Introduction

Greenhouse gases and life

ABCT1D09

1
http://epd.punjab.gov.pk/
 About the course
(a) Essentials of green house gases (carbon dioxide and others)
- sources and industrial revolution
- air pollution issues
- chemical/biological reactions and environmental interaction
- market of carbon/green house gases

(b) Role of government, industry and society

- technology to handle green house gases
- law and regulation
- education
- global warming and Kyoto Protocol

(c) Impact to ecology

- introduction
- unpredictable climate changes
- What controls the carbon balance of ecosystems?
- How do ecosystems influence climate? 2
- Other consequences
 Air pollution and GHGs
• What is air pollution and GHGs ?
• Global issues

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 Definition of Air Pollutants
• Air pollutants are substances which, when
present in the atmosphere,
– adversely affect the health of humans, animals,
plants, or microbial life;
– damage materials, e.g., acid rain attacks metal
surfaces
– interfere with the enjoyment of life and the use of
property.

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Air pollution in HK

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http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/eindex.html
 Sources
• Natural sources
– Emissions from volcanic eruptions, smoke particles from forest
fire, pollen grains, fungus spores, etc.
– Gaseous pollutants from natural sources include carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide and hydrocarbons, etc.

• Anthropogenic (Human-made):
Near cities and in populated areas, more than 90% of the
volume of air pollutants is contributed by human activity.
– Stationary sources: combustion processes, industrial processes,
construction and demolition, domestic and agricultural sources
- Contribute approximately 40% of total air pollution
– Mobile sources: motor vehicles, aircraft, railroads, ships, handling
and/or evaporation of gasoline
- Contribute approximately 60% of total air pollution

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 Health Effect of air pollutant, SO2

Health effect on man

死亡率

Henry and Henke, Environmental science and engineering, Prentice Hall, P.478
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 Outdoor Air Pollution

• Primary Pollutants – Are directly emitted to the

atmosphere from human sources and nature and
remain there in the same form in which they were
emitted, e.g., dust, smoke particles, NOx, SO2 etc.
• Secondary Pollutants - Formed when primary
pollutants react or combine with one another, or
basic elements, e.g., ozone which is formed by
photochemical reactions.

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 Sources

http://www.environmentcalifornia.org/uploads/uO/UI/uOUI0rHD0VnSS8_jk8LM1A/cars.gif
http://www.stedmundsbury.gov.uk/sebc/live/images/smokestack_1.jpg 9
http://eng.beltrade.by/i/photo/agricultural_vehicles_and_equipment/gomselmash2-big.jpg
 Air pollution in HK

13 General stations
3 Roadside stations

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14-Jan-2019 http://www.aqhi.gov.hk/en.html
 Why EPD replace API ?
• API was in use from 1995 to 2013
• The previous Air Pollution Index (API) categorised air quality into
different levels according to the values of the Air Quality Objectives
(AQOs).
• The Environmental Protection Department (EPD) engaged a joint team
of public health and air science experts from the Chinese University of
Hong Kong and the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
to conduct a review of the API system.
• The study recommended replacing the API with a health risk-based
AQHI system, which can provide better communication on health risk
and thus improve the protection of public health.

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 What is the Air Quality Health Index?
• To provide more timely and useful air pollution information to the
public, the Environmental Protection Department (EPD) launches the
Air Quality Health Index (AQHI) to replace the Air Pollution Index
(API) from 30 December 2013.
• The AQHI informs you of the short-term health risk of air pollution
and helps you take precautionary measures to protect your health.
• The AQHIs are reported on a scale of 1 to 10 and 10+ and are grouped
into five health risk categories as shown below.

• The AQHIs are reported hourly at each ambient (“General AQHI”) and
roadside (“Roadside AQHI”) station. We also provide AQHI forecast
which serves to alert you before the onset of serious air pollution
episodes. Relevant health advice is also provided, especially for
susceptible groups such as children, elderly and those with heart or
respiratory illnesses.
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http://www.aqhi.gov.hk/en/what-is-aqhi/about-aqhi.html
 How is the AQHI calculated and reported?
• AQHIs are calculated based on the cumulative health risk attributable
to the 3-hour moving average concentrations of four air pollutants
namely, ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and
particulate matter (PM2.5 / PM10). The risk factors of each pollutant
were obtained from local health studies.
• “The health effects of air pollution depend on the concentrations of the
air pollutants and the duration of exposure. Exposure to moderately
high pollution levels for a short period of time normally will not lead
to significant health problem.”
• The general AQHI is more relevant to most of us as it represents the
air pollution that we are exposed to for most of the time.
• The roadside AQHI is relevant to those who spend several hours
continuously in a day in busy streets.
• At present, EPD operates 13 general air quality monitoring stations
and 3 roadside air quality monitoring stations respectively. Data
from these stations will be used for reporting general AQHI and
roadside AQHI respectively. (Next page) 13
Air Monitoring Stations

