CDLT Lecture Week 13 & 14

MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020
Week 13 & 14
Lecture 1
Lecturer Ms. Hina M. Ali Curriculum Development in
Department of
Humanities Language Teaching
(HS-502)
WHAT WILL WE COVER?
Upon completion of week 13 & 14 you will be able to:
examine the following dimensions of course development
• developing a course rationale

• describing entry and exit levels
• choosing course content
• sequencing course content
• planning the course content (syllabus and instructional blocks)
• preparing the scope and sequence plan
Week 8 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Course Development
• A number of different levels of planning and development are involved in

developing a course or set of instructional materials based on the aims and
objectives that have been established for a language program.
• These processes do not necessarily occur in a linear order. Some may take place
simultaneously and many aspects of a course are subject to ongoing revision each
time the course is taught.
• The types of decision making that we will examine in this session are also involved
in developing instructional materials and many of the examples discussed apply to
both course planning and materials design.

The course rationale
• A starting point in course development is a description of the course ra-

tionale.
• This is a brief written description of the reasons for the course and the
nature of it.
• The course rationale seeks to answer the following questions:
• Who is this course for?
• What is the course about?
• What kind of teaching and learning will take place in the course?

The course rationale
• The course rationale answers these questions by describing the beliefs, val-
ues and goals that underlie the course.
• It would normally be a two- or three-paragraph statement that has been
developed by those involved in planning and teaching a course and that
serves to provide the justification for the type of teaching and learning that
will take place in the course.
• It provides a statement of the course philosophy for anyone who may need
such information, including students, teachers, and potential clients.
• Developing a rationale also helps provide focus and direction to some of the
considerations involved in course planning.

The Purpose of Rationale
The rationale thus serves the purposes of:

• guiding the planning of the various components of the course
• emphasizing the kinds of teaching and learning the course should exemplify
• providing a check on the consistency of the various course components in
terms of the course values and goals

An example of a course rationale
This course is designed for working adults who wish to improve their
communication skills in English in order to improve their employment
prospects. It teaches the basic communication skills needed to communicate
in a variety of different work settings. The course seeks to enable participants
to recognize their strengths and needs in language learning and to give them
the confidence to use English more effectively to achieve their own goals. It
also seeks to develop the participants' skills in independent learning outside of
the classroom.

Course rationale
In order to develop a course rationale, the course planners need to give care-
ful consideration to
• the goals of the course,
• the kind of teaching and learning they want the course to exemplify,
• the roles of teachers and learners in the course, and
• the beliefs and principles the course will reflect

Describing the entry and exit level
• In order to plan a language course, it is necessary to know the level at which

the program will start and
• the level learners may be expected to reach at the end of the course
• Language programs and commercial materials typically distinguish between
elementary, intermediate, and advanced levels, but these categories are too
broad for the kind of detailed planning that program and materials
development involves
• For these purposes, more detailed descriptions are needed of students'
proficiency levels before they enter a program and targeted proficiency
levels at the end of it.

• An approach that has been widely used in language program planning is to

identify different levels of performance or proficiency in the form of band
levels or points on a proficiency scale
• These describe what a student is able to do at different stages in a language
program
• Information may be available on students' entry level from their results on
proficiency tests needed to determine the level of students' language skills.
Information from proficiency tests will enable the target level of the program
to be assessed and may require adjustment of the program's objectives if
they appear to be aimed at too high or too low a level.

• the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages published

proficiency guidelines in the form of "[a] series of descriptions of proficiency
levels for speaking, listening, reading, writing, and culture in a foreign
language.
• These guidelines represent a graduated sequence of steps that can be used
to structure a foreign language program" (see Appendix 1) have been widely
promoted as a framework for organizing curriculum and as a basis for
assessment of foreign language ability
• Band descriptors such as those used in the IELTS examinations
• These are used as a basis for planning learner entry and exit levels in a
language program

Choosing course content
• The question of course content is probably the most basic issue in course
design.
• A course has to be developed to address a specific set of needs and to cover
a given set of objectives, what will the content of the course look like
• Decisions about course content reflect the planners assumptions about the
nature of language, language use, and language learning, what the most
essential elements or units of language are, and how these can be organized
as an efficient basis for second language learning

a writing course could potentially be planned around any of the following

types of content:
• grammar (e.g., using the present tense in descriptions)
• functions (e.g., describing likes and dislikes)
• topics (e.g., writing about world issues)
• skills (e.g., developing topic sentences)
• processes (e.g., using prewriting strategies)
• texts (e.g.-,''writing a business letter)

a speaking course could be organized around:

• functions (expressing opinions)
• interaction skills (opening and closing conversations, turn taking)
• topics (current affairs, business topics)
• The choice of a particular approach to content selection will depend on sub-

ject-matter knowledge, the learners' proficiency levels, current views on
second language learning and teaching, conventional wisdom, and conven-
ience.

Information gathered during needs analysis contributes to the planning of

course content, as do additional ideas from the following sources:
• available literature on the topic
• published materials on the topic
• review of similar courses offered elsewhere
• review of tests or exams in the area " analysis of students problems
• consultation with teachers familiar with the topic
• consultation with specialists in the area
Rough initial ideas are noted down as a basis for further planning and added to through
group brainstorming. A list of possible topics, units, skills, and other units of course
organization is then generated.

