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Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
2
ABSTRACT
Design is the fundamental soul to all branches of engineering. It is a prime context for
understanding how civil engineers use critical thinking and mathematical thinking in
engineering problem-solving. However, information about the interrelation between these
two types of thinking in real-world engineering practice is found lacking in the literature.
This paper presents the first-hand experience of developing a substantive theory which
relates both critical thinking and mathematical thinking used by practicing engineers in the
civil engineering design process. The qualitative research using modified grounded theory
method was employed in this study. Data were generated from semi-structured interviews
with practicing engineers from two engineering consultancy firms. Six essential processes
of justifying decisions reasonably in engineering design process were identified, namely
complying requirements, forming conjectures, drawing reasonable conclusions, defending
claims with good reasons, giving alternative ways and selecting and pursuing the right
approach. Findings of this study may advise prospective civil engineers of the applicability
and indispensability of critical thinking and mathematical thinking in making and justifying
decisions during the engineering design
ARTICLE INFO process. The study also contributes useful
Article history: information to engineering education on
Received: 29 September 2017
Accepted: 02 August 2018 fulfilling the expectations of engineering
Published: 28 June 2019
program outcomes set by the Engineering
E-mail addresses:
sharifah.o@utm.my (Sharifah Osman) Accreditation Council.
shahrin@utm.my (Shahrin Mohammad)
salleh@utm.my (Mohd Salleh Abu) Keywords: Civil engineering, critical thinking,
p-mahani@utm.my (Mahani Mokhtar)
mabhadi@utm.my (Muhammad Abd Hadi Bunyamin) decision making, design process, mathematical
p-halim@utm.my (Abdul Halim Abdullah)
hanifah-j@utm.my (Hanifah Jambari) thinking, problem-solving
jamilah_a@utm.my (Jamilah Ahmad)
* Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702
e-ISSN 2231-8534 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press
Sharifah Osman, Shahrin Mohammad, Mohd Salleh Abu, Mahani Mokhtar, Muhammad Abd Hadi Bunyamin,
Abdul Halim Abdullah, Hanifah Jambari and Jamilah Ahmad
900 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 27 (2): 899 - 913 (2019)
MRCT in Engineering Design
optimally to meet desired needs. Design desired in practicing engineers. This must
is a form of problem-solving that is open- be executed in the context of an increased
ended and complex (Jonassen, 2000). emphasis on the research base underlying
Therefore, design is a process reliant and conduct of engineering practice and
the solution is subjected to unforeseen engineering education. Furthermore, as
complications and changes as it develops a profession, engineering is undergoing
(Khandani, 2005). A deep understanding of transformative evolution where the
the complex dynamics of design processes, fundamental engineering processes remain
teams, contexts, and systems is needed the same but the domains of application are
to support successful strategies in design rapidly expanding (National Academy of
education and practice (Daly et al., 2013). Engineering, 2005). Thus, there is a need
This understanding requires research to develop an enhanced understanding
methodologies that can capture the nature of models of engineering practice in this
of the design process from a diversity of evolving environment. Equally important,
aspects, i.e., cognitive, creative, social, ability to think independently is essential to
organizational, and experiential (Daly et al., succeed in today’s globally connected and
2013). For that reason, a deep insight into rapidly evolving engineering workplace
the interrelation and interaction between (National Academy of Engineering, 2012).
critical thinking and mathematical thinking Besides the existing excellent technical
in civil engineering practice, particularly education, infusing real engineering
during the engineering design process, is problems and experiences into engineering
considered crucial and required in preparing education to give engineering students
the future engineers. exposure to real engineering is timely
A review into the American Society and crucial (Felder, 2012). Moreover, to
for Civil Engineering in the body of have insights into the interrelation and
knowledge reveals that the cognitive interaction among pertinent elements of
level of achievement has been generically critical thinking and mathematical thinking
described based on the Bloom’s taxonomy in the engineering practice is thought to
and the associated descriptors for the be helpful to lubricate and accelerate the
civil engineering courses (BOK2 ASCE, process of understanding, applying and
2008). However, there are no extensive transferring mathematical knowledge into
descriptions delineating critical thinking engineering education. Therefore, this study
elements for the engineering mathematics aims to have insight into the interrelation
courses. Stated in the National Academy and interaction among pertinent elements of
of Engineering (National Academy of critical thinking and mathematical thinking,
Engineering, 2005), engineering education as perceived by civil engineers during
must be realigned, refocused and reshaped engineering design process.
