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 ELECTRODYNAMICS
Course by E. Kogan

CONTENTS IX. WAVEGUIDES AND RESONANT

CAVITIES 25
I. ELECTRIC FIELD 3 A. Equations and Boundary Conditions 25
A. Coulomb’s Law 3 B. Electromagnetic Cavity 25
B. Capacitance 4 1. Rectangular Cavity 25
C. Electric Multipole Moments 4 C. Waveguide 26
1. TM wave 26
II. MAGNETIC FIELD 5 2. TE wave 27
A. The Biot–Savart and Ampere Law 5 3. TEM wave 27
B. Magnetic Multipole Moments 7 4. Rectangular waveguide 27
C. Faraday’s Law of Induction 8
X. THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATIONS 28
A. The Lorentz Transformations 28
III. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 9
B. Doppler Effect 29
A. RLC Circuit 9
C. Aberration of light 30
B. Ideal Transformer as a Two–Port Network 10
D. Transformation of Potentials and Fields 30
E. The Fields of a Uniformly Moving Charge 30
IV. TRANSMISSION LINES 12
A. Derivation of the Governing Equation 12 XI. RELATIVISTIC DYNAMICS 31
B. Impedance of a Transmission Line 13 A. Lagrangian Mechanics 31
C. Transmission Line with Losses 14 B. Motion in Uniform and Constant Field 32
C. Weak Focusing 33
V. MAXWELL EQUATIONS 15 D. Betatron 34
A. Integral Form 15
B. Differential Form 15 XII. RADIATION BY MOVING CHARGES 34
C. Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum 15 A. The Lienard–Wiechert Potentials 34
D. Scalar and Vector Potentials 16 B. Radiation By Non–Relativistic Moving
E. Energy Density and Energy Flux 16 Charges 34
C. Radiation By Relativistic Moving Charges 35
VI. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS IN D. Synchrotron Radiation 35
MATERIAL MEDIUM 17
A. Material Equations 17
B. Dielectric Constant and Polarizability 18
C. Boundary Conditions 18
1. Electrostatics of conductors 18
2. Electrostatics of dielectrics 18
D. Electromagnetic Waves in a Material
Medium 19
E. Transmission and Reflection at the Surface 19

VII. RADIATION 20
A. Retarded Potentials 20
B. Radiation in the Far–Zone: x ≫ λ 20
C. Hertz dipole: λ ≫ d 21
1. Hertz dipole fields in the near–zone:
λ≫x 21
2. Hertz dipole radiation: x ≫ λ 21
D. Multipole Expansion of Radiation: λ & d 21

VIII. RADIATION PATTERN OF ANTENNAS 22

A. Center-Fed Linear Antenna 22
B. Antennas Arrays 23
C. Diffraction Grating 24
1. Resolving power of diffraction grating 25
2
 3

FIG. 1. Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736 - 1806) was

a French physicist. He is best known for developing Coulomb’s FIG. 2. Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777 - 1855) was
law, the definition of the electrostatic force of attraction and a German mathematician and scientist who contributed sig-
repulsion. nificantly to many fields, including number theory, statistics,
analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, electrostatics, astron-
omy and optics.
I. ELECTRIC FIELD