• Throughout this process the statements of aims and objectives are

continually referred to and both course content suggestions and the aims
and objectives themselves are revised and fine-tuned as the course content
is planned.

a group of teachers listed the following initial ideas about what they would include in a course on listening and speaking
skills for a group of intermediate-level learners:
• asking questions
• opening and closing conversations
• expressing opinions
• dealing with misunderstandings
• describing experiences
• social talk
• telephone skills
• situation-specific language, such as at a bank
• describing daily routines
• recognizing sound contrasts
• using communication strategies

These topics then have to be carefully reviewed and refined and the following questions
asked about them
• Are all the suggested topics necessary?
• Have any important topics been omitted?
• Is there sufficient time to cover them?
• Has sufficient priority been given to the most important areas?
• Has enough emphasis been put on the different aspects of the areas identified?
• Will the areas covered enable students to attain the learning outcomes?
• Developing initial ideas for course content often takes place simultaneously with syllabus
planning, because the content of a course will often depend on the type of syllabus
framework that will be used as the basis for the course

Determining the scope and sequence
• Decisions about course content also need to address the distribution of con-
tent throughout the course. This is known as planning the scope and se-
quence of die course.
• Scope is concerned with the breadth and depth of coverage of items in the
course, that is, with the following questions:
• What range of content will be covered?
• To what extent should each topic be studied?

• The sequencing of content in the course also needs to be determined. This

involves deciding which content is needed early in the course and which pro-
vides a basis for things that will be learned later.
• Sequencing may be based on the following criteria.
• Simple to complex
One of the commonest ways of sequencing material is by difficulty level.
Content presented earlier is thought to be simpler than later items. This is
typically seen in relation to grammar content, but any type of course content
can be graded in terms of difficulty.

• Chronology
Content may be sequenced according to the order in which events occur in
the real world. For example,
in a writing course the organization might be based on the sequence writers
are assumed to employ when composing: (1) brainstorming; (2) drafting; (3)
revising; (4) editing.
In a proficiency course, skills might be sequenced according to the sequence in
which they are normally acquired: (1) listening; (2) speaking; (3) reading; (4)
writing.

• Need
Content may be sequenced according to when learners are most likely to need
it outside of the classroom.
• Prerequisite learning
The sequence of content may reflect what is necessary at one point as a
foundation for the next step in the learning process. For example, a certain set
of grammar items may be taught as a prerequisite to paragraph writing.
• Spiral sequencing
This approach involves the recycling of items to ensure that learners have
repeated opportunities to learn them.

• Whole to part or part to whole

• In some cases, material at die beginning of a course may focus on the overall
structure or organization of a topic before considering the individual
components that make it up. Alternatively, the course might focus on prac-
ticing the parts before the whole
• For example, students might read short stories and react to them as whole
texts before going on to consider what the elements are that constitute an
effective short story.
• students might study how to write paragraphs before going on to practice
putting paragraphs together to make an essay.

Planning the course structure
• The next stage" in course development involves mapping the course struc-
ture into a form and sequence that provide a suitable basis for teaching.
• Two aspects of this process, however, require more detailed planning:
selecting a syllabus framework and developing instructional blocks.

Selecting a syllabus framework
• A syllabus describes the major elements that will be used in planning a language course
and provides the basis for its instructional focus and content
• In choosing a particular syllabus framework for a course, planners are influenced by the
following factors:
• knowledge and beliefs about the subject area: a syllabus reflects ideas and beliefs about
the nature of speaking, reading, writing, or listening
• research and theory: research on language use and learning as well as applied linguistics
theory sometimes leads to proposals in favor of particular syllabus types
• common practice: the language teaching profession has built up considerable practical
experience in developing language programs and this often serves as the basis for
different syllabus types
• trends: approaches to syllabus design come and go and reflect national or international
trends

Syllabus Designing
Types of syllabi
Syllabi can be divided into two different types:
Product-oriented and process oriented.

Syllabus Designing
Product-oriented syllabi
Product oriented syllabi focus on what learners will know as a result of

instruction and they typically list a selection of graded items to be 'learnt' by
the learners.
Grammatical
One of the most common type of syllabus and still today we can see the
contents pages of many course books set out according to grammatical items.
This type of syllabus presents structures, which are graded according
to grammatical complexity, one by one and are supposedly internalised by
learners before moving on to the next item.
Syllabus Designing
Functional / Notional
Because of criticism surrounding the structural / grammatical syllabus, syllabi
were designed around functions and notions of language. The functional-
notional syllabus focused on what the learner needed to do with the language.
It was suggested by Finocchiaro and Brumfit that this type of syllabus placed
'the students and their communicative purposes at the centre of the
curriculum'. (Nunan 1988)
Lexical
A lexical syllabus uses vocabulary as the building blocks. Usually stemming
from an analysis of high frequency vocabulary and phrases they work from
language in use and build up vocabulary areas.

Syllabus Designing
Process-oriented syllabi
More recently, applied linguists have become more concerned with the
pedagogic processes of how we achieve our outcomes. A process-oriented
syllabus focuses on the skills and processes involved in learning language
Task based
The task-based syllabus is planned around a sequence of tasks which learners
have to carry out in the classroom, with emphasis being placed on the
communication of meaning. This provides learners with the necessary skills to
cope with real-life situations. They are involved in real communication and all
which that incurs: Checking understanding, restructuring to aid
comprehension, etc. as well as allowing space for both planned and unplanned
discourse.
Syllabus Designing
Learner centered
Most recently the learner-centred syllabus with strong emphasis on learner

training has become important. This takes into account differing learning styles
and aims to make the learner independent. They see language learning as
being only a part of a lifelong learning process. Thus self-evaluation, learning
how to learn and training in how to develop skills become central.