to promote attainment of the characteristics
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 27 (2): 899 - 913 (2019) 901
Sharifah Osman, Shahrin Mohammad, Mohd Salleh Abu, Mahani Mokhtar, Muhammad Abd Hadi Bunyamin,
Abdul Halim Abdullah, Hanifah Jambari and Jamilah Ahmad
902 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 27 (2): 899 - 913 (2019)
MRCT in Engineering Design
better fit and workability of generated The fully developed RCM shows the
theory (Thornberg, 2012). This approach is refined Core Category, justifying decisions
applied mostly in open coding during data reasonably in dominating orientation,
analysis process and throughout the constant with the six related processes: complying
comparative method. To conclude, this study requirements, forming conjectures, drawing
adopts the abductive approach as an analytic reasonable conclusions, defending claims
induction for generating new ideas from a with good reason, giving alternative ways
combination of the fundamental inductive and selecting and pursuing the right
and deductive approaches. approach. Through the CRG and RCM,
The process of selecting pertinent the interrelation and interaction among
elements of critical thinking and pertinent elements of critical thinking and
mathematical thinking was carried out at mathematical thinking in developing the
the initial stage of the analysis. Pertinent emerging theory are established.
elements were identified from the emergent
codes during open coding (Osman et al., RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
2016), from the lens of Facione (Facione, The emerging theory of Math-related Critical
1990, 2007, 2013; Facione et al., 2000) Thinking comprises pertinent elements of
for the core skills and dispositions of critical thinking and mathematical thinking
critical thinking and Schoenfeld (1985, used by civil engineers in real-world
1992) for the five aspects of cognition of engineering design practice. In particular,
mathematical thinking. Subsequently, the this emerging theory is a process theory
interrelation among the pertinent elements explaining the interrelation and interaction
was empirically established through axial among pertinent elements of critical
coding, using the CRG (Osman et al., thinking and mathematical thinking in real-
2015b). Ultimately, all the pertinent elements world civil engineering design practice.
were integrated and systematically related Apparently, in order to solve engineering
to the core category during the selective problems, engineers need to make decisions
coding process. The interaction among the and justify the decisions reasonably.
pertinent elements in relation to the core From the CRG and RCM, the explanation
category was depicted through the RCM below explicitly describes the story
used in the selective coding process (Osman line of the process theory, referring to
et al., 2015a). However, the emergent the six essential processes: complying
categories were reviewed and verified by the requirements, forming conjectures, drawing
experts in those particular fields to ensure reasonable conclusions, defending claims
trustworthiness. Microsoft Word 2010 and with good reasons, giving alternative
Microsoft Excel 2010 were used to assist ways and selecting and pursuing the right
the organization and management of data. approach. This explanation answers the
aim of this study that to have insight into
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Sharifah Osman, Shahrin Mohammad, Mohd Salleh Abu, Mahani Mokhtar, Muhammad Abd Hadi Bunyamin,
Abdul Halim Abdullah, Hanifah Jambari and Jamilah Ahmad
the interrelation and interaction among an engineer can diversify the design
pertinent elements of critical thinking and with minimal cost but safety is
mathematical thinking, as perceived by civil always prioritized. To me, this is
engineers during the engineering design the role of an engineer....again, the
process. The explanation provides verbatim safety factor is our priority.”
quotations from informants as support, and (Engineer 7)
all quotations and codes are italicized. Equally important, to pursue the right
approach in adhering the requirements
Complying Requirements involves some considerations like to do
Along the process, at all stages of design, to self-correction, having mathematical
be complying with the standard requirements consciousness or consciousness in assessing
is crucial and need to be taken into account. materials.
Ensuring all steps and measurements “After calculating the water
conforming to the specification like demand, we do design, and after
following the basic design process and that, if realized that we have over
adhering to code of practice is one’s self- designed it, we can reduce the
consciousness in putting in place his or her size from the result obtained using
self-regulation. software.” (Engineer 2)
Likewise, confirming a status prior
to making any decision is a part of self- “Sometimes we do not aware of
reflection in addressing compliance. It needs the new knowledge or materials
to be done with careful and prudent. at the factory or market, but the
“There was a case, where, after the fact is they, and many other things
building was built, they found some out there, can help us and can be
cracks. We rechecking our design, discussed.” (Engineer 5)
running into software, and it was In doing so, gathering relevant
confirmed our mistake. We had this information is deemed necessary to have
misconception at the beginning, so, clear pictures and correct perspectives
when it was wrong, obviously could regarding the requirements. All the
see all the cracks.” (Engineer 7) information is used for the purpose of
In the same way, several aspects are revising and amending the design according
in the main focus of compliance such as to the specified requirements.
authorities’ requirements, clients’ needs “If we got comments from the
and code of practice, especially the safety authorities, such as, have to widen
factors. the drain or insufficient pond, then,
“Safety factor cannot be ignored, we gather all the comments and
and the cost as well, so, by having forward to the planner.” (Engineer 8)
904 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 27 (2): 899 - 913 (2019)
MRCT in Engineering Design
Obviously, doing design tasks requires be happening. The assumptions are based on
good time management. All comments, the preliminary information gathered during
views, and changes have to be handled this initial design stage.
in time. Therefore, the usage of design “ P re l i m i n a r y s t a g e i s f o r
software is indispensable in keeping pace preliminary info, and from this
with the needs and urgency, either from the stage we could make assumptions
authorities or clients. on what is going on.”