A. Coulomb’s Law The electric field at this point

( )
σ z
The Coulomb’s law of electrostatics can be presented Ez = 1− √ . (6)
as 2ϵ0 z 2 + R2
For z ≫ R we get
E = −∇φ, (1)
Q
where E= , (7)
∫ ′
4πϵ0 z
1 ρ(x )
φ(x) = dV ′ (2) where q is the total charge of the disc. For z ≪ R we get
4πϵ0 |x − x′ |
σ
is the electric potential at the point x. The unit of the E= (8)
2ϵ0
potential is Joule/Coulomb=Volt. The unit of charge in
SI is Coulomb. The charge of electron is e = −1.6 × In the case of charged line Eq. (2) becomes
10−19 C. The charge density is measured in C/m3 . The ∫
permittivity constant to about 1 part in 500 is 1 λ(x′ ) ′
φ(x) = dl , (9)
9 −1 −1 −1 4πϵ0 |x − x′ |
ϵ0 = (36π × 10 ) 2
C J m . (3)
where the integration is along the line.
Problem A.1 A charge Q lies on a thin ring of radius
R. Find the electric field at a point on the central axis at Problem A.3 Let the charge is distributed with uniform
distance z from the center of the ring. line density λ (C/m) along the segment of a straight line
of length 2L. Introduce cylindrical coordinates such that
the segment is r = 0, −L ≤ z ′ ≤ L and find the elec-
Problem A.2 The charge is distributed with uniform
tric potential at point P , with the coordinates r and z by
surface density σ on the disk of radius R. Find the po-
calculating the integral (9).
tential at the axis of the disk.
Gauss’ Law:
In this case Eq. (2) becomes ∫ ∫
∫ 1 ∑ 1
1 σ(x′ ) E · dS = Qi = ρ(x)dV. (10)
φ(x) = dS ′ , (4) S ϵ0 i ϵ0 V
4πϵ0 |x − x′ |
where the integration is along the charged surface. The Problem A.4 Using Gauss law find electric field created
potential at point (0, 0, z > 0) along the disk central axis by uniformly charged infinite plane and infinite straight
is line respectively.
∫ R
σ r′ dr′ σ √ 2 From Gauss law we immediately understand that a
φ= = ( z + R2 − z). (5)
2ϵ0 0 (z 2 + r′2 )1/2 2ϵ0 spherically symmetric distribution of charges creates the
 4

field outside the distribution as if all the charge was con- Problem B.2 Show that the specific capacitance of the
centrated at the center. A spherically symmetric distri- system of two parallel cylindric coaxial conductors of ra-
bution of charges in a shell creates no field inside the dius a and b (a > b) is
shell. Also, a distribution of a charge with the symmetry
2πϵ0
of an infinite cylinder creates the field outside the dis- C0 = ( ).
tribution as if all charge was distributed with uniform ln ab
density along an infinite straight line. A cylindrically
The voltage between two long thin wires of radius a and
symmetric distribution of charges in a shell creates no
b respectively at a distance h ≫ a, b from each other,
field inside the shell.
carrying charge densities +λ and −λ is
( 2)
Problem A.5 The atmospheric electric field strength λ h
close to the Earth’s surface is ∼ 100 V/m, directed ver- V = ln . (15)
2πϵ0 ab
tically down. Find the electric charge of the Earth.
Hence the specific capacitance of the system of two wires
Problem A.6 A charge q is distributed uniformly considered is
throughout a spherical volume of radius R. Setting V = 0 2πϵ0
at infinity, show that the potential at a distance r from C0 = ( 2 ). (16)
ln hab
the center, where r < R, is given by
Capacitor of a single isolated conductor with a charge
q(3R2 − r2 ) Q is determined by the equation
V = . (11)
8πϵ0 R3
Q
C= , (17)
V
B. Capacitance
where V is the potential difference between the conductor
and infinitely remote point. Capacitance is determined
Capacitor present two isolated conductors of arbitrary by the size and shape of the conductor. For a sphere, for
shape. When capacitor is charged one conductor has a example
charge Q, and the other −Q. Capacitance is determined
by the equation C = 4πϵ0 R. (18)
Q Problem B.3 Estimate as good as you can the capac-
C= (F), (12)
V itance: (a) of a 5 shekel coin, (b) of an average size
person.
where V is the voltage between the conductors; 1
farad(F)=1 C/V. When calculating capacitance it is con-
venient to present ϵ0 as C. Electric Multipole Moments

ϵ0 = 8.85pF/m
We see that farad is a very large unit.
Problem B.1 Using the results of Problem A.4 show
(13)
Consider static electric field created by a system of
charges at the distances large in comparison to the size
of the system. Choosing the origin within the system and
1
expanding |x−x ′ | in the integrand of Eq. (2) we obtain

that the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor, with the ( )

distance d between the plates much less then the size of 1 1 ′ 1 1 x′ · x
= − x · ∇ + · · · = + + . .(19)
.
the plates, is |x − x′ | x x x x3

ϵ0 S Correspondingly for the expansion of the scalar potential

C= , we get
d
where S is the surface of the plate. φ = φ(0) + φ(1) + φ(2) + . . . . (20)

