Introduction to the Environmental Science

Env107
Chapter - 2
Fundamental Concept of Ecology and Biodiversity
 Fundamental Concepts of Ecology
and Biodiversity

Lecture outline

• Ecology

• Ecosystem
• Biodiversity
Ecology: First used by German
Zoological Ernst Haeckel, in 1866.
The word Ecology is derived from
the Greek word Oikos, meaning
“House” or place to live and logos
means knowledge.
 Ecology is defined as the study of the
relation of organisms or group of organisms
to their environment or the science of the
interrelations between living organisms and
their environment.
• The interrelationships between organisms
and their environment and each other; the
study of these inter-relationships.
• Deals with the study of the relationships of
organisms to one another and their
 Ecology is defined as the study of the
relation of organisms or group of organisms
to their environment or the science of the
interrelations between living organisms and
their environment.
• The interrelationships between organisms
and their environment and each other; the
study of these inter-relationships.
• Deals with the study of the relationships of
organisms to one another and their
 General Classification of
Ecology
In general, ecology is divided into: i.
Autecology & ii. Synecology
❑ Autecology : Deals with the study of the
individual organism or and individual species.
❑ The biological relations between a single
species and its environment
❑ The ecology of a single organism, example :
Study of catla in ponds such as its adaptation,
breeding, food habit etc.
❑ Synecology : deals with the study of
groups of organisms; the ecology of
plant or animal communities or group
of organisms; eg. Study of rui, catla,
mrigal in ponds such as their
adaptation, breeding, food habit,
habitat etc.
Division of Synecology :
i. Population Ecology
Population Ecology: Study of factors
influencing the numbers and structure of
given population (e.g. salinity, temperature,
sunlight etc.).
Population : A group of individuals of the
same species living in a certain defined
area, which are reproductively isolated
from other group of the same species.
Community: Assemblage of plants and/or
animals, clearly distinguishable from other
such assemblages (e.g. pond community,
desert community etc.).
Community biomass: Total weight per
 Environmental Classification of
Ecology
On basis of environment ecology divided into
three :
1) Freshwater Ecology: Deals with the
relationships between freshwater organism and
their habitat i.e. freshwater.
2) Marine Ecology : Relationship between marine
organism and the sea organisms.
3) Terrestrial Ecology : Deals with relationships
between terrestrial organism i.e. organisms in
land, other than river, brook etc. and their
environment.
 Ecosystem
Ecosystem : A place of nature where biotic and abiotic
substances interact between them as a result of transfer
materials from abiotic to biotic substances or vice versa.
Components of ecosystem:
I. Abiotic substances: Basic organic and inorganic
compounds such as water, CO2, O2, N2,Ca, phosphorus
salts, amino acid etc.
I. Biotic components: are of three types
a. Producer: Autotrophic organism. It includes all green
plants as they synthesize organic matter from inorganic
materials.
b. Consumer:

Heterotrophic organism.

It includes all animals.

They are directly or indirectly feed on plants e.g. deer eats

grass and tiger eats deer. Here deer directly depends on
grass, but tiger indirectly depends on grass.

Types of Consumer:

Primary consumer: Herbivore e.g. deer.

Secondary consumer : A carnivore that eats herbivores e.g.

tiger.