“We must have design software, (Engineer 5)
nowadays people do not design
Certainly, this process is not intuitive
manually unless if want to be left
but an adeptness that needs to be gained
behind. If clients ask us to do it
and acquired. It is not only needed during
today, they expect to get the result
the preliminary stage but at all stages of
by tomorrow, so, for sure cannot
design, especially when justifications are
finish if do it manually.”
to be seeking out. Adeptness at forming
(Engineer 1) conjectures/assumptions is one of the
Undeniable, using software facilitates mathematical proficiencies applied in
design works. Nevertheless, compliance solving a problem. It is apparent that having
with the requirement has never been mathematical views and sense-making,
neglected. Whatever the output produced gives sound justification.
by the software, it is always being monitored “All stages involve mathematics,
and counter-checked, especially for its not so much at the input data,
compliance with the code of practice. but, other than that, all involves
Hence, complying the requirements, as mathematics.” (Engineer 4)
one of the processes in justifying a decision,
In the same way, using analytical
is a fundamental process that not only to
reasoning skills could support the process
be considered at the beginning but also
of making conjectures with more reasonable
during and after the design process. In other
justification for a decision to be made. More
words, it occurs along the way of the design
importantly, this analytical reasoning gives
process, mainly when a decision is to be
a good prediction for simulating real life
made, to be justified and to be dominating
experience in forming conjectures.
the orientation.
“…and for this, the experience is
Forming Conjectures/Assumptions helpful because we have to think
Beginning at the preliminary stage of of how will they execute it later,
design, the process of forming conjectures/ especially the contractor, if we do
assumptions has already been introduced for like this, how well can they do it?”
speculating what is going on and what will (Engineer 3)
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Sharifah Osman, Shahrin Mohammad, Mohd Salleh Abu, Mahani Mokhtar, Muhammad Abd Hadi Bunyamin,
Abdul Halim Abdullah, Hanifah Jambari and Jamilah Ahmad
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Sharifah Osman, Shahrin Mohammad, Mohd Salleh Abu, Mahani Mokhtar, Muhammad Abd Hadi Bunyamin,
Abdul Halim Abdullah, Hanifah Jambari and Jamilah Ahmad
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Sharifah Osman, Shahrin Mohammad, Mohd Salleh Abu, Mahani Mokhtar, Muhammad Abd Hadi Bunyamin,
Abdul Halim Abdullah, Hanifah Jambari and Jamilah Ahmad
used and directly applied. Also, some problems with unattended. Therefore, they
manipulation sometimes needs to be done equip themselves with relevant knowledge
on the formula to suits the requirement in and experience to sound more practical and
getting the desired info. reasonable in justifying a decision. Thus, it
“Actually, indirectly, we use what is selecting and pursuing the right approach
we learnt, like calculus, and even leads the decision to be dominating the
though it is not directly applied, it orientation with the application and
is embedded in the formulae that adaptation of the relevant knowledge and
we use for doing calculation.” experience.
(Engineer 8) “ I n e n g i n e e r i n g , w e c re a t e
It can be seen that the design process problems, and solve problems.
is not rigid but more flexible. The ability to We are the one who created the
adapt experience or trying new or different problem yet we solved it. Sometimes
approach to meet the design requirement they do not know how to find the
is deemed essential to the process. Even problem even the knowledge is
though each design project is unique, there. For example, like designing
something invaluable from the experience a bridge, when we know the ground
is worth to be adapted to the next project. is not solid, so, what to do? We
It includes techniques acquired in dealing do SI test, from it, we know its
with authority, like presenting theory and foundation should be at this depth.
technical report, as well as building a So, we design it. Then, we found
relationship. Another thing is approaching that the length is not sufficient,
techniques or having contact with expertise so, we extend some more, still not
in the design field like expert in material enough. Finally, the solution is, to
defect. Equally important is having a good add piling, then, have to calculate
rapport with others like authorities, team back. So, to get that experience
members, experts, and so on. needs someone to work longer….”
(Engineer 1)
“The longer he involves in a field,
the more experience he gains,
CONCLUSIONS
which can be adapted to the next
projects.” (Engineer 7) This paper presents an explicit description
of the process theory emerged from this
Considering the above, it can be study regarding the decision making
said that experience and knowledge add process in engineering design pertaining
values to the engineers. Nature of work of to critical thinking and mathematical
engineering is to create and solve problems. thinking. The study has identified six
Professional-wise, the engineers like to essential processes of justifying decisions
solve problems promptly and never left the reasonably in engineering design process,
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