For two parallel conductors, their length being much The first terms are
∫
larger than both their transversal size and the separation 1 1 1 Q
between them, it is convenient to introduce the specific φ(0) (x) = ρ(x′ )dV ′ = , (21)
4πϵ0 x 4πϵ0 x
capacitance (independent of the length of the conductors)
and
λ ∫
C0 = , (14) 1 x 1 p·x
V φ (1)
(x) = · ρ(x′ )x′ dV ′ = ,
4πϵ0 x3 4πϵ0 x3
where λ (C/m) is the linear charge density. (22)
 5

where is called quadrupole moment of the system. Differentiat-

∫ ing we obtain
p= ρ(x′ )x′ dV ′ (23) ( )
∂2 1 3xα xβ δαβ
= 3
− 3 . (31)
is the dipole moment. For the electric field we get ∂xα ∂xβ x x x

1 3(p · x)x − px2 Using the fact that Dαα = 0, Eq. (29) can be presented
E = −∇φ = . (24) as
4πϵ0 x5
1 Dαβ xα xβ
The electric field has an axial symmetry around the di- φ(2) = . (32)
4πϵ0 2x5
rection of p.
Like every symmetric tensor, the quadrupole moment can
Problem C.1 The ammonia molecule NH3 has a per- be brought to principal axes. Because of the relation
manent electric dipole moment equal to 1.47 D, where Dαα = 0, (33)
1 D = 1 Debye unit =3.34 × 10−30 C·m. Calculate the
electric potential due to an ammonia molecule at a point only two of the eigenvalues are independent.
52.0 nm away along the axis of the dipole. (Set V = 0 at
Problem C.4 Find scalar potential at large distance
infinity.)
from the following systems: a) charges q, −2q, q situ-
Problem C.2 Dipole with the moment p is situated in ated at the axis z at a distance a from each other (linear
the origin, and another dipole with the same moment is quadrupole); b) charges ±q situated in the vertexes of
situated in the point with radius-vector x. Find the en- a square with the side a such, that neighboring vertexes
ergy of interaction of these dipoles, and the force acting contain charges of opposite sign.
between them. What should be the orientation of these Problem C.5 Determine the quadrupole moment of a
dipoles so that the energy should have maximal value? uniformly charged ellipsoid with respect to its center.
Minimal value?
If it happens that the system of charges is symmetric
Potential energy of an electric dipole is around the z axis, then
∫ ∫
1
U = ρ(x)φ(x) dV = ρ(x)x · ∇φ(0) dV = −p · E Dxx = Dyy = − Dzz . (34)
2
(25) Denoting the component Dzz by D (in this case it is
The torque acting on dipole is simply called the quadrupole moment), we obtain
∫ ( )
G = x × ρ(x)E dV = p × E. 1 D 3 1
(26) (2)
φ = cos θ −
2
. (35)
4πϵ0 x3 4 4
Problem C.3 Derive equation G = p × E from equa- In nuclear physics the quadrupole interaction is of partic-
tion U = −p · E. ular interest. The quadrupole moment of a nuclear state
is defined as the value of Q = (1/e)Dzz .
If we want to take into account the higher terms in
the expansion (20), it is more convenient to use tensor Problem C.6 Nuclear charge distribution can be ap-
notation proximated by a constant charge density throughout a
( ) ( ) spheroidal volume of semimajor axis a and semiminor
1 1 ′ ∂ 1 1 ′ ′ ∂2 1 axis b. Given that Eu153 (Z = 63) has a quadrupole mo-
′
= − xα + xα xβ
|x − x | x ∂xα x 2 ∂xα ∂xβ x ment Q = 2.5 × 10−28 m2 and a mean radius
+ ... (27)
R = (a + b)/2 = 7 × 10−15 m
Taking into account that determine the fractional difference in radius (a − b)/R.
2
( )
∂ 1
= 0, (28)
∂xα ∂xα x II. MAGNETIC FIELD
we can rewrite the third term of the expansion in the
form A. The Biot–Savart and Ampere Law
( )
1 Dαβ ∂2 1
φ(2) = , (29) The Biot-Savart law, found experimentally, says that
4πϵ0 6 ∂xα ∂xβ x
the law of interaction of two contours carrying currents
where the quantity I1 and I2 respectively, can be presented as
∫ I
( )
Dαβ = ρ(x′ ) 3x′α x′β − x′2 δαβ dV ′ (30) F = I1 dx × B(x), (36)
 6

FIG. 4.

