20 Engineering Hydrology area minus all outflows from the catchment area during a certain time period must be equal to storage changes inside the catchment. For average values over longer periods, the storage change term may be set to zero, The catchment is defined by the water divide and the area upstream from a certain point in the water course that contributes to flow when precipitation falls. The water divide may not always be the same for surface water and ‘groundwater. In such cases, an error may be introduced in the water balance estimation. Hydrological information may be obtained from national and regional hydrological, meteorological, geological, and environmental surveys and agencies. Also, research institutes, universities, and NGOs may be able to provide useful hydrological information and data. SOLVED EXAMPLES Example 1.1 A sub-catchment within the Blue River Basin in Table 1.4 above has a catchment area of 200 ha. What is the average runoff? Solution From Table 1.4(a), mean value of average characteristic discharge 5 dmi((s km?) 5.5/10°) m¥/(s km?) Sub-catchment area = 200 ha = 200 x 10% m? = 200 x 10°? km? Mean runoff = characteristics value of discharge x sub-cathchment area (5.5/10°) m'i(s km?) x 200 x 10°? km? = 0.011 mis Example 1.2. The average runoff from the sub-catchment contains about 0.2 mg/l phosphorous. What is the annual transport of phosphorous from the sub-catchment? Solution From Example 1.1, we have: Mean runoff = 11 x 103 mvs ‘Transport of phorphorous with mean runoff = 0.011 m*/s x 0.2 mg/l = 0.011 m'/s x (0.2/10) mg/m? =2.2 mp/see Annual transport = 365 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 2.2 = 6.94 x 107 mg = 69.4 kg Example 1.3/ ‘Two rainfall events, in close succession, fall over a catchment. After the first rainfall of 24 mm, a total runoff of 11 mm was observed. The second rainfall was measured at about 14 mm. How large a runoff can be expected after the second rainfall?Hydrology and Water Resources 2 Catchment Rainfall 1; P)=24 mm = 11 mm Rainfall 2; P, = 14 mm Q2=? D Discharge point Solution It has to be assumed that the two rainfalls were evenly distributed over the ntire catchment. Under this assumption, the runoff from 24 mm becomes 11 mm from the first rainfall. This means that 13 mm “disappeared” on the way to the outflow point, ic. this water either infiltrated and/or evaporated. A.simple way to solve this problem is to use the concept of runoff coefficient. The runoff coefficient, (c), is defined as runoff divided by precipitation for a specific precipitation event (c = Q/P), ice, for the first rainfall, c becomes 11/24 = 0.46, This means that from the first rainfall, just 46% was transformed into direct, runoff. By assuming that the runoff coefficient is constant, .c., no large changes will occur for losses such as infiltration and evaporation (the rain falls close in ‘ime and thus probably the physical conditions may be assumed to be the same for both rainfalls), we can put: c=O/P= OP, = O)=(€x P= 0.46% 14=6.4 mm Answer Runoff from the second rainfall will be about 6.4 mm. Example 1.4 Fora catchment with an area 20 km?, an average precipitation of 732 mnvyear and a total evaporation of 550 mnvyear have been observed during a 10-year period. Within the catchment, there is an old waste dump; and at the discharge point, high phosphorous (P) contents have been found, 0.25 mg/l of P. What is the annual mass transport of phosphorous in the water out from the catchment? mm/year C= 0.25 mel P22. Engineering Hydrology Solution ‘The water balance for the catchment is: P-E-Q=AS In this case, the storage term $ may be assumed to be zero because the calculations are made for average values (10 years). Consequently, the water balance for the catchment is: P=E+Q Or, Q=P~E=732~550= 182 mm/ycar thas to be assumed that the concentration measurement of phosphorous is representative for the entire 10-year period, and this corresponds 10 0.25 mg/L P. ‘The runoff is transformed from mm/year to m/s by multiplying with the