Tertiary consumer: A carnivore that eats other carnivores

e.g. Hayena.
III. Decomposer:
Any organism that feeds on dead plant
and animal matter, breaking it down
physically and chemically and recycling
elements and organic and inorganic
compounds to the environment.
They are mainly microorganisms and
small invertebrates.(bacteria, fungi etc.).
 Let us consider the pond as an ideal example of
an ecosystem
1. Abiotic substances: Basic inorganic and
organic compounds. e.g. water, carbon
dioxide, oxygen, calcium, nitrogen and
phosphorus salts, amino and humic acids etc.
2. Producer: Mainly two types: i. Rooted or
large floating plants; ii. Minute floating
plants( usually algae ,called phytoplankton,
distributed throughout the ponds.
3. Macro consumer organisms, animals
such as insect larvae, crustacean and fish
4. Saprophytic organisms / Decomposer:
The aquatic bacteria flagellates and fungi
are distributed throughout the pond.
They are specially abundant in the mud
water interface along the bottom where
bodies of plants and animals accumulate.
Autotrophic :
Organism able to produce their food by
photosynthesis .
Sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O ------------- C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll
Organism able to utilize carbon dioxide as its
source of carbon and inorganic sources of nitrogen
(e.g. nitrates , ammonium salts) and other elements
as its sole starting materials for biosynthesis.
Heterotrophic: Organism who can not produce
 Biodiversity
Definition: The term biodiversity has been
introduced by Walter Rosen in 1986.
Biological diversity or Biodiversity is defined
as the variety and variability among the living
organisms and the ecological complexes in
which they occur. The variety and variability
of organisms in the environment is called a
biodiversity.
* It refers to the variability’s among
species of plants, animals and
microorganisms; ecosystems;
ecosystem including terrestrial,
aerial, marine and other aquatic
system and ecological complexes of
which they are part.
* In simpler terms, biodiversity is
the assemblage of different life
 What aspects of modern agriculture are
believed to contribute to a decline in
biodiversity?
• One of the more publicized means by which
agricultural production may lead to a decline in
biodiversity is the clearing and/or draining of
non-agricultural land (e.g. forests, native
prairies, wetlands) for crop or livestock
production.
• When non-agricultural land is cleared by
plowing, logging, burning, and/or draining there
• In fact, one hallmark of modern
agriculture is the production of crops is
so called monocultures.
• The term mono implies "one" and so
the term monoculture implies one crop
is produced on land that formerly
supported a large number of different
plants, insects, and/or animals.
• In this way biodiversity may be
Agricultural practices may work to reduce
biodiversity in other ways.
Using herbicides to control weeds, using
pesticide to control insects, fumigating soil
to control microorganisms, using
rodenticides to control rodents, importing
domesticated livestock into areas that used
to support a mixed wildlife population are
always in which agricultural production
practices can reduce biodiversity.
 The multiple values of Biodiversity
• Direct use
a. Subsistence food (meat, fish and fruits),
medicine, fodder, building materials etc.
b. Tradable Bush meat (Meat of wild
animals), crops, timber, genetic
resources etc.
Indirect use
a. Environmental services, CO2 and O2
emissions, carbon sequestration,
watershed protection etc.

b. Information and evolutionary new

knowledge, improved diversity and
productivity
Non use value
* Future options, probable use of
plants and animal products to solve
future problem
* Existence Aesthetic, Cultural,
Religious and Philosophical use
Threats to biodiversity
Biodiversity “Hot Spots”
A biodiversity hot spot
- Is a relatively small area with an exceptional
concentration of species.

• A biodiversity hotspot is a region with a high level

of endemic species. Most hotspots are located in
the tropics and most of them are forests.
• New species are regularly discovered (on average
between 5-10,000 new species/year; most of them
are insects).
 Biodiversity in Bangladesh
• Bangladesh has about
– 116 species of mammals and 5 species of marine
mammals,
– over 630 species of birds,
– 125 species of reptiles
– 22 species of amphibians.
– 260 freshwater species and
– 475 marine species.
– Other faunal species include: 327 mollusks and 66
corals.
Bangladesh has been the abode of 5000 angiosperm
species and several subspecies. Of them 160 species are
used as crops.
Values of Biodiversity
 Values of Biodiversity….
Direct values
• The direct values include food resources which we
obtain from plants and animals. These also include
other values like medicine, fuel, timber, fiber, etc.

• The direct values are of two types:

(i) Consumptive use value and
(ii) Productive use value.
(i) Consumptive use value: These are the direct use
values where the biodiversity products can be
harvested and consumed directly. Example: Food,
drugs, etc.
 Values of Biodiversity….
(ii) Productive use value: These are the direct use
values where the product is commercially sold in
national and international market. Many
industries are dependent upon these values.
Example- Textile, leather, silk, paper and pulp
industry etc.