Grammatical (or structural) syllabus:
• one that is organized around grammatical items. Traditionally, grammatical

syllabuses have been used as the basis for planning general courses,
particularly for beginning-level learners.
• In developing a grammatical syllabus, the syllabus planner seeks to solve the
following problems:
• to select sufficient patterns to support the amount of teaching time available
• to arrange items into a sequence that facilitates learning
• to identify a productive range of grammatical items that will allow for the
development of basic communicative skills

Grammatical (or structural) syllabus:
Grammatical syllabuses have been criticized on the following grounds:

• They represent only a partial dimension of language proficiency.
• They do not reflect the acquisition sequences seen in naturalistic second
language acquisition.
• They focus on the sentence rather than on longer units of discourse.
• They focus on form rather than meaning.
• They do not address communicative skills.

Lexical syllabus
• one that identifies a target vocabulary to be taught normally arranged

according to levels such as the first 500,1,000,1,500,2,000 words.
• We saw in Chapter 1 mat vocabulary syllabuses were among the first types
of syllabuses to be developed in language teaching
• Because vocabulary is involved in the presentation of any type of language
content, a lexical syllabus can only be considered as one strand of a more
comprehensive syllabus.

Functional syllabus
• one that is organized around communicative functions such as requesting,

complaining, suggesting, agreeing
• They seeks to analyze the concept of communicative competence into its
different components on the assumption that mastery of individual func-
tions will result in overall communicative ability
• Functional syllabuses provided the first serious alternative to a grammatical
syllabus

Functional syllabus
Functional syllabuses have proved very popular as a basis for organizing courses and
materials for the following reasons:
• They reflect a more comprehensive view of language than grammar syllabuses and focus
on the use of the language rather than linguistic form.
• They can readily be linked to other types of syllabus content (e.g., topics, grammar,
vocabulary).
• They provide a convenient framework for the design of teaching materials, particularly in
the domains of listening and speaking.
Functional syllabuses have also been criticized for the following reasons:
• There are no clear criteria for selecting or grading functions.
• They represent a simplistic view of communicative competence and fail to address the
processes of communication.

Functional syllabus
• They represent an atomistic approach to language, that is, one that assumes
that language ability can be broken down into discrete components that can
be taught separately.
• They often lead to a phrase-book approach to teaching that concentrates on
teaching expressions and idioms used for different functions.
• Students learning from a functional course may have considerable gaps in
their grammatical competence because some important grammatical struc-
tures may not be elicited by the functions that are taught in the syllabus.

Situational syllabus
• one that is organized around the language needed for different situations
such as at the airport or at a hotel
• A situation is a setting in which particular communicative acts typically occur.
• A situational syllabus identifies the situations in which the learner will use
the language ' and the typical communicative acts and language used in that
setting.
• Situational syllabuses have been a familiar feature of language teaching text-
books for centuries

• An example of a recent situationally organized textbook on English for travel

is Passport (Buckingham and Whitney 1995), which contains the following
situational syllabus:
• 1. On an airplane
• 2. At an immigration counter
• 3. At a bank
• Situational syllabuses have the advantage of presenting language in context

and teaching language of immediate practical use

However, they are also subject to the following criticisms:

• Little is known about the language used in different situations, so selection
of teaching items is typically based on intuition.
• Language used in specific situations may not transfer to other situations.
• Situational syllabuses often lead to a phrase-book approach.
• Grammar is dealt with incidentally, so a situational syllabus may result in
gaps in a student's grammatical knowledge.

Topical or content-based syllabus
• one that is organized around themes, topics, or other units of content.

• With a topical syllabus, content rather than/ grammar, functions, or
situations is the starting point in syllabus design.
• Content may provide the sole criterion for organizing die syllabus or a
framework for linking a variety of different syllabus strands together.
• All language courses, no matter what kind of syllabus they are based on,
must include some form of content but in this syllabus content is incidental
and serves merely as the vehicle for practicing language structures,
functions, or skills
• content provides the vehicle for the presentation of language rather than the
other way around

Topical or content-based syllabus
Issues that arise in developing a topic-based syllabus are:

• How are themes, topics, and content decided on?
• What is the balance between content and grammar or other strands in the syllabus?
• Are ESL teachers qualified to teach content-based courses?
• What should be the basis for assessment - learning of content or learning of language?
• Yet decisions must still be made concerning the selection of grammar, functions, or skills.
• It may also be difficult to develop a logical or learnable sequence for other syllabus
components if topics are the sole framework.
• Different topics may require language of differing levels of complexity

Competency-based syllabus
• one based on a specification of the competencies learners are expected to master in

relation to specific situations and activities
• Competencies are a description of the essential skills, knowledge, and attitudes required
for effective performance of particular tasks and activities
• Examples of competencies related to the topic of "telephoning" are:
• read and dial telephone numbers
• identify oneself on the telephone when answering and calling
• request to speak to someone
• respond to request to hold
• respond to offer to take message
Competency-based syllabuses are widely used in social survival and work-oriented
language programs

Skills syllabus:
• one that is organized around the different underlying abilities that are
involved in using a language for purposes such as reading, writing, listening,
or speaking.
• Approaching a language through skills is based on the belief that learning a
complex activity such as "listening to a lecture" involves mastery of a
number of individual skills or microskills that together make up the activity.

Skills syllabus:
• the following example of a skills syllabus for the teaching of study skills:
• Basic reference skills: understanding and use of graphic presentation,
namely, headings, subheadings, numbering, indentation, bold print,
footnotes
• table of contents and index
• cross-referencing
• card catalog
• phonetic transcriptions/diacritics
• bibliography
• dictionaries

Task-based syllabus:
• one that is organized around tasks that students will complete in the target
language.
• A task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language such as finding
a solution to a puzzle, reading a map and giving directions, or reading a set
of instructions and assembling a toy.
• Tasks are activities which have meaning as their primary focus. Success in
tasks is evaluated in terms of achievement of an outcome, and tasks gener-
ally bear some resemblance to real-life language use
• A task-based syllabus, however, is one based on tasks that have been
specially designed to facilitate second language learning and one in which
tasks or activities are the basic units of syllabus design.

