data-
positivist believed it was possible to classify the social world in an objective
way, it was then possible to count sets of observable social facts & so produce
statistics. for example- durkheim collected data on social fact such as the the
suicide rate & membership of different religion
● correlation-
looking for correlations between different social factors in his study of suicide
durkheim found an apparent correlation between the particular religion,
protestantism, & a high suicide rate
● causation-
search for casual connection. establishing the causal relationship between
variables if there is a strong correlation between two or more types of a social
phenomenon than a positivist sociologist might suspect that one of these
phenomena was causing the other to take place. for example- Durkheim in his
study of suicide had explained that low solidarity among the protestants was
the casual factor for high suicide rate among them.
● generalisation & replicability-
QN researcher concerned to establish that his result of a particular
investigation can be generalised to the larger population. Comte & durkheim
believed that just as natural science could arrive at the universal laws with
regard to matter, similarly laws of human behaviour can also be discovered by
the collection of objective facts about the social world & by repeated checking
of the findings in a series of context (replication).
 An inductive methodology starts by collecting the data. the data are then
analysed & out of this analysis theories are developed. the theory has been
developed it can then be tested against other sets of data to see if it is
confirmed or not if it is repeatedly confirmed (replicated) then positivist like
comte, durkheim assume that they have discovered a law of human behaviour.

2. QL-those who supported use of more humanistic & QL methods (anti positivist)
QL data- data in numerical form.
QL data- presented in words, compared to QN data usually seen as Richer more vital
as having greater depth & as more likely to present a true picture of a way of life.
major methods or techniques of data collection- participants observation unstructured
interview focus groups discussion life history or case study method.
distinct methodologies- phenomenology, symbolic interactionism, verstehen,
ethnomethodology.
Features of QL research methods-
● empathetic description of social reality
express commitment to viewing events actions norms values etc. from the
perspective of the people who are being studied.
● contextualism-
commitment to understanding events behaviour etc. in their respective context.
"holism" which entails an undertaking to examine social entities schools tribes
firms slums delinquent groups communities or whatever as a whole to be
explicated & understood in their entirety.
● emphasis on processual dimension-
views social life in processual rather than static terms.
The emphasis on process can be seen as a response to the QL researchers
concerned to reflect the reality of everyday life which they tend to argue,
takes the form of streams of interconnecting events.
the general image that QL research conveys about the social order is one of
interconnection & change
● flexibility-
QL researchers tend to favour a research strategy which is relatively open &
unstructured. allows them access to unexpectedly important topics.

Some sociologists questioned the need for such a rigid division between QN & QL
methodology & have advocated combining the two approaches.
Alan bryman- suggested plurality of method practiced known as "triangulation" can be
useful.
● QN & QL data can be used to check on the accuracy of the conclusion.
● more complete picture of the social group being studied is produced
● QL research may be used to eliminate why certain variables are statistically
correlated. for example- durkheim concluded in his study on suicide that the
 rate of suicide varies from religion to religion because of their varying degree
of solidarity. Bryman believes both research have their own advantages, each
has its own place & they can be most usefully combined.

Techniques of data collection

1.sampling
only tools which help to know the characteristics of the universe or population by
examining only a small part of it.
two types of sampling-
● probability sampling-
every unit of the population has an equal probability of being selected for the
sample. it offers a high degree of representativeness however method is
expensive time consuming & relatively complicated requires a large sample size
& the units selected are usually widely scattered. methods under this category
are simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, systematic or
(interval) sampling, cluster sampling & multistage sampling.
● non-probability sampling-
Makes no claim for representativeness, every unit does not get the chance of
being selected.

● simple random sampling/ probability sampling-

The selection is free from personal bias because the investigator does not
exercise his discretion in the choice of items. known as probability sample
because every item of the universe has an equal opportunity of being selected.
to ensure randomness adopt any of the following methods-
● lottery method- item of the universe are numbered on separate slip of
paper, folded & mixed up in a container, blindfold selection.