Indirect values
• Biodiversity provides indirect benefits to human
beings which support the existence of biological
life and other benefits which are difficult to
quantify. These include social and cultural values,
ethical values, aesthetic values, option values and
 The five major biodiversity-
related conventions
• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
• Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species (CITES)
• Convention on the Conservation of Migratory
Species (CMS)
• Ramsar Convention (The Convention on Wetlands
of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl
Habitat)

• World Heritage Convention (WHC)

 Biodiversity change
• Biodiversity change is caused by a range
of drivers. A driver is any natural or
human-induced factor that directly or
indirectly causes a change in an
ecosystem.
• A direct driver unequivocally influences
ecosystem processes. An indirect driver
operates more diffusely, by altering one or
more direct drivers.
Biodiversity change………
Important direct drivers affecting biodiversity
are:

• habitat change, climate change, over-

exploitation, and pollution.
• Drivers interact across spatial, temporal, and
organizational scales, and any specific
ecosystem change is driven by a network of
interactions among different drivers.
 Major reasons behind biodiversity
depletion in Bangladesh
• High population density, extreme poverty and
unemployment;
• Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation;

• Illegal poaching;

• Environmental pollution and degradation;

• Invasive Alien Species;

• Absence of proper institutional arrangements,

frameworks and monitoring;
Major reasons behind biodiversity
depletion in Bangladesh........

• Global climate change and sea level rise;

• Lack of true political commitments and

willingness;

• Lack of people’s awareness.

 Nature of threats to
biodiversity
Loss of habitat: Examples of specific threats are-
• Deforestation (for agricultural expansion, creation
of settlements)
• Urbanization
• Draining/filling water bodies
• Destruction of fish breeding areas
• Hill slope cultivation and associated silting of water
bodies
• Clear felling for plantation
• Jhum cultivation
• Forest fire
• Alien and invasive species
 Nature of threats to
biodiversity(Cont…)
Over harvesting of resources: Examples of specific threats are-
• Unregulated/unscientific logging
• Indiscriminate collection of medicinal plants
• Hunting/trafficking in wildlife
• Destructive fishing gear/trap

Natural calamities: Examples of specific threats are-

• Floods
• Droughts
• Earthquakes
• Others
 Major Threats to Biodiversity
• Destruction of habitat
• Overexploitation of flora and fauna
• Indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals
• Industrial waste disposal.
• Oil spills
• Encroachment into the natural forest
• Change in land use pattern and land use conflict
• loss, fragmentation and degradation of habitat
• the spread of invasive species
• unsustainable use of natural resources
• climate change
• inappropriate fire regimes
• changes to the aquatic environment and water flows
Figure 1. The loss of biodiversity and effects on
human health.
 Biodiversity Conservation
Conservation is the protection,
preservation, management, or restoration
of wildlife and natural resources such as
forests and water. Through the
conservation of biodiversity the survival of
many species and habitats which are
threatened due to human activities can be
ensured. Other reasons for conserving
biodiversity include securing valuable
 Types of Biodiversity
Conservation
Conservation can broadly be divided into two types:
• In-situ: Conservation of habitats, species and
ecosystems where they naturally occur. This is in-situ
conservation and the natural processes and
interaction are conserved as well as the elements of
biodiversity.
• Ex-situ: The conservation of elements of biodiversity
out of the context of their natural habitats is
referred to as ex-situ conservation. Zoos, botanical
gardens and seed banks are all example of ex-situ
conservation.
In-situ conservation is not always possible as habitats
may have been degraded and there may be
 Extinction
• In biology and ecology, extinction is the end of
an organism or of a group of organisms (taxon),
normally a species. The moment of extinction
is generally considered to be the death of the
last individual of the group.
• Extinction occurs when conditions change,
and a species must either evolve, or move to a
more favorable area. If not, they will become
extinct.

• Extinction: 2 types
• Background & Mass Extinction
 Extinction….
• Background Extinction occurs when localized
environmental conditions change, and a
certain number of species die at a low rate;

• Mass Extinction occurs when species die at

huge rates (between 25-75% of all species) due
to a catastrophic event. These are often
followed by Adaptive Radiations, where
numerous new species emerge. But the
problem is Adaptive Radiation takes 5 million
years or more.
 Extinction…
• Mass extinctions are relatively rare events;
however, isolated extinctions are quite
common.
• Only recently have extinctions been recorded
and scientists have become alarmed at the
high rates of recent extinctions.
• Some scientists estimate that up to half of
presently existing species may become extinct
by 2100 if the business as usual scenario
 Factors Affecting Extinction
• Natural Extinctions
– Climate change
– Cataclysmic event (volcano, earthquake)

• Human Activities
– Habitat Loss/Fragmentation
– Introduction of exotic/invasive species
– Pollution
– Commercial harvesting
– Accidental killing
– Pet Trade
– Urbanization
– Damming/Flooding
– Agricultural conversion
Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest Threat to
Species: Remember HIPPCO
Biodiversity researchers summarize the most
important direct causes of extinction
resulting from human activities using the
acronym HIPPCO:
Habitat destruction, degradation, and
fragmentation; Invasive (non-native) species;
Population growth and increasing use of
resources; Pollution; Climate change; and
Why Should We Care about the
Rising Rate of Species Extinction?