Task-based syllabus:
• one that is built around texts and samples of extended discourse. As already
noted, this can be regarded as a type of situational approach because the
starting point in planning a syllabus is analysis of the contexts in which the
learners will use the language.
• For example, the spoken texts identified for a group of engineers in a
workplace were: spoken instructions to field staff, presentations of report
findings at meetings and telephone negotiations with contractors.
• A text-based syllabus is a type of integrated syllabus because it combines
elements of different types of syllabuses

Integrated syllabus:
• Decisions about a suitable syllabus framework for a course reflect different

priorities in teaching rather than absolute choices
• In most courses there will generally be a number of different syllabus
strands, such as grammar linked to skills and texts, tasks linked to topics and
functions, or skills linked to topics and texts.

Developing instructional blocks
• A course also needs to be mapped out in terms of instructional blocks or

sections.
• An instructional block is a self-contained learning sequence that has its own
goals and objectives and that also reflects the overall objectives for the
course.
• Instructional blocks represent the instructional focus of the course and may
be very specific (e.g., a single lesson) or more general (e.g., a unit of work
consisting of several lessons).

Developing instructional blocks
• Planning the organizational structure in a course involves selecting

appropriate blocks and deciding on the sequence in which these will appear.
In organizing a course into teaching blocks one seeks to achieve the
following:
• to make the course more teachable and learnable
• to provide a progression in level of difficulty
• to create overall coherence and structure for the course
• Two commonly used instructional blocks are planning by modules and by

units

Modules
• This is a self-contained and independent learning sequence with its own

objectives.
• For example, a 120-hour course might be divided into four modules of 30
hours each.
• Assessment is carried out at the end of each module.
• Modules allow for flexible organization of a course and can give learners a
sense of achievement because objectives are more immediate and specific.
• Care needs to be taken, however, to ensure that me course does not appear
fragmented and unstructured.

Units
• This teaching block is normally longer than a single lesson

• but shorter than a module and
• is the commonest way of organizing courses and teaching materials.
• It is normally a group of lessons that is planned around a single instructional
focus. (Sometimes units are referred to as a scheme of work.) A unit seeks to
provide a structured sequence of activities that lead toward a learning
outcome

Units
The factors that account for a successful unit include:

• Length: Sufficient but not too much material is included.
• Development: One activity leads effectively into the next; the unit does not
consist of a random sequence of activities.
• Coherence: The unit has an overall sense of coherence.
• Pacing: Each activity within the unit moves at a reasonable pace. For ex-
ample, if there are five activities in the unit, one does not require four times
as much time to complete as the others.
• Outcome: At the end of the unit, students should be able to know or do a
series of things that are related.

Preparing the scope and sequence plan
• Once a course has been planned and organized, it can be described.

• One form in which it can be described is as a scope and sequence plan.
• This might consist of a listing of the module or units and their contents and
an indication of how much teaching time each block in the course will
require.
• In the case of a textbook it usually consists of a unit-by-unit description of
the course cross-referenced to the syllabus items included.
• Appendix 9 gives part of a scope and sequence plan

Syllabus Designing
Your syllabus is the first glimpse your students have of your course. (Actually,
it’s the second, but the course descriptions in the prospectus certainly can’t do
justice to your dynamic presentation and intriguing subject matter.)
A syllabus is a basic contract between the instructor and students, laying out
the responsibilities and expectations on both sides. It’s also a road map that
shows the general contours of the course, important milestones, and the
landmarks that will let students know they’re on the right road. And, last but
not least, it’s a marketing opportunity to show the students just how great the
course will be.
A good syllabus gives the student a general idea of how the course will go and
how much work it will take. But why stop at merely good?
Syllabus Designing
Today we will end the class by designing the go to syllabus - You, your course,
and your students deserve the very best: a learning-centered syllabus.
A learning-centered syllabus focuses on the needs of the students and their

learning process, including specific information that facilitates their academic
success.
But before we begin with the development of a syllabus – lets look at some
theoretical dimensions

Syllabus Designing
Any syllabus is a plan of what is to be achieved through teaching and learning.
It is part of an overall language curriculum or course which is made up of four

elements: aims, content, methodology and evaluation.
The syllabus identifies what will be worked upon by the teacher and students in
terms of content selected to be appropriate to overall aims.
Methodology refers to how teachers and learners work upon the content, ‘
Evaluation is the process of assessing outcomes from the learning and judging
the appropriateness of other elements of the curriculum.

Syllabus Designing
Syllabus may be formally documented, as in the aims and content of a national
or institutional syllabus for particular groups of learners or
(less explicitly perhaps) in the content material of published textbooks.
Every teacher follows a syllabus, but it may vary from being a pre-designed
document to a day-to-day choice of content which the teacher regards as
serving a course's particular aims.
In the latter case, the syllabus unfolds as lessons progress.

Syllabus Designing
According to Brown (1995, p.7) “A syllabus provides a focus for what should be
studied, along with a rationale for how that content should be selected and
ordered.”
Similarly, Richards (2001) defines syllabus as “A specification of the content of

a course of instruction [which] lists what will be taught and tested”.
Robertson concludes that “Syllabuses should be viewed in the context of an

ongoing curriculum development process.”

Syllabus Designing
A syllabus has been compared to a blueprint. It is a plan which the teacher

converts into a reality of classroom interaction.
Richard and Platt (1992) state that syllabus refers to the principles of choosing
and orchestrating the textbook content.
They explain that by identifying the type of syllabus used, it is possible to

understand the focus and contents of a course and whether the course will be
structural, situational, notional…. etc.