● table of random numbers-

Three such tables are available- 1) Tippett's table 2) fisher and yate's
table 3) Kendall & babington Smith table.
merits of random sampling lies in selection of items entirely on chance,
there is no possibility of personal bias.
Random sampling necessitates a completely catalogued universe from
which to draw the simple, but it is often difficult for the investigator to
have an up to date list of all the items of population to be sampled. This
restricts the use of random sampling methods.
 ● stratified random sampling- population is divided into various stratas or classes
& sample is drawn from each stratum at random.
stratified sampling may be either proportional or disproportional. in proportional
stratified sampling cases are drawn from each stratum in the same proportion
as they occur in the universe. disproportional stratified sampling- an equal
number of cases is taken from each stratum.
it is more representative. regarded as the most efficient system of sampling.

● systematic or interval sampling-

It involves randomly selecting the first respondent & then every "nth person,
after that "n" is the sampling interval. It is a rapid method. it ignores all
results that the possibility of over representation & under representation of
several groups is Greater

● cluster sampling-
dividing the population into clusters & drawing random sample ether from all
clusters or selected clusters.
This method is used when- a) cluster criteria are significant for the study b)
economic considerations are significant.
The initial cluster is called primary sampling units cluster within the primary
cluster. secondary sampling units & clusters within the secondary cluster are
called multistage clusters. when clusters are geographic units are called area
sampling.
advantage- much easier to apply when large populations are studied. cost-
much less than in other method
disadvantage- each cluster may not be of equal size & hence comparison so
done would not be on equal bases. the chances of sampling error are greater as
there could be homogeneity in one cluster but heterogeneity in other

● multistage sampling-
sampling procedure which is carried out in several stages, but only the last
sample of a subject is studied.
at each stage the sample size becomes smaller & smaller.
Introduce flexibility in the sampling method. less accurate.

Non probability sampling-

where there is no list of person to be studied (eg. Widows, alcoholics, migrant
workers) probability sampling is difficult, in such research non probability sampling is
most appropriate.Non probability sampling usually used for QL exploratory analysis.
sampling design under this category are-

● convenience/accidental/haphazard sampling-
 researcher studies all those persons who are most conveniently available or who
accidentally come in his contact during a certain period of time in the
research.
in this sampling representativeness is not significant.
advantage- quick & economical but it may be a very biased sample.

● purposive/judgemental sampling-
The choice of a sample item depends exclusively on the discretion of the
investigator. Thus a big possibility of the result being affected by personal
prejudice or bias of the investigator. This method cannot be recommended for
general use.

● Quota sampling-
it is a type of a judgement sampling. quotas are set up according to given
criteria but within the quotas the selection of sample items depends on
personal judgement. rarely used in the practical world.

● snowball sampling-
researchers begin the research with the few respondents who are known &
available to him subsequently those respondents give other names who meet the
criteria of a research, who intern give more new names this process is
continued until an adequate number of people are interviewed or until no more
respondents are discovered.
This method is employed when the target population is unknown or when it is
difficult to approach the respondent in any other way. reduced sample size &
cost are advantages.

● volunteer sampling-
the respondent himself volunteers to give information he holds. possibility that
the information does not truly represent the population.
merits- less time, less cost ( particularly in an underdeveloped economy where
much of the information would be difficult to collect by the census method),
more reliable results (more effective precautions can be taken, the information
is accurate & complete, possible to avail of the services of experts, follow-up
work can also be undertaken much more effectively), more detailed
information-

difficulties involved in sampling-

must be carefully planned & executed otherwise the results obtained may be
inaccurate & misleading. generally requires the services of an expert.

sampling errors-
sample me not be representative of the population from which it is drawn.
Sampling errors are of two types- bias & unbiased.

Non sampling errors-

Processing Of data tabulation errors may be committed affecting the final results.
can occur at every stage of planning & execution of census or survey. Such errors can
arise due to defective methods of data collection & tabulation, faulty definitions,
incomplete coverage of the population of a sample etc.