total catchment arca, ‘Thus, the runoff becomes: Q= 182 mm/year x 20 km? 182 x 10° m/year) x (20 x 10%) m? = (3640 x 10°) m'/year = 3.64 x 106 m°/year Let us transform this quantity to Is Q= 3.64 x 10° m*/ (365 x 24 x 60 x 60)s .64 x 10° m'(31.54 x 105s = 0.115 m/s = 115 Vs This is consequently the average runoff every second for the 10-year period. Now, we can calculate the transport of phosphorous that discharges in the water from the catchment during one year. QX C= 115 Vs x 0.25 mg/l = 28.75 me/s The phosphorous transport per year is = 28.75 me/s x (60 x 60 x 24 x 365) s/year = 907 kg/year This is probably not an exact figure, but we may assume the order of magnitude of phosphorous transport is about 900 kg/year. Answer The phosphorous transport out from the catchment is about 900 kg/year. Example 1.5" A lake has an area of 15 km?. Observation of hydrological variables during a certain year has shown that: P= 700 mm/year Average inflow Q,,, = 1.4 m/s Average outflow Q,,,, = 1.6 m¥/sHydrology and Water Resources 23 Assume that there i no net water exchange between the lake and the groundwater. Determine the evaporation during this year Solution (Z inflows to the lake — outflows from the lake) = change in volume (P+ Qin) — (E+ Onyx) = AS In his case, observations have been made covering a fall year. Consequently, it may be assumed that the storage changes occurring over a year is following a regular sinus curve (see Fig. 1.9). The storage changes over one year can thus be assumed as zero. (AS = 0) (P+ Qin) — (E+ Qoyy) = 0 E=P+Qin~ Oven If we use mm as a common unit over the lake, then P=700mm Qin = 1.40 x 3600 x 24 x 365/15.0 x 105 = 2943.4 mm Qo = 1.60 x 3600 x 24 x 365/15.0 x 10° = 3363.8 mm E=700 + 2943.4 3363.8 = 279.6 mm Answer The evaporation from the lake during the year is about 280 mm. Example 1.6 A pipe for discharging storm-water from a parking lot (area = 2500 m*) in an urban area is to be constructed. The maximum rainfall that can ccur is assumed to have an intensity of 60 mnvhr. Determine the corresponding discharge (ms) and the dimension (diameter) ofthe pipe ifthe water velocity in the pipe is assumed to be | m/s. Solution Urban areas behave differently regarding infiltration and evaporation as compared to rural areas, In urban areas, a large proportion of the land is often made impermeable (asphalt, roofs, te). Itis usually assumed that no infiltration can occur through an asphalted parking lot. Similarly, no evaporation can occur through this surface even though water on top of the surface may be evaporated. Sinceno infiltration occurs through the surface, no losses through infiltration will occur. The runoff occurring on impermeable surfaces also occurs rather quickly, so that evaporation losses may be assumed zero. If the discharge © is assumed to run off instantly from the rainfall, the average discharge from the parking lot having an area of 2500 m? during an hour is: O= Px A= (60 x 10 *)x 2500/3600 = 0.042 m/s24 Engineering Hydrology Ifthe velocity v= 1 ns, then the cross-sectional area 4, becomes: A, = Olv = (0.042 m*/sy/(1 m/s) = 0.042 m? A, = «x (D/2)*, where D is the diameter of the pipe = D=2x (0.042/n)°5 =0.23 m Answer The diameter of the pipe has to be at least 0.23 m. Example 1.7 The evaporation from a lake is to be calculated by the water balance method. Inflow to the lake occurs through three small rivers A, B, and C. The outflow occurs through river D. Calculate the evaporation from the lake surface during summer (May—August) if the water level was at +571.04 m on May I and +571.10 mon August 31. The lake surface area is 100 km?. The Precipitation P during the period was 100 mm. Average inflows and outflow are given below. River_[ Catchment (km’) | _O, average (mA) A 150 15.0 B 120 200 [isar0.0) 130. poems 10 D = 45.0 Solution Assuming that no other inflows or outflows (eg., exchange with groundwater) are occurring than the ones stated above, we can define the water balance for the lake as: ot P)- Onn B= 8 In this example, it will be