Syllabus Designing
Candl in (1984) suggests that curricula are concerned with making general
statements about language learning, learning purpose and experience,
evaluation, and the role relationships of teachers and learners.
According to Candlin, they will also contain banks of learning items and
suggestions about how these might be used in class.
Syllabuses, on the other hand, are more localized and are based on accounts
and records of what actually happens at the classroom level as teachers and
learners apply a given curriculum to their own situation.

Syllabus Designing
Any syllabus ideally should provide:
• a clear framework of knowledge and capabilities selected to be appropriate to

overall aims;
• continuity and a sense of direction in classroom work for teacher and

students;
• a record for other teachers of what has been covered in the course;
• a basis for evaluating students' progress;

Syllabus Designing
Any syllabus ideally should provide:
• a basis for evaluating the appropriateness of the course in relation to overall

aims and student needs identified both before and during the course;
• content appropriate to the broader language curriculum, the particular class

of learners, and the educational situation and wider society in which the course
is located.

Syllabus Designing
To meet these requirements, syllabus designers - including teachers who

develop their own syllabuses - apply principles to the organisation of the
content which they intend the syllabus to cover.
These principles can be expressed as questions:
What knowledge and capabilities should be focused upon?

A syllabus may give priority to linguistic or broader communicative knowledge
and focus upon one or all four skills (reading, speaking, writing and listening)
or, more broadly, problem-solving or negotiation capabilities.

Syllabus Designing
What should be selected as appropriate content? Given a linguistic focus, which

particular structures and vocabulary should be covered or, given a
communicative focus, which particular uses of language or types of tasks
should be selected?
How should the content be subdivided so that it can be dealt with in

manageable units? In other words, what is selected as content may be broken
down to contributory or constituent parts for ease of teaching and learning in
real time.

Syllabus Designing
How should the content be sequenced along a path of development? A syllabus

may adopt a step-by-step progression from less to more complex knowledge
and capabilities, or it may be cyclic where earlier knowledge and capabilities
are revisited and refined at later points.
These four principles of organisation define a syllabus.
In the history of language teaching, the last 20 years in particular have revealed
significant developments in syllabus design that have led to the application of
each of these principles in alternative ways.
Syllabus Designing
One document which gives a detailed account of the various syllabus

components which need to be considered in developing language courses is
Threshold Level English (van Ek 1975).
van Ek lists the following as necessary components of a language syllabus:
1 the situations in which the foreign language will be used, including the topics
which trill be dealt with;
2 the language activities in which the learner will engage;
3 the language functions which the learner will fulfil;

Syllabus Designing
van Ek lists the following as necessary components of a language syllabus:
4 what the learner will be able to do with respect to each topic;
5 the general notions which the learner will be able to handle;
6 the specific (topic-related) notions which the learner will be able to handle;
7 the language forms which the learner will be able to use;
8 the degree of skill with which the learner will be able to perform.(van Ek 1975:
8-9)

Syllabus Designing
Syllabus design is thought to be based essentially on a decision about the

'units' of classroom activity, and the sequence in which they are to be
performed (Robinson, 1998).

Syllabus Designing
Before you start to write a syllabus - Needs Analysis

First the teaching situation and the intended learner group should be analysed.
Teaching situation: What constraints are you working under that you cannot
change? These might include
Type of assessment
If external this could have tremendous impact on your syllabus.
Resources/ staffing available
Are there 50 children in a class with only a blackboard? Are there computers?
Can students have access to a computer lab for independent and class
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) work.

Syllabus Designing
Learner geography
How much exposure will students get outside of the class? Time period and/or
intensive vs. spread out. This impacts on the amount of material you could
cover and also the structure of the individual weekly plan.
Books
Does a core course book exist that the syllabus must be built round or are you
writing a syllabus from scratch?
Consult with the people involved in teaching the syllabus. Teachers and heads
of departments must be involved from the beginning so that they do not feel
that the syllabus is being imposed on them and thus gives them a sense of
ownership.

Syllabus Designing
Intended learner group

There is quite a lot of information you need and decisions you can make about
your intended learners.
Learner needs
Based on learner profile (age, level, interests, reasons for learning), do a needs
analysis. This can range from a full-blown formal multiple-choice computer
test and oral interview to an informal chat at the beginning of the course where
you ask the class what their needs are.

Syllabus Designing
Strengths and weaknesses

Does the nationality as a group or the group as a group of learners have
common problems? Do they have a different script and therefore find writing a
problem? Are there sounds in English that they don't have in the L1?
Setting learning objectives

learning objectives must be written. These may be externally enforced or
ideally come from learner needs but in the real world they are usually a mix of
both. They may also be restricted by resources.

Syllabus Designing
Objectives might come from the course book although the course book should
not be seen as the syllabus.
These can be written in terms of 'can do' statements:
The learner can talk about likes and dislikes

The learner can narrate a story in the past tense.
etc.
With the list of can do statements and the course book or the materials you will
develop you can start developing the structure of the syllabus. The ones above
become in the syllabus; "Expressing likes and dislikes"
and "Narrating a story set in the past."
Syllabus Designing
Balance of skills vs. grammar and vocabulary

You need to make sure there is balance in the syllabus, taking into
consideration the strengths and weaknesses of the group and their aims in
studying.
New language vs. practice opportunities

You should ensure a balance of input vs. revision. This should be about one
third to two thirds.

Syllabus Designing
Outcomes
Make sure you know what you want the learners to be able to do by the end of
the course.
Suitability of topics
Are some topics in the course book culturally inappropriate or just considered
boring?