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 15
http://www.aqhi.gov.hk/en/what-is-aqhi/about-aqhi2985.html?showall=&start=3
 Information
• To communicate the health risks caused by long-
term exposure to air pollutants
– the Annual Air Quality Index (AQI) for those
air pollutants with annual World Health
Organization (WHO) Air Quality Guidelines
(AQG), i.e., NO2 and PM10 or PM2.5.
– The annual AQI is updated monthly and is
accessible on the EPD website for AQHI.

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 AQHI information?
• Information on the AQHI and its forecast is regularly reported in
newspaper, radio and television. You can also obtain the latest
information from the following channels:EPD’s AQHI website at
http://www.aqhi.gov.hk
• AQHI Apps on smartphone (can be downloaded on EPD’s AQHI
website)
• AQHI Alert Wizard for desktop computer (can be downloaded on
EPD’s AQHI website)
• AQHI Hotline at 2827 8541

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 Sources of air pollutants
• Sulfur dioxide
• Nitrogen oxides
• Carbon monoxide
• Ozone and photochemical oxidants
• Respirable and fine suspended particles
(PM10 and PM2.5)

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 Sulphur dioxides (SO2)
• Sulphur dioxide is a colourless
• Reactive gas that is odourless at low concentrations
but has a pungent smell at very high concentrations
• Emitted primarily during the combustion of fossil
fuels and the processing of sulphur-containing ores.
• The major sources of sulphur dioxide are fossil fuel-
burning power plants, (generating electricity) and
industrial boilers.
• Another source of sulphur dioxide is vehicular exhaust
emissions.
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 Nitrogen oxides
• The many chemical species of the oxides of nitrogen are collectively
termed as nitrogen oxides (NOx). This group of gases usually enters
the air as a result of combustion processes which involve high
temperatures, such as those produced by power plants and vehicular
engines.
• Nitric oxide (NO)
• Nitric oxide is the main NOx emitted during combustion and it can be
converted into nitrogen dioxide.
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
• Nitrogen dioxide is a corrosive and highly oxidising light brown gas
which has a characteristic pungent smell at high concentrations. It is
the reaction of nitrogen dioxide with reactive organic substances, such
as Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), in the presence of sunlight
that produces ozone (see information on 'Ozone and Photochemical
Oxidants)'. Nitrogen dioxide is, therefore, an important part of urban
haze or photochemical smog.
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 Carbon monoxide
• Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colourless,
odourless and tasteless gas which is a by-
product from the incomplete combustion of
any fuel which contains carbon. Industrial
processes contribute to CO pollution
concentrations, but the principle source of
CO in most urban areas, such as Hong
Kong, is the automobile.
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 Ozone and Photochemical Oxidants
• Ozone is not a pollutant directly emitted into the air from
particular activities characteristic of urban or industrial areas,
and can, therefore, be referred to as a secondary pollutant.
Ozone and other photochemical oxidants (such as peroxyacyl
nitrates and aldehydes) are formed by the action of ultra-violet
(UV) light from the sun on nitrogen oxides (a process called
photolysis). Its production and concentration is dependent on the
presence of primary pollutants as well as ultra-violet light. In the
presence of volatile organic compounds, high concentrations of
ozone are formed.
• This type of pollution first gained attention during the 1940's as
Los Angeles smog. Now this smog is described in terms of its
photochemical oxidant composition, which includes ozone and
is termed 'photochemical smog'.
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 Ozone and Solar Radiation

• Ozone is formed primarily through the action of UV light, and

• so it could be expected that high concentrations would occur
during the days with high solar radiation and when other
meteorological conditions (e.g. low wind speed, restricted
upward movement of air pollutants) are not favourable for the
dispersion of air pollutants.
• This relationship between ozone formation and solar radiation is
illustrated by the ozone levels which occurred in Kwai Chung
on 10 July 1994. This can be seen in the graph below.