convenient to use the common unit, m/time = m/(May Aug); May August = 123 days ‘The total inflow from rivers to the lake during this period is: Qin = (15.0 + 20.0 + 17.0) x (123 x 24 x 3600)(100 x 105) = 5.526 m P=0.100m Quy = 45 x (123 x 24x 3600)/(100 x 105) = 4.782 m AS = 571.10 ~ $71.04 = 0.060 m Inserting the calculated data in the water balance equation gives: (5.526 + 0.100) — (4.782 + £) = 0.060 > E= 5.526 + 0.100 — 4.782 - 0.060 = .784 m Answer Evaporation during this period was 784 mm.Hydrology and Water Resources 25 Example 1.8 A lake has a surface area of 7.0 x 10° m2, During a given ‘month, the mean inflow to the lake was 2.5 m’/s. The increase in stored lake volume was observed to be 6.5 x 10° m°, Precipitation during the same month was 250 mm and evaporation was 420 mm. Calculate the outflow from the lake for the same month, Solution ‘Wemust assume that all the major inflows and outflows are known. Specifically, we need to assume that the exchange between groundwater and lake water is insignificant, The water balance equation is: (Qn + P)— ou + £) = AS In this equation, Q,,=2.5 m/s, P= 250mm, £ = 420 mm, AS =6.5 x 105 m, lake area A = 7.0 x 10° m?, Oyu. =? Therefore, outflow from the lake becomes; ou = Orn + (PE) Bog AS a [(0.250 — 0.420) x (7.0 10°)] Qou = 2.5 + 600% 24x30) [_65x10° 360% 24%30 Qoue = 2.5 ~ 0.046 ~ 0.251 = 2.20 m/s Answer The outflow during this month is 2.2 m/s. Example 1.9 A retention reservoir s located so that all runoff from upstream. catchment area passes through the reservoir according to the given schematic figure. The catchment area (reservoir not included) is 100 ha. The reservoir area is 1.0 ha. Infiltration through the bottom and sides of the reservoir is negligible. The discharge out from the reservoir is regulated at a constant Q= 0.045 m*/s. Mean precipitation in July is 178 mm and mean inflow to the reservoir during the same month is 95000 m°. Mean. evaporation from the lake surface in the month of July is 3.1 mm/day. (@) What is the average July runoff coefficient? (c= Q/P) (b) In July 1991, precipitation was slightly higher than normal, P=220 mm. ‘What is the total inflow expected to the reservoir for this specific month? (©) What is the expected change in water level of the reservoir during this month? Catchment26 Engineering Hydrology Solution (@) The average runoff coefficient is: = QIP = Q,/P = 95000 / (0.178 x 100 x 10%) =0.53 (b) Here, we have to assume that the average runoff coefficient is also valid for the month of July, 1991 ‘Then, inflow to the reservoir becomes: Qi, = cx P= 0.53 x 220 = 116.6 mm By multiplying this height with the area of the catchment, we convert the inflow to a volume, 0.1166 x 100 x 10* = 116600 m? (©) By using a water balance for the reservoir, AS will be calculated. (Qian * P)= (aux * Y= AS Here, Qj, = 95000 m’, P= 220 mm, Q,y = 0.045 m/s, and 3.1 mmV/day This gives: AS= (95000 + 0.220 x 10000) — [(0.045 x 3600 x 24 x 31) + (0.0031 x 31 x 10000)] AS= 97200 — (120528 - 9610) = 13718 m? The change in storage is negative indicating that the water level in the reservoir will decrease. ‘The decrease in water level is: 13718/10000 = 1.37 m Answer (a) The runoff coefficient is c = 0.53, (b) the inflow to the reservoir during July, 1991 is 116600 m?, and (c) the reservoir level will decrease by 137m. Example 1.10 ‘The average annual precipitation in a 3000 ha large catchment is 1200 mm. The corresponding value for actual evapotranspiration is 600 mm, (@) What will be the average annual runoff from the catchment? (b) A way to reduce nutrient and pollutant transport in runoff may be to create biological ponds where physical and biological processes reduce the nutrient content. The recommended turnover time for such a pond is about. ‘wo days. Estimate the needed area for such a pond if half of the runoff. from the above catchment is to be treated. (©) Typical nutrient concentration in runoff water from the above catchment is 5-10 mg N/L and 0.1-0.3 mg P,./L. Calculate the nitrogen and phosphorous transport