Syllabus Designing
Once the syllabus is written
The work isn't over when you finish writing the syllabus. You'll still need to:
Pilot it with at least one class. Get feedback from the teachers and the learners
and then adapt it.
Make sure teachers know about it and do not think it is just another piece of
paper that can be shelved.

Syllabus Designing
Make sure teachers receive training in how to use it and also training in any
new methodology that has been incorporated in it. This will give the syllabus
project credibility.
Involve the teachers again. Encourage feedback so it can be changed. The first
draft will never be perfect and can only be finalised once it has been trialled
and tested. Feedback should be taken on board and changes made accordingly.

Syllabus Designing
Building an inclusive and learner center syllabus – video
Best practices for syllabus designing - video

Syllabus Designing - Analysis
Benefits of a Well-Written Course Syllabus
• Establishes a contact and connection between students and instructors

• Sets the tone for the course
• Describes your beliefs about learning, teaching and assessment
• Acquaints students with the structure of the course
• Contains handouts or detailed assignment descriptions
• Defines student responsibilities for success

Benefits of a Well-Written Course Syllabus
• Helps students determine their readiness for the course

• States how the course fits into the curriculum and overall program
• Describes available learning resources
• Communicates technology requirements for the course
• Contains difficult-to-obtain reading materials
• Describes effective student study habits
• Includes materials that support learning outside the classroom
• Serves as a learning contract (Grunert, 1997, p. 14-19)

Definition of a Learning-Centered Course Syllabus
A learning-centered course syllabus focuses on the needs of the students and

their learning process. Instructors specifically include information that will
facilitate the academic success of students.

Components of a Learning-Centered Course Syllabus

• Description of the course purpose so that students know what to expect from
the
course and why it is important that they learn the content presented.
• Intended learning outcomes describe specific student behavior and learning
goals that
are expected through the course.
• Extensive description of how students are expected to participate in the
course.
• Recommended study habits and details of how students succeed in this
course.
• Additional assignment descriptions or grading rubrics.
• Recommended or suggested reading materials that are difficult to obtain.
Tips for Creating a Learning-Centered Syllabus
Set the Tone for Your Course in the Syllabus
Generally, the syllabus is the first connection between you and your students
at the beginning of a course; therefore, the syllabus will establish the course
tone. Through the syllabus, you can set high expectations for students and
begin a line of communication. If you want to establish a more relaxed tone in
your course, write your syllabus in first person. However, for a more formal
tone, write your syllabus in third person.

Anticipate Students’ Questions
Students come to class the first day with many questions. The syllabus can
quickly provide answers to many of those questions. Try answering typical
student questions and placing the answers in your syllabus: Why should I take
this course? How does this course relate to the general education program?
How will this course help me intellectually and practically?

Include More Rather than Less Material
A detailed syllabus is a valuable learning tool for students and lessens their
initial anxieties about a course. If the syllabus includes detailed descriptions of
assignments and criteria that will be used to distinguish quality in student
work, time will be saved throughout the course.

Define and Limit Course Content
Davis (1993) challenges instructors to avoid forgettable content and focus on

the most important knowledge, skills, and values students need to know. Try
to divide course content into the following categories.
1. Required content for all students to learn.
2. Content that supports students’ inquiry for learning beyond the required
content.
3. Content that interests students who want to specialize in the area of study.

Keep the Syllabus Flexible
Some classes move quickly, and others get sidetracked. Either issue a new
course syllabus midway through the semester to accommodate for changes
or include a disclaimer to account for changes in the syllabus.

Organizing the Semester with the Syllabus
Use the syllabus to organize your semester and course. Plan the course
schedule in advance, including all assignments, exams, and holidays.
Remember to spread out the assignments and exams throughout the
semester so that you do not overload and discourage students.

“A detailed course syllabus, handed out on the first day of class, gives
students an immediate sense of what the course will cover, what work is
expected of them, and how their performance will be evaluated…A well-
prepared syllabus shows students that you take teaching seriously”
(Davis, 1993, p. 14).

Analysing sample Syllabi in your google classroom

Syllabus Designing - Development
Overall Syllabus
Use positive, welcoming, inviting and inclusive language in your syllabus.

Examples: “Late work is eligible for 60% of the original points,” or “Attendance
will benefit you in several ways,” or “You have what it takes to succeed in this
course without engaging in academic misconduct. Do not jeopardize the hard
work you’ve put into this course.”

a syllabus should include the following information:
Learning Objectives. What students will gain or take away from your course.
Why these objectives are the most important skills/knowledge for the course
(helpful if objectives are included for each topic/session).
Goal/Rationale. How the course relates to primary concepts and principles of

the discipline (where it fits into the overall intellectual area). Type of
knowledge and abilities that will be emphasized. How and why the course is
organized in a particular sequence.

Basic Information. Course name and number, meeting time and place,
instructor name, contact information, office hours, instructional support staff
information.
Course Content. Schedule, outline, meeting dates and holidays, major topics
and sub-topics preferably with rationale for inclusion.

Student Responsibilities. Particulars and rationale for homework, projects,

quizzes, exams, reading requirements, participation, due dates, etc. Policies on
lateness, missed work, extra credit, etc
Grading Method. Clear, explicit statement of assessment process and

measurements.

Materials and Access. Required texts and readings, course packs. How to get
materials including relevant instructional technologies. Additional resources
such as study groups, etc.
Teaching Philosophy. Pedagogical approach including rationale for why

students will benefit from it.

Course Information
Course Title, Course Abbreviation and Number

Semester and Year (Start Date to End Date)
Number of Credit Hours
When and where the course will meet (campus learning space, online, etc.)
Course title, number, section, semester offered, days, times of course

meetings and location. List any dates times of special sessions, field trips,
other activities that are scheduled in place of/in addition to regularly
scheduled class meetings. Note any prerequisites for student enrollment,
special skills or knowledge for effectively meeting course requirements.