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Ozone

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 Ozone
• The diurnal variation of the pollutant levels on this very special
day started off with the background levels of nitrogen oxides
and ozone.
• Automobile and industrial activities began at around 6 am and
had the initial effect of increasing the nitric oxide (NO). The
concentration decreased fairly rapidly in the morning as the high
solar radiation, which intensified and peaked around 11 am,
enabled the photochemical oxidation of the nitric oxide (NO) to
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) to occur.
• The concentration of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) reached a peak at
about 1 pm and decreased slightly in favour of ozone, which
reached a peak concentration at about 2-3 pm. As the solar
radiation intensity diminished in the evening, the photochemical
formation of elevated air pollution level ceased and the ozone
level dropped to its background concentration by about 8 pm. 25
 Respirable and Fine Suspended Particles
(PM10 and PM2.5)
• In Hong Kong, the ambient particulate matters (PM) are contributed
mainly by the regional sources. Combustion sources, in particular
diesel vehicle exhaust and emissions from power plants, are the major
local sources of PM. Besides, fine particulates can be formed by
atmospheric oxidation of SO2 and NOx. Although to a lesser extent,
crustal dust and marine aerosols are also sources of PM.
• PM with particle sizes less than 10 microns, which are known as
respirable suspended particulates or PM10. For those particles with
particle sizes of 2.5 microns or less, which are commonly referred to as
fine suspended particles or PM2.5.
• Depending on their sources and the existing meteorological conditions,
RSP can be made up of a number of different constituents.

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http://www.airinfonow.org/html/ed_particulate.html
 Particulates constituents

• The RSP consists of a number of components, including salts

(such as nitrates, sulphates), organic chemicals, metals, and soil
or dust particles. Organic chemicals and sulphates are the main
contributor to the RSP mass concentrations. A number of
constituents of RSP and their sources are given in the table
below.

Other chemicals in RSP that are tested by the EPD are barium,
copper, zinc, beryllium, mercury, chromium, arsenic and selenium

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Particulates constituents

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 Hydrocarbons

• Hydrocarbons are organic compounds comprised

exclusively of carbon and hydrogen. If the carbon
atoms are linked together to form a straight or
branched chain, the compound is an aliphatic.
Aromatic compounds are characterised by carbon
atoms being linked together in rings rather than in
straight chains, such as benzene.

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Air Quality Monitoring Network of
Hong Kong

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16 fixed monitoring stations to meet the
following objectives:

• To understand air pollution problems in order that

cost-effective policies and solutions can be
developed;
• To assess to what extent the standards and targets
are being achieved or violated;
• To assist the assessment of public's exposure to air
pollution;
• To provide public information on current and
forecast air quality.
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 Air quality monitoring equipments
Continuous Analyzers &
Automatic Calibration
Controller

http://www.aqhi.gov.hk/en/monitoring-network/air-quality-monitoring- 33
equipment.html
Air quality monitoring equipments

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 Why EPD replace API ?
• API was in use from 1995 to 2013
• The previous Air Pollution Index (API) categorised air quality into
different levels according to the values of the Air Quality Objectives
(AQOs).
• The Environmental Protection Department (EPD) engaged a joint team
of public health and air science experts from the Chinese University of
Hong Kong and the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
to conduct a review of the API system.
• The study recommended replacing the API with a health risk-based
AQHI system, which can provide better communication on health risk
and thus improve the protection of public health.

35
 What is the purpose of the AQHI?

• The AQHI is a tool for communicating the short-term health risk posed
by air pollution to the general public.
• It provides information on the possible risks to health from exposure to
different levels of air pollution in the outdoor environment.
• This information allows people to make informed decisions on their
outdoor physical activities. Individuals with heart or respiratory
illnesses, who are on regular medication, may need to consult their
doctors on adjusting the doses they take.

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 How is the AQHI reported and forecast?

• The AQHI is reported hourly at each general (ambient) and roadside

station.
• The AQHIs reported at general monitoring stations are referred to as
‘General AQHIs’, while those reported at roadside monitoring stations
are referred as ‘Roadside AQHIs’.
• The EPD calculates and releases the AQHIs every hour; it also
provides forecasts of roadside and general AQHIs for the next 12 to 24
hours in two time blocks, i.e. both a.m. and p.m. sessions.

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 What are the General AQHI and Roadside
AQHI?
• The General AQHI reflects the level of air pollution to which you are
exposed most of the time. It comes from measurements at twelve
general air quality monitoring stations in the EPD’s air monitoring
network.
• The Roadside AQHI tells you the level of air pollution specifically at
the roadside, with very heavy traffic and tall surrounding buildings.
Measurements are taken from the three roadside air quality monitoring
stations.