2.survey-
systematically questioning people about their opinions attitudes or behaviour
2 categories-
● descriptive- concerned with description rather than explanation. It aims to
provide an accurate measurement of the distribution of certain characteristics
in a given population.
For example, they aim to measure the extent of poverty in a given population
rather than to explain the causes of poverty.
● analytical- concern with explanation. not simply concerned with discovering
relationships but also with explaining them.

● multivariate/variable analysis-
used to analyse relationships between variables. method was pioneered in
sociology by durkheim in his study of suicide. official statistics revealed
significant variations in suicide rate between European society. Durkheims
research indicated that predominantly protestants societies had a higher rate
of suicide then societies in which catholisism was the majority faith.Durkheim
was able to strengthen the relationship between religion & suicide rates.

steps involved in survey research-

● issues to be explored must be clearly defined. At the same time the target
population to be interviewed is selected.
● pick an appropriate sample of the population to interview.
● interview or administrator the questionnaire to the selected people & to collect
the data.
● Tabulation, analysis & interpretation of the data

sources of error-
selected sample Misrepresents the population.
problems in observation & measurements processing the data
basic problem what people say may not always agree with how they act.
 3 Case study
When a holistic, in death investigation is needed. Frederic Le play introduced the
case study method. Herbert Spencer first used case materials in his ethnographic
studies.
case study is an intensive study of a case which may be an individual, an institution, a
system, a community, an organisation, an event or even the entire culture.
usually involves the QL methods of selecting the sources of data. Data can be
collected by primary as well as secondary sources. Two main sources of primary data
collection are interviews & observation.

Sjoberg identified essential characteristics of case study-

strives towards a holistic understanding of the cultural system of actions. because
they are intensive in nature, case studies tend to be selective focusing on one or two
issues that are fundamental to understanding. case studies are multi-perspective
analysis.

advantages of case study (according to black & champion)-

holistic & in-depth study, flexibility to using methods for collecting data, could be
used for studying any specific dimension of the topic in detail, it can be conducted In
practically any kind of a social settings, relatively inexpensive
However, it is very time consuming, and the possibility of becoming involved
emotionally is much greater. only one example of a social situation or group is being
studied. the result may not be representative of all groups or situations in the
category. The case study method is more intensive while survey research is more
extensive case study is done in terms of limited space & broader time whereas survey
is done in terms of limited time with brother space. case study is inward looking while
the survey method is outward looking.

types of case studies-

● historical case studies-
trace the development of an organisation/system, overtime the study of an
adult criminal right from his childhood through adolescence and youth is an
example
● observational case studies-
observing a drunkard, teacher or student, union leader some activity event for
a specific group of people.
● oral history case study-
usually the first person narrative that the researchers collect using extensive
interviewing of a single individual, for example, a drug addict or an alcoholic or
prostitute
● situational case study-
studies particular events example communal riots
● clinical case study-
 AIMS at understanding in depth a particular individual such as patients in the
hospital a prisoner in jail problem child in a school.
● multi case study-
It is a collection of case studies or a form of replication that is multiple
experiments. This logic is that this case will either produce contrary results or
similar results.

Criticism of case studies-

subjective bias, little evidence for scientific generalizations (how can generalisation be
made from a single case), time consuming, doubtful reliability (investigator cannot
prove his authenticity for obtaining data for having no bias in analysing them), missing
validity (investigators in the case study failed to develop a sufficient operational set
of measures)

4 Interviews
can be classified as structured or unstructured. Data from structured interviews are
generally regarded as more reliable since the order & wording of questions are the
same for all respondents.
Allan Williams jr. suggested that the greater the status difference between
interviewer & respondent the less likely the respondent will be to express his feelings.
the interviewer may "lead" the respondent whose answer will then reflect something
of the interviewers attitudes & expectations this can be seen from a study conducted
by stuart A. Rice

advantages- less costly & time consuming & can cover a much larger sample.
interviews can fill in the picture by providing data on the respondents past & his
activities in a range of contexts. The response rate of the interview method is high
particularly when compared to mailed questionnaires. most importantly the validity of
the information can be checked. Interviewers can explain difficult terms & remove
confusion & misunderstanding interviewers get the opportunity to observe the non
verbal behaviour of the respondent.