Instructor Information
If an instructor has teaching assistant(s) or co-teacher(s) please include
similar information.
Name
Office Address
Student Hours (Consider using “Student Hours” instead of “Office Hours” to
promote that these times are set aside specifically for students in case they
need help outside class).
Provide student hours via multiple means of access (your office, phone, e-
mail, virtually using webcasting software).

Example: Student Hours – T & R 8:30-9:30 a.m. in my office or via Zoom.

Individual assistance is always available by appointment. I look forward to
seeing you during student hours.
Telephone Number
Email Address
Other Contact Information

Enter instructor, co-instructor, TA and/or peer facilitator name and contact

information, including office phone#, email address, office address, office
hours, virtual office hours (Skype, Chat).
Indicate whether instructor is available by appointment and the manner in

which appointments may be made. Note reasonable expectations for
students regarding response time to e-mail or other messages.
If multi-section course, list the name and contact information of the course
coordinator that students may direct their questions to.
You may share your interest, passion for the subject, teaching philosophy.
You may introduce coinstructors and/or TAs and their expertise and
contributions.

Departmental Information
Name of Department and location of Departmental Office

Preferred Contact Information for the Department

Course Description
Indicate how the course fits within the program, its value added for the
students, its content. You may indicate the course format, e.g., large lecture
with discussion sections, seminar course, interdisciplinary, team-taught
course.
Share with students how the course fits into the overall curriculum and what
they will leave the course being able to do. Answering the question, “Why is
this course useful?” Also, orient students to the discipline if it’s an introductory
course.

Course Description
Indicate how the course fits within the program, its value added for the
students, its content. You may indicate the course format, e.g., large lecture
with discussion sections, seminar course, interdisciplinary, team-taught
course.
Share with students how the course fits into the overall curriculum and what
they will leave the course being able to do. Answering the question, “Why is
this course useful?” Also, orient students to the discipline if it’s an introductory
course.

Course Description
What will students learn in the course (i.e., knowledge, skills, attitudes, as
opposed to topics)?
Why will learning this matter to students?
How will the course help students develop as scholars, learners, future
professionals?

Course Description
What will students experience in the course (e.g., assignments, activities,

etc.)?
What are the class formats/methods (e.g., lecture, recitation, lab, studio),
and how will they support student learning?
How does this course fit into your department’s curriculum? Are there any
prerequisite courses?

Program Student Learning Outcomes
Indicate how the course learning outcomes align with the program outcomes
and gen. ed. goals: what program and gen. ed. goals are addressed in the
course? You may outline this alignment by listing each program and gen. ed.
goal relevant to a particular course goal, providing a link to pertinent
program and gen. ed. goals.

Program Student Learning Outcomes
For example, in this course students articulate their data collection process
by writing lab reports [course learning goal] - contributes to students' ability
to present written and oral reports of technical information clearly and
concisely [program goal and gen. ed. goal of oral and written
communication].

Course Student Learning Outcomes
State the course learning outcomes, including knowledge, skills, and

competencies to be achieved. Inform the students how the course
contributes to their learning.
Use concrete verbs (e.g., identify, compare, appraise, estimate, predict) to

articulate student learning outcomes and make them observable and
measurable.
The learning outcomes guide the design of assessments and in- and out-of-
class activities.

Course Student Learning Outcomes
List 4-5 broad-based learning outcomes that reflect what the students will
learn and skills they will develop by successfully completing the course.
Provide rationales for assignments, activities, methods, policies, and
procedures tied to these learning outcomes.
(http://bit.ly/1TqBeW3)
(http://bit.ly/1QvTjzt)

Describe Course Format
Specify textbooks and readings by author and editions. When possible,

explain connections to the course goals and how the text and readings
address them.
Explain expectations to have completed readings before class sessions and

the degree of understanding that you expect (e.g., successfully complete pop
quizzes, can discuss concepts, or apply reading information to problem-
solving scenarios).

Describe Course Format
Describe other course components such as teaching approach, group

assignments, individualized consultation, etc.
Share information of Library Instructor webpage if readings are on course

reserves.
Identify where students can obtain additional equipment, resources, or

materials.

Assignments (Papers, quizzes, exams, projects, etc.)
Describe all academic requirements in the course, such as types of

assignments, tests, exams, papers, projects, homework, quizzes, exhibits,
presentations that students will complete and indicate how they help
students achieve the intended learning outcomes. Indicate how each
assignment contributes to the final course grade. List the dates when these
requirements occur or assignments are due.

Assignments (Papers, quizzes, exams, projects, etc.)
Connect multiple means of assessment (exams, quizzes, exercises, projects,

papers, etc.) directly to learning outcomes.
Consider using the Transparency in Learning and Teaching (TiLT) framework
by providing the following for each assignment:
Purpose: practice skills, expand content knowledge, and benefits for life-long
learning.
Tasks: clarify steps on what to do and how to do it.
Criteria: how to be successful (e.g., checklist, rubric); as well as, examples
and strategies for students to improve their work.

HOW TO WRITE AN EFFECTIVE ASSIGNMENT

https://bokcenter.harvard.edu/how-to-write-assignment-prompt

How will Students Be Evaluated?
Grading Policy State instructor grading policy, including the weight attached
to all assignments/exams listed in the syllabus, including team work and class
participation, if appropriate. Note how final grade is calculated and outline
grade distribution. Set forth when/how students will receive feedback on
their work and reasonable expectations about returning graded work. Set
forth instructor policy regarding attendance, missed assignments, late work,
extra credit, posting to online discussions.