Problem A.1 A surveyor is using a magnetic compass

10 m below a power line in which there is a steady cur-
rent of 500 A. (a) What is the magnetic field at the site
FIG. 3. Hans Christian Oersted (1777 - 1851) was a Dan-
of the compass due to the power line? (b) Will this inter-
ish physicist and chemist. He is best known for discovering
that electric currents can create magnetic fields.
fere seriously with the compass reading? The horizontal
component of Earth’s magnetic field at the site is 20 µT.

Problem A.2 In a plastic film factory, a wide belt of

where F is the force acting on the first contour (the in-
thin plastic material is traveling between two successive
tegration is along this contour), and
rollers with the speed v. In the manufacturing process, the
I film has accumulated a uniform surface electric charge
µ0 I2 dx′ × (x − x′ )
B(x) = (37) density σ. What is B near the surface of the belt in the
4π |x − x′ |3
middle of a large flat span? (Near point P of the Fig. 4.)
is the magnetic field created by the second contour (the
Calculation of static magnetic field may be simplified by
integration in Eq. (37) is along the second contour). The
the introduction of vector potential. In fact, Eq. (40)
current is measured in Amperes. The Ampere is a con-
can be presented as
stant current which, if maintained in two straight par-
allel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular B = ∇ × A, (43)
cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in a vacuum,
would produce between these conductors a force equal to where the vector potential A is given by the equation
2×10−7 Newton per meter of length. Hence by definition ∫
µ0 j(x′ )
the permeability constant A(x) = dV ′ . (44)
4π |x − x′ |
N
µ0 = 4π × 10−7 . (38) Problem A.3 * Solve Problem A.2 using Eq. (44).
A2
Magnetic field is measured in Teslas The force acting on a long wire of length l carrying
current I1 from the other long wire parallel to the first
N one at a distance r and carrying current I2 is
1T = 1 . (39)
A·m
µ0 lI1 I2
For the case of continuous distribution of currents the F = . (45)
2πr
latter equation takes the form
∫ Problem A.4 Find magnetic field produced at the axis
µ0 j(x′ ) × (x − x′ ) ′ of a loop carrying a current I: (a) for a circular loop of
B(x) = dV . (40)
4π |x − x′ |3 radius R; (b) for a rectangular loop of length L and width
W.
Let us calculate magnetic field in a point with coor-
dinates (0, r, ϕ) due to a current I in an infinitely long, Magnetic field produced by a cylindrical solenoid of
straight, filamentary wire along the z axis. arbitrary cross section is
∫
µ0 Idz ′ az × [rar − z ′ az ] µ0 Irdz ′ aϕ µ0 In (drar + rdϕaϕ ) dz × (rar + zaz )
dB = 3/2
= 3/2
(41) B=− ,
4π [r2 + z ′2 ] 4π [r2 + z ′2 ] 4π (r2 + z 2 )3/2

Hence where n is the number of turns per unit length. We have

∫ chosen the cylindrical system of coordinates with the ori-
∞
µ0 Iraϕ dz ′ µ0 I gin in the point where we want to calculate the magnetic
B= = aϕ . (42)
4π −∞ (r2 + z ′2 )3/2 2πr field and the OZ axis parallel to the axis of the solenoid.
 7

The first terms of the expansion are

∫
µ0 1
A(0) = jdV ′ , (51)
4π x
and
∫
µ0 1
A (1)
(x) = · j(x′ · x)dV ′ . (52)
4π x3
Using integration by parts in higher dimensions formula
∫ ∫ ∫
∂v ∂u
u dV = uvni dS − vdV, (53)
Ω ∂xi ∂Ω Ω ∂xi

and the fact that if the boundary surface is taken far

enough, all the surface integrals vanish, from the equation
∂jk
FIG. 5. Andre–Marie Ampere (1775 - 1836) was a French = 0, (54)
physicist and mathematician who is generally regarded as one
∂xk
of the main discoverers of electromagnetism. we obtain
∫ ∫
∂jk
0= x′i dV ′ = − ji dV ′ , (55)
The term proportional to z disappears because of sym- Ω ∂x′k Ω
metry considerations, hence the only nonzero component
of the magnetic field is and
∫ ∫
∫ ∫ ∂jk
µ0 In r2 dϕdz µ0 In 0= x′i x′l dV = − (ji x′l + jl x′i )dV ′ . (56)
Bz = = dΩ. (46) Ω ∂x′k Ω
4π (r2 + z 2 )3/2 4π
Thus Bz is equal to µ0 In/4π times the solid angle the Problem B.1 Show that from Eq. (56) follows that
winding is seen from the point. Thus magnetic field inside ∫
the infinite solenoid is (j · x′ )dV ′ = 0, (57)

B = µ0 In, (47) and that

∫ ∫
and outside the solenoid it is zero. ′ ′
j(x · a)dV = − x′ (j · a)dV ′ = m × a, (58)
Ampere’s law:
I
B·dl = µ0 I. (48) where a is an arbitrary x′ - independent vector, and
∫
1
As an application of Ampere’s law we can calculate mag- m= x′ × j(x′ )dV ′ (59)
2
netic field outside a long straight wire with current
is the magnetic moment of the system, measured in A·m2 .
µ0 I
B= . (49) Thus the first non–zero term in the expansion of the vec-
2πr
tor potential is
µ0 m × x
Problem A.5 The current density inside a long, solid, A= , (60)
cylindrical wire of radius a is in the direction of central 4π x3
axis and varies linearly with radial distance r from the Differentiating Eq. (60) we find
axis according to J = J0 r/a. Find the magnetic field
inside the wire. µ0 3x · (x · m) − x2 m
B= . (61)
4π x5
For a plain loop having surface S and carrying current I
B. Magnetic Multipole Moments
Eq. (59) becomes
I
Calculation of static magnetic field created by the sys- 1
m=I x′ × dx′ = ISn, (62)
tem of dc currents at the distances large in comparison 2
to the size of the system is based on the expansion of the
where n is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane. If
vector potential
we have a coil having N turns instead of a single loop the
A = A(0) + A(1) + A(2) + . . . . (50) magnetic moment should be multiplied by N .
 8

Problem B.2 The torque acting on a magnetic dipole

can be written as
∫ ∫
G = [x′ × F]dV ′ = [x′ × [j × B]]dV ′ . (63)

Show that
G = m × B. (64)
Force and torque acting on a magnetic dipole∫ can be
found by differentiating the energy Ũ = − A · jdV .
Presenting A in that equation as A(x + x′ ), where x is
the radius–vector of some chosen point in the system, we
obtain
Ũ = U (0) + U (1) + U (2) + . . . . (65)
FIG. 6. Michael Faraday (1791 - 1867) was an English
The first terms of the expansion are chemist and physicist who contributed to the fields of electro-
∫ magnetism and electrochemistry. In 1831 he began his great
U (0) = −Ai ji dV ′ = 0 (66) series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic
induction.
and
∫
∂Ai
U (1) = − ji x′k dV ′ = −m · B. (67) If magnetic flux is created by the current in the contour
∂xk itself
Problem B.3 From Eq. (67) derive Eq. (64).
dI
Hint: Start from equation E = −L , (73)
dt
δU = −δm · B (68)
where L is the self–inductance. Inductance is measured
and then take into account that in henrys.
δm = δϕ × m, (69)
1 henry = 1 H = 1 T · m2 /A (74)
where δϕ is the infinitesimal rotation angle.
For a long solenoid from Eq. (47) we obtain

C. Faraday’s Law of Induction L = µ0 n2 lS, (75)

Electromotive force created in a contour is where n is the number of turns per unit length, and l
is the length of solenoid. For solenoid with l = 50 cm,
dΦB
E =− , (70) r = 5 cm, and n = 10000 m−1 we get L = .5 H. The
dt self-inductance of a wedding-ring is about 10−8 H.
where Consider the contour consisting of two parallel con-
∫ ductors, the length of which l is much larger than both
ΦB = B·dS (71) the transversal size of the conductors and the distance
between them. Then
is called the magnetic flux and is measured in webers;
L = lL0 , (76)
1 Wb = 1 T · m2 . (72)
where L0 is the specific inductance (independent of l).
The specific inductance of the system of two long par-
An induced current has a direction such that the mag- allel cylindric coaxial conductors is
netic field due to the current opposes the change in the
magnetic field that induces the current. µ0 ( a )
L0 = ln . (77)
2π b
Problem C.1 A long solenoid with a radius of 25 mm
has 100 turns/cm. A single loop of wire of radius 5.0 The specific inductance of the system of two long wires
cm is placed around the solenoid, the central axes of the of radius a and b at a distance h ≫ a, b is
loop and the solenoid coinciding. In 10 ms the current in ( 2)
the solenoid is reduced from 1.0 A to 0.5 A at a uniform µ0 h
L0 = ln . (78)
rate. What emf appears in the loop? 2π ab
 9

III. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

A. RLC Circuit

Electromotive force (emf, E ) is a term used to char-

acterize electrical devices, such as voltaic cells, thermo-
electric devices and electrical generators.

P = EI, (79)

where P is the power of the external source of energy,

and I is the current in amperes.
An RLC circuit (also known as a resonant circuit or a
tuned circuit) is an electrical circuit consisting of a resis-
tor (R), an inductor (L), and a capacitor (C), connected
in series or in parallel. Energy of capacitor with charge
Q is FIG. 7. Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824 - 1887) was a
German physicist who contributed to the fundamental under-
1
U= CV 2 , (80) standing of electrical circuits, spectroscopy, and the emission
2 of black-body radiation by heated objects. Kirchhoff formu-
lated his circuit laws, which are now ubiquitous in electrical
where C is the capacitance measured in farads; 1 F=1 engineering, in 1845, while still a student.
J/V2 .

Problem A.1 Find the energy of a capacitor with C = 1

pF when there is voltage 100 V between its plates.

Energy of an inductor carrying current I

1 2
U= LI , (81)
2
where L is the inductance is measured in henrys; 1 H =
1 J/ A2 .
Ohm’s law states that the power generated in the con-
ductor is FIG. 8. Series RLC contour

P = I 2 R, (82)
using the complexification procedure and ignoring the
where R is the resistance. transients we get
Consider the circuit with an inductor L, Resistor R 1
and capacitor C in series. Let an external EMF E is iωLI + RI + I = E, (87)
iωC
applied in the contour. The energy conservation law is
where E ≡ E0 eiωt . One should understand, that in Eqs.
2 2
d LI d Q (83)-(86) on one hand, and in Eq. (87) on the other hand,
+ RI 2 + = EI. (83)
dt 2 dt 2C the meaning of I ( and E) is different. From now on I
dQ and E would mean complex quantities. In rear occasions
Taking into account that I = dt and dividing by I we when real current and emf will appear in our equations
obtain we’ll designate it by index R.
dI Q Eq. (87) is the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law for the AC
L + RI + = E. (84) current: external EMF is equal to the sum of voltages
dt C
on the elements of the circuit, and each voltage is con-
Differentiating with respect to t we obtain nected with the current through the impedance. It can
be presented as
d2 I dI 1 dE ( )
L +R + I= . (85)
dt 2 dt C dt 1
V = ZI = (ZL + ZR + ZC )I = iωL + R + I.
iωC
Consider EMF changing with time according to har-
monic law Returning to the real functions,
E = E0 cos ωt, (86) I(t) = I0 cos(ωt − ϕ), (88)
 10

FIG. 9. Parallel RLC circuit

where
E0 E0 FIG. 10. Radio reception
I0 = =√ (89)
|Z| 2
(ωL − 1/ωC) + R2
The RLC circuit may be used as a bandpass filter by
and replacing R with a receiving device with the same input
resistance. A band-pass filter is a device that passes fre-
Im[Z] ωL − 1/ωC quencies within a certain range and rejects (attenuates)
tan ϕ = = (