5 Questionnaires
consists of a list of preset questions to which respondents are asked to supply
answers. cheap fast & efficient method for obtaining large amounts of quantifiable
data on a relatively large number of people either be distributed by mail or by h& a
questionnaire administered in a face to face interview or over the telephone is
generally termed as "schedule".
set of structured questions in which answers are recorded by the interviewer himself
is called interview schedule or simply the schedule. schedule is used when the
respondents are located in a small area so that they can be personally contacted.

questionnaire is three types- standardized questionnaire, open ended & closed ended.
● Standardized questionnaire-
are definite, concrete & pre-ordained questions with additional questions
limited to those necessary to clarify inadequate answers or to elicit more
detailed responses. some wording & in the same order to all the respondents.
advantage that responses are easy to compare & tabulate.

● open ended questions-

allowed the respondent to compose his own answer rather than choosing
between a number of given answers. This kind of response may be difficult to
classify & quantify. the answer must be carefully interpreted before the
researcher is able to arrive at a certain conclusion.

● close ended or fixed choice question-

requires the respondent to make a choice between a number of given answers.

Guidelines to follow for framing questions-

● Questions should be clear and unambiguous
● Question should be relevant
● negative question should be avoided
● Biased terms should be avoided
● respondents must be competent to answer
● respondents must be willing to answer

Types of questions (primary secondary and tertiary)

● Primary questions- illicit information directly related to the research topic
● Secondary questions illicit information which do not relate directly to the topic
● the tertiary questions are neither prime nor of secondary importance.

Observation method
employs vision as its main means of data collection. Lindzey gardner has defined
observation as section, procreation, recording & encoding of that set of behaviour &
settings concerning organism 'in situ' (naturalistic settings)

● Participant observation-
researchers participate in the daily life of the population under study. The
success of participant observation depends upon the acceptance of the observer
by the group he wishes to study.
 ● non participant observation-
the observer remains detached & does not participate or intervene in the
activities of those being observed.

Focus Group
QL research method of data collection. David L. Morgan has defined Focus Group as
a research technique that collects data through group interaction on a topic
determined by the researcher.
collect data from naturally occurring group discussion where no one acts as an
interviewer.

Frey & Fontana argue that group interviews can be distinguished from focus groups on
the basis of three features-
● group interviews are conducted in informal settings
● group interviews use non directive interviewing &
● group interviews use unstructured question formats.

applied use of focus group has had major use in study of HIV AIDS, research has
not only facilitated a better understanding of the problems being faced by address
group but it also serves to give a voice to such a marginalized group

uses of Focus Group in combination with other methods-

● focus groups & individual interviews-
both are QL techniques focus groups & group interviews provide greater
breadth to the research individual interviews on the other hand provide greater
depth

● focus groups & survey-

Morgan has described four ways of combining QN & QL methods using survey &
focus groups. which method received the primary attention & whether
secondary methods served as a preliminary or follow-up study.
● first combination-
survey as primary method & Focus Group for preliminary study. the data
that is collected from the preliminary focus group study May be used to
design the questionnaire for the survey study
● second combination-
focus groups as the primary method & survey for preliminary study.
make use of the data obtained from survey in selecting sample for focus
groups to carry out a detailed analysis
● third combinations-
survey as the primary method & Focus Group as a follow up. used for
interpreting the survey results & in determining the degree to which the
 results of both methods are in conformity or at variance with each
other It may be cross checked by a follow-up Focus Group study.
● Forth combination-
Focus Group as the primary method & survey as follow up. opposite of
the third combination.

Servay VS. Focus Group-

survey offers more breath both in terms of coverage of area as well as coverage of
issues Focus Group offers more depth in-depth & detailed investigation.

strength & weaknesses of Focus Group-

real strength- providing insights into the sources of complex behaviour & motivations.
ability to observe the extent & nature of interviewees agreement & disagreement.
only for a limited range of topics can be researched effectively in groups.