Outline instructor policy regarding participation in webinars, field trips or

other activities that are scheduled in addition to/in place of regularly
scheduled class meetings.

Explain clearly how students will be evaluated, and grades assigned. Include
components of final grade, weights assigned to each component, grading on
a curve or scale, etc.
Use both summative and formative evaluations (e.g., oral presentations,

group work, self-evaluation, peer evaluation).

Employ periodic feedback mechanisms to monitor learning (e.g., graded and

non-graded quizzes, tests, lecture-response systems, tests, reflection papers).
Provide ways that students can easily calculate or find their grades at any
point in the course.
https://bokcenter.harvard.edu/grading-and-responding-student-work

Course Policies
State your policies clearly in the syllabus and discuss them throughout the
semester regarding:
Expectations for attendance, assignments, late assignments, make-up

options, extra credit, and examinations.
Steps to report illness – Sample: ISU’s Thielen Student Health Center’s Class
Excuse webpage (http://bit.ly/isu-class-excuse).

Course Policies
Cheating and plagiarism, use your institution’s Student Conduct’s guidelines –

Sample: (http://bit.ly/isu-academic-misconduct).
List grading policies regarding incomplete marks, use prospectus and

institutional guidelines – Sample: (http://catalog.iastate.edu/).
Make clear a student’s course obligations and your obligations to teaching

the course.
Share expected classroom behaviors

Course Policies
Outline policy pertaining to academic integrity, student safety (lab) and

civility (use of cell phones, beepers).
For example, Eating and drinking are not allowed in the lab. Please do not
bring any food or beverages into the lab. We will be working with hazardous
materials throughout the semester. Eating or drinking during lab puts you
and your classmates at increased risk of accident and injury from breakage or
toxins. You will be asked to remove any food or beverage you bring into the
lab. Please turn off your cell phones and pagers so that you can focus on the
lab work at hand.
Teaching Methods and Materials
Describe the nature of instructional activities that will occur help students
accomplish set learning outcomes. Indicate how interactions will be
facilitated, such as teamwork, debates, interactive lecture, online discussions,
blogs, use of Sakai, clickers.
Outline the nature of interactions and students' responsibility in their

learning: student-led discussions, presentations, peer feedback, self
assessment.

Study Help
Describe how students can succeed in the course and offer study tips,
resources, study guides, such as: Guide to the readings - Keep an open mind.
Listen to what the readings have to say. Think about what experiences you
may have had and reading you have done that may corroborate the course
readings. Give yourself time to reflect on the information offered in the
readings. Take your time with the readings; allow yourself to enter into a kind
of conversation with them.

Study Help
Outline how the instructor, the TA and/or peer instructor will work with
students; e.g., facilitate study groups, conduct review sessions prior to
exams. Include tips from former students who have been successful in the
course.

Course Calendar & Contents
List the sequencing of content areas, respective readings, schedule of course

activities for the entire semester. State dates, times when all academic
requirements in the course need to be completed, submitted. Indicate dates
for formative and summative student feedback, note drop- add dates, official
holidays, breaks, and dates you will be away from campus.

Use the academic Calendar of your relevant institution when scheduling

projects, presentations, and exams to consider any potential conflicts.
Provide a course plan that outlines topics to be covered, reading

requirements, assignment due dates, etc. If necessary, revise it and be sure
students get an updated version.
List important dates such as last drop date, registration dates for the next
semester, etc. If applicable.

Note dates and times of any exams scheduled outside of class time. If needed
Include the date and time of the final exam. Refer academic calendar for this
purpose

Additional Learner-Centered Information
Estimate student workload. Give students a sense of how much preparation

and work the course requires. But be realistic; they don’t believe either scare
tactics or soft-pedaling. (Remember that yours isn’t the only class they’re
taking.)

Additional Learner-Centered Information
Share expectations in your syllabus and discuss them throughout the

semester. Include information on how to succeed:
Check your university email regularly

Log into the institution learning management system daily
Communicate with your instructor and visit during student hours
Create a study schedule so that you don’t fall behind

You can also include:
COVID-19 health and safety requirements

Discrimination and Harassment policies

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MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Upon completion of week 13 & 14 you will be able to:

examine the following dimensions of course development

• developing a course rationale

Week 8 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

• A number of different levels of planning and development are involved in

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

• A starting point in course development is a description of the course ra-

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

The rationale thus serves the purposes of:

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

• In order to plan a language course, it is necessary to know the level at which

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

• An approach that has been widely used in language program planning is to

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

• the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages published

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

a writing course could potentially be planned around any of the following

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

a speaking course could be organized around:

• The choice of a particular approach to content selection will depend on sub-

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Information gathered during needs analysis contributes to the planning of

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

• Throughout this process the statements of aims and objectives are

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

• The sequencing of content in the course also needs to be determined. This

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

• Whole to part or part to whole

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Syllabi can be divided into two different types:

Product-oriented and process oriented.

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Product oriented syllabi focus on what learners will know as a result of

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Most recently the learner-centred syllabus with strong emphasis on learner

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

• one that is organized around grammatical items. Traditionally, grammatical

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Grammatical syllabuses have been criticized on the following grounds:

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

• one that identifies a target vocabulary to be taught normally arranged

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

• one that is organized around communicative functions such as requesting,

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

• An example of a recent situationally organized textbook on English for travel

• Situational syllabuses have the advantage of presenting language in context

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

However, they are also subject to the following criticisms:

Week 12 Lecture 1 MS Applied Linguistics (Humanities) – Fall 2020

CDLT Lecture Week 13 & 14

CDLT Lecture Week 13 & 14