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 Which AQHI is more relevant to me –
General or Roadside?
• The health effects of air pollution result from exposure
to a combination of air pollutants, in different
concentrations, over a period of time.
• Exposure to moderately high pollution levels for a
short time normally will not lead to significant
problems.
• If you spend most of your time away from the
roadside, the General AQHI is more relevant.
• The Roadside AQHI is more relevant to people who
spend most of their daily activities on the roadside,
near heavy traffic and surrounded by tall buildings.
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 Which General Station is most relevant to
me?

• Areas of similar land uses, traffic conditions

and levels of urban development would tend
to have similar air pollution levels.
• You may refer to the AQHI of those
stations with similar development
characteristics closest to the area you live
in.

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 The new AQHI VS AQI

• The new AQHI aims to give short-term health

advice.
• The long-term impact of air pollution on the
general population is communicated by means of
the annual Air Quality Index (AQI).

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 AQHI information
• (i) People who are sensitive to air pollution, i.e. (a) people with
existing heart or respiratory illnesses, and (b) children and the
elderly;
• (ii) Outdoor workers, and
• (iii) The general public.
• These terms are used to express the different extent of
curtailment of strenuous outdoor activities. ‘Reduce’ refers to a
lowering of the intensity or duration of these activities, while
‘avoid’ means to refrain from such activities completely. To
‘reduce to the minimum’ is to cut down to only those activities
that are essential.

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What is annual Air Quality Index (AQI)?
• The annual Air Quality Index (AQI) aims to communicate the health
risks caused by long-term exposure to air pollutants. The index is
derived from the ratio of the annual mean concentration of an air
pollutant to that of the corresponding WHO annual AQG (Air Quality
Guidelines).
• An annual AQI of one means that the air pollutant concentration is
equal to the WHO annual AQG level. An AQI greater than one would
indicate that the health risk resulting from long-term exposure to an
individual air pollutant is higher than that caused by exposure to the
WHO reference value, whereas an value below one means a lower
risk.
• The annual AQIs are calculated for those air pollutants with annual
WHO AQGs, i.e. NO2 and PM10 or PM2.5, based on 12-month moving
average concentrations of these pollutants.
• For those air pollutants with annual WHO AQGs, i.e. NO2 and PM10 or
PM2.5, the annual AQI tells us how good (or poor) the Hong Kong air
quality has been in the past 12 months, as compared with the WHO
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AQGs (Air Quality Guidelines).
 How should I interpret the annual AQI?
• An annual AQI of an air pollutant of greater than one means residents
in that district are at a higher risk to the long-term health effects caused
by that air pollutant.
• For decisions relating to daily physical activities, you should refer to
the hourly AQHI and look for the relevant health advice.
• The annual AQI is relevant only if you would like to assess the health
risks caused by long-term exposure to air pollution.

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 Health Effects of Air Pollutants

• The nature and extent of potential health

effects that can result from exposure to air
pollutants is dependent on a number of factors
related to
– Toxic substances (chemical/physical properties,
toxicity)
– Recipient (genetics, age, sex, health status)
– Dose (concentration, duration of exposure)
– Environment (temp, light, humidity, pressure)

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 Health Effects of Sulphur Dioxide
• Exposure to elevated level of sulphur dioxide can cause
impairment of respiratory function, aggravation of existing
respiratory disease (especially bronchitis) and cardiovascular
disease.
• In sensitive individuals, the lung function changes may be
accompanied by perceptible symptoms such as wheezing,
shortness of breath, and coughing. Sulphur dioxide may also
lead to increased mortality, especially if elevated levels of
suspended particles are also present.
• Major subgroups of the population that are most sensitive to
sulphur dioxide include asthmatics and individuals with
cardiovascular disease or chronic lung disease (such as
bronchitis or emphysema) as well as children and the elderly.
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 Health Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) can irritate the lungs and lower
resistance to respiratory infection such as influenza. Individuals
with respiratory problems, such as asthma, are more susceptible
to the effects.
• In young children, nitrogen dioxide may also impair lung
development. Studies suggest that chronic exposure to nitrogen
dioxide may lead to structural changes in the lungs, however,
specific levels and exposure duration likely to cause such effects
have not yet been determined.

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 Health Effects of Carbon Monoxide
• Inhaled CO enters the blood stream and binds preferentially to
haemoglobin (the substance that carries oxygen to the cells),
thereby replacing oxygen.
• It results in reducing the amount of oxygen which is delivered to
body organs and tissues. The percentage of haemoglobin
inactivated by CO depends on the amount of air breathed in, the
concentration of CO in air and the duration of exposure.
• In a healthy person, elevated CO concentration exposure is
associated with visual impairment, reduced work capacity,
reduced mental function and poor learning ability. Persons
suffering from heart and circulatory problems, fetuses, young
infants, pregnant women and elderly people are likely to be
more susceptible to the effects of CO .