in kg/year from this catchment,Hydrology and Water Resources 27 Solution (@) As we are using average values over several years, we may estimate the average runoff according to: P-E=Q = 1200 - 600 = 600 mm/year This gives: (0.6 x 3000 x 10*)/(365 x 24 x 3600) = 0.57 m/s as an average discharge from the catchment during one year. (b) Assume an average depth of the pond, e.g., 1 m. The needed area is: (2x 0.5 x 0.57) x (365 x 24 x 3600) = 1798 x 10* m? (© The annual transport will be between (5-10 x 0.57 x 10° x 365 x 24 x 3600) mg N and between (0.1-0.3 x 0.57 x 10° x 365 x 24 x 3600) mg P per year. This gives about 90-180 x 10? kg N and about 1800-5400 kg Py per year. Answer (a) The discharge is 0.57 m'/s, (b) the area necessary is about 1800 hha, and (c) about 90-180 x 10° kg N and about 1800-3400 kg P,, per year. Example 1.11 Derive a general relationship between the water level in a lake and the inflow/outflow from the lake depending on time. Solution To analyse the relationship, a general water balance for the lake can be used. ‘The water balance during inflow/outflow will have the following appearance. 1-0=dSidt where, and O are inflow and outflow, respectively; and dS is the temporary storage of water in the lake during the time, dt. ‘The storage (dS) depends mainly on the geometry of the lake, ie., how deep and long/wide it is. In principle, the water stored is equal to: dS = A@) de where, A(z) is the surface area of the lake, and dz is the change in depth of the lake. Due to the fact that the lake geometry is an unknown variable, we need to assume water-covered area 4(z) asa function of the water depth (2) in areference point. This gives: A(2) dz = (IO) dt = deldt=(I-0)/ AQ) = daldt = [Oin(t) — Oo QVAGO] Answer dzidt = [Ois() ~ Qoal VAC).28 Engineering Hydrology Example 1.12 Discuss how urbanization will affect the water balances and pollutant transport. Discussion Urbanization directly affects the runoff part of the water balance through decreasing infiltration, depending on the degree of impermeable surfaces of the area. Thereby, evaporation processes will be affected due to the fact that evaporation will occur only from wetted, impermeable surfaces. Thus, usually the runoff component increases greatly in terms of peak value and volume. Urban areas also create heat islands and an increasing amount of dust Particles, affecting precipitation amounts positively. Urban areas generate different types of pollutants as compared (o rural arcas. Typical pollutants from urban areas are heavy metals, suspended solids, oil, grease, otc Example 1-13 Evaporation losses from a reservoir can be estimated using the water balance method. Identify the necessary components to quantify this approach. How can the components be estimated and/or measured to calculate the actual evaporation? Discussion The general water balance equation reads E = P ~ Q ~ AS. The rainfall is observed using a rain gauge. Losses of the groundwater can be quantified by observing groundwater table. Runoff in rivers is observed by water level and current meter, to and from the lake, Storage changes are determined by observing the lake water level. Example 1.14 The water balance equation is often used to estimate average available runoff. Discuss the uncertainties and potential errors involved in such an approach. Discussion The available runoff is often determined using the water balance over a longer Period of time. Thus, runoff is determined as the difference between average Precipitation minus average evapotranspiration. This means that any error or uncertainty in the average precipitation and evapotranspiration carries over to the estimated runoff. For example, ifthe precipitation gauge is not representative for the area (may be located in a valley in a mountainous catchment), the gauge will probably underestimate the areal precipitation, EXERCISES Exercise 1.1 The evaporation is to be estimated from a lake, and therefore, a Pan evaporimeter has been placed close to the lake. The water level is observed