Variables (concepts) and hypothesis

According to Theodorson and theodorson, a hypothesis is a tentative statement

asserting a relationship between certain facts.
Hypothesis carries clear implications for testing the stated relationship, that is, it
contains variables that are measurable and also specifies how they are related.
a statement that lacks variables or that does not explain how the variables are
related to each other is no hypothesis in scientific sense variable are measurable
phenomena which values whose values can change.
when a social scientist is carrying out research to test his hypothesis he is actually
exploring the relationship between the two concepts

Examples of hypothesis-
● Suicide rates vary inversely with social integration
● Urbanization leads to proliferation of nuclear families
● Literacy rate is directly related to average marital age
● children from broken homes more likely tend to be delinquents.

Hypothesis provides direction to research. It is the necessary link between theory

and the investigation which leads to the discovery of additions to knowledge.

A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values. it is something that

varies. It is a characteristic that is common to a number of individuals groups events
objects. individual cases differ in the extent to which they possess the
characteristics. Thus age (young middle age old) income class (lower middle upper)
caste (low intermediate higher) education (illiterate less educated highly educated)
characteristics of good hypothesis-
● Hypothesis must be conceptually clear. that means variables or the concepts
used in hypothesis should be clearly defined and operationalised.
operationalization of concepts refers to the process of defining concepts in
terms of those attributes which could be empirically observed during research
in other words operationalization refers to the process of converting concepts
in their empirical measurements.
● the variables are the concepts used in hypothesis should be commonly accepted
and communicable
● it should be related to the variable techniques of data collection and
interpretation.
● Good hypothesis must be related to a body of theory

concepts are the logical abstractions or mental constructs created from sense
impressions, precepts or experiences.
Conceptz are the tools with which we think criticize argue explain and analyse. we
build up our knowledge of the social word not simply by looking at it but through
developing and refining concepts which will help us make sense of it.

Comparative method

study of different types of groups and societies in order to determine analytically the
factors that lead to similarities and differences in specified patterns of behaviour.
Auguste comte, Herbert Spencer and Emily Durkheim laid great emphasis on the use
of comparative method.
Durkheim wrote that comparative sociology is not a special branch of sociology, it is
sociology itself. FIFA world comparative-historical approach because sociologists could
not carry out experiments and had to rely on the method of indirect experiment that
is the comparison of similar cases in a systematic way. in his study of suicide found
that Germany, a protestant dominated country reported high suicide rate whereas
Spain a Catholic dominated country reported low suicide rate.

Historical method-
to analyse the process of social change that occurred in the past. It involves the
study of origins development and transformation of social institutions over a period of
time.

historical method has taken to principal forms first-

● biological theory of evolution-
 It concerns the origin development and transformation of the social institutions
societies and civilizations. As in the work of comte, Spencer, hobhouse etc.
also employed by Karl Marx in conjunction with dialectical materialism in
understanding human societies. Karl Marx talked of dialectical materialism to
explain change as a historical phenomenon. He classified the evolution of human
society in terms of stage wise primitive communism, ancient society, feudal
society, capitalist society and communism.

Another form of historical method is characteristic of the work of Max Weber. His
studies of the origins of capitalism, the development of modern bureaucracy, and the
economic influence of the world of religion.

Content/textual analysis

It is methodology in social sciences for studying the content of communication. Earl

Babbie defines it as "the study of recorded human communications such as books,
websites, painting and laws.
In simple words, it is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain
words or concepts within texts or sets of texts, researchers quantify and analyse the
presence, meanings, and relationships of such words and concepts, then make
inferences about the messages within the text, the writer, the audience, and even
culture and time of which these are part.

Content analysis is a research method used to analyse social Life by interpreting

words and images from documents, film art music and other cultural products and
media.
It has been used extensively to examine the place of women in society in advertising.
For example, women tend to be portrayed as subordinate afternoon through their
lower physical positioning in relation to the males or assertive nature of their poses
for gesture.
Content analysis is frequently used to measure cultural change and to study different
aspects of culture.

Nomothetic and idiographic methods-

Ideographic method focuses on individual cases for events. nomothetic method refers
to the approach of investigating large groups of people in order to find general laws
of behaviour that apply to everyone.