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 Carbon Monoxide: Health Effect
CO enters the blood stream and binds preferentially to
hemoglobin, thereby replacing oxygen.
O-O
Fe
O2

Fe
C-O
CO
Fe 320 times stronger than
hemoglobin-O2 binding

1. Impairment of coordination
2. Reduced mental function & poor learning ability
3. Deleterious to pregnant women and those with heart and circulatory
conditions 49
 Health Effects of Photochemical Oxidants
• Ozone toxicity occurs in a continuum in which higher concentrations,
longer exposure durations and greater activity levels during exposure
cause greater effects.
• Ozone has the greatest impact on the respiratory system, where it
irritates the mucous membranes of the nose, throat and airways.
Symptoms associated with exposure include cough, chest pain, and
throat and eye irritation.
• Ozone can also increase susceptibility to respiratory infection. Acute
adverse effects may impair normal functioning of the lungs and induce
respiratory inflammation. Healthy individuals who exercise heavily for
brief periods (1 to 2 hours) may experience respiratory symptoms .
They may also experience these symptoms at a lower concentration for
longer exposure (6 to 8 hours) during moderate exercise. Individuals
with sensitive respiratory systems (such as with asthma or respiratory
disease) are more susceptible to the effects of ozone.

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 Ozone
• “Good” ozone vs “bad” ozone

• 90% of total
column O3 is
found in the
stratosphere

51
From World Ozone Data Centre (www.woudc.org)
 Ozone layer and UV-B
• UV-A: 315-400 nm
• UV-B: 280-315 nm
• Human exposure to UV-B
– skin cancer 

52
 Good Ozone and Bad Ozone cont.
• Stratospheric ozone protect lives on Earth from harmful effects of UV
radiation.
• Tropospheric ozone: damaging effects on health
– Ozone is a strong oxidant, reacts with molecules containing C=C double
bonds, forming epoxides.
– Low level: Eye, nose and throat irritation; coughing, wheezing,
bronchial constriction, and irritation to the respiratory mucous system
– Elevated level: increase a person’s susceptibility to respiratory
infections and aggravate pre-existing respiratory illness
– Reduced athletic performance
– Possible chromosome damage
• Tropospheric ozone: other effects Sources:
– Reduced visibility Photochemical oxidation
– Cracking and aging of rubber Power plants
– Deterioration of materials Car engine
Photocopiers
– Harmful to plants
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 Health Effects of Respirable and Fine
Suspended Particles (PM10 and PM2.5)
• PM with particle sizes less than 10 microns, which are known as
respirable suspended particulates or PM10, can get deep into the lungs
and cause a broad range of health effects, in particular, respiratory and
cardiovascular illnesses, including
• Increasing respiratory symptoms, such as irritation of the air-ways,
coughing, or difficulty in breathing;
• Decreasing lung function;
• Aggravation of asthma;
• Development of chronic bronchitis;
• Adverse effects on the cardiovascular system;
• Premature death in people with heart or lung disease.
• People with heart or lung disease, children and the elderly are most
likely to be affected by particulate pollution. 55
 Health Effects of Respirable and Fine
Suspended Particles (PM10 and PM2.5)
• Recent medical researches show that the risk for various health
impacts increases with exposure and there is little evidence to suggest
a threshold below which no adverse health effects would be
anticipated.
• It has also been shown that the health risks would be higher for those
particles with particle sizes of 2.5 microns or less, which are
commonly referred to as fine suspended particles or PM2.5.

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Microscopic view of PM

57
 Health Effects of Lead
• Lead is a toxic heavy metal which can be found in total or
respirable suspended particulates.
• Lead particles from vehicular exhausts which are of a size
smaller than 10 micrometres can affect both adults and children,
but small children (and foetuses) are at greatest risk because of
their smaller size, breathing patterns and the metabolism of lead
in their bodies.
• The effects of lead exposure include damage to the nervous
system, red blood cells, kidneys and potential increases in high
blood pressure. Other health effects may result in decreased co-
ordination and mental abilities. The effects of lead exposure can
be treated and reversed, providing treatment is timely and lasts
the entire course of therapy.
• If no treatment is given, permanent brain damage can result
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Technology to solve problems

Refer to later sessions

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 Pre-class reading
• What have you learnt ?

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