If all species eventually become extinct, why

should we worry about the rate of extinction?
Because, we that know that speciation results
in new species eventually evolving to take the
places of those lost species through mass
extinctions.
So, why should we care if we speed up the
extinction rate over the next 50–100 years?
 According to biologists, there are four major
reasons why we should work to prevent our
activities from causing the extinction of other
species:

1. First, the world’s species are a vital part of the

earth’s life support system. They provide
natural resources and natural services that
keep us and other species alive.
For example, we depend on some insects for
pollination of food crops and on some birds for
natural pest control. Thus, by protecting
species and their habitats from extinction we
are helping to sustain our own health and well-
2. A second reason for preventing extinctions
resulting from human activities is that most
species contribute to economic services —those
services that support our economies.

For example, various plant species provide

economic value as food crops, fuel wood, paper,
and medicine.

According to a 2005 United Nations University

report, 62% of all cancer drugs were derived
from the discoveries of bio-prospectors.
Conservation biologist Michael estimates that a
male lion living to age 7 generates about $515,000
in tourist dollars in Kenya, but only about $1,000
3. A third reason for preventing extinctions
caused by human activities is that analysis of
past mass extinctions indicates it will take
5 million to 10 million years —25 to 50
times longer than the amount of time that
our species has been around—for natural
speciation to rebuild the biodiversity that is
likely to be lost during this century.

4. Fourth, many people believe that each wild

species has a right to exist, regardless its
usefulness to us. According to this view, we
have an ethical responsibility to protect
species from becoming extinct as a result of
 Food Chains and Food Webs

Food Chain: Direct feeding sequence

Food Web: Interconnected food chains,

reflects varied diets and roles in system
 Food chain: The transfer of food energy
from the source of plants through a series
of organisms with repeated eating and
being eaten is referred to as the food chain.
❖ At each transfer a large proportion, 80 to
90 percent of the energy is lost as heat.
❖ The shorter the food chain the greater the
biomass and the longer the food chain is
lower the biomass.
❖ Biomass: The total weight of
organisms.
Food chains are of three types:
i. Predator chain: Starting from a
green plant and sizes of organisms
become bigger with the steps, e.g.,
Man
Algae Puti/Mola Boal.
ii. Parasitic chain: Starting from
bigger organisms and finish at
smaller organisms, e.g., Man
Hook worm
, Cow Lice
iii. Saprophytic chain: Starting
from dead organism and finish at
microorganisms.
e.g., Dead organism
Bacteria
❖ Food chain of catla fish:
Phytoplankton/Algae Catla
❖ Food chain of boal fish:
Phytoplankton/Algae Puti Taki Boal
Man
❖ The shorter the food chain the greater the
biomass and the longer the food chain is
lower the biomass.
❖ Food chain of catla is shorter than boal. So,
catla is cultured by aquaculturists.
 Food web
Food web: Food chains are not isolated
sequences but are interconnected with one
another. The interlocking pattern is often
spoken as food web.
Goat Grass
Sheep

Primary consumer Cow Man

Bacteria

Producer Leaf Green Algae

Tiger

Fig: Description of food web.

 Trophic Level
Trophic Level: Organisms whose food
is obtained from plants by the same
number of steps are said to belong to
the same trophic level.
❖ A stage in the food chain of an
ecosystem in which organisms get
their food in the same number of steps
is called trophic level.
Thus, green plants (the producer
level) occupy the first trophic level,
plant eaters the second level (the
primary consumer level), carnivores,
which eat the herbivores, the third
level (the secondary consumer level),
and secondary carnivores the fourth
level (the tertiary consumer level).
First stage of food chain is green plants,
second stage is herbivores (cow, goat, deer
etc) and third stage is carnivores (tiger,
lion etc). A given species may occupy one
or more than one trophic level according
to the source of food. Such as, when fox
eats sugar cane at that time he is
herbivores (second stage of food chain);
when fox eats chicken at that time he
belongs to carnivores (third stage of food
 Trophic Level
A given species may occupy one or more than
one trophic level. It depends on source of food
such as fox, when fox consumes sugarcane
then he is herbivorous i.e. 2nd step of food
chain. Again when he consumes hen/cock
then he is carnivorous i.e. 3rd step of food
chain.
1st step of food chain - Green plants
2nd step of food chain - Herbivore (Cow, Goat,
Deer)
 Outline of lecture
• Symbiosis
• Interspecific interactios
• Types of interspecific interactions
• Symbiosis: Intimate association / inter-
relationship between two or more
dissimilar organisms through which both
of them are benefitted or one is harmed.
• The living together of two or more species.
Such as, parasite and host.
 Interspecific interactions is of eight (08)
types:
1. Neutralism
2. Commensalism
3. Protocooperation
4. Mutualism
5. Ammensalism
6. Parasitism
7. Predator
8. Competition
 Basic types of interspecific
interactions
Types of Effect on population growth General
interactions results of
When not When interaction
interactio
interacting
n
A B A B

1. Neutralism 0 0 0 0 Neither
popn.
affect the
other
2. - 0 + 0 Obligatory
Commensalis for A; B
m not
affected
 Basic types of interspecific
interactions
Types of Effect on population growth General
interaction results of
When not interacting When interaction
s interaction
A B A B

3. 0 0 + + Interactio
Protocooper n
ation favourable
(A and B to both,
cooperates) but not
obligatory
4. - - + + Interactio
Mutualism n
(A and B obligatory
partners) for both
 Basic types of interspecific
interactions
Types of Effect on population growth General
interaction results of
When not When interaction
s interactio
interacting
n
A B A B

5. 0 0 - 0 A
Ammensalis inhibited;
m B not
affected
6. - 0 + - Obligatory
Parasitism for A; B
(A parasite; inhibited
B host)
 Basic types of interspecific
interactions
Types of Effect on population growth General
interaction results of
When not When interaction
s interactio
interacting
n
A B A B

7. 0 0 + - Obligatory
Predation for A; B
(A predator; inhibited
B prey)
8. 0 0 - - Populatio
Competitio n most
n (A and B affected
competitors and
) growth increased; - Population growth decreased;eliminate
+ Population 0 Population
growth not affected. d from
1. Neutralism: Neither population directly affects the
other. For example, robins (birds) and squirrels living
in a forest present a good example of neutralism, as
neither serves as food for the other neither has any
direct interactions say that both may inhabit the same
tree yet both are clearly part of the forest community.
2. Commensalism: Commensalism defines the coaction in
which two or more species are mutually associated in
activities and one species at least derives benefit
from the association, while the other associates are
neither benefitted nor harmed. Lianas (vascular
plants) are rooted in the ground and maintain
3. Protocooperation: Interaction is clearly beneficial to
both species. However, it is not obligatory for either
species. For instance, the nitrogen fixing bacteria in the
roots of legume plants could not survive without the
host plant. However the host plant could probably
survive without the bacteria.
4. Mutualism: Mutualism is an obligatory interaction
that is strongly beneficial to both species. Mutualism is
evident in the presence of photosynthetic algal cells in
the hydra. The algae give off oxygen, benefiting the
animals which in turn supply CO2 and N2 to the plants.
5. Ammensalism: A situation in which one population
definitely inhibits the other while remaining unaffected
itself.
6. Parasitism: It is the relation between two individuals
wherein one individual called parasite receives benefit at
the expense of other individual called host.
Predation: One animal kills another animal or plant for
food.
8. Competition: Competition refers to the type of
interaction in which two individuals or species compete
for a limited resource. It may occur between the
individuals of the same species (called intraspecific
Assignment:
1. Necessity of conserving ecosystem.
2. Impact of Biodiversity loss in the
ecosystem
3. Mitigating measures in Biodiversity
changes in Bangladesh
4. Role of environment in maintaining
the food chain and food web in an
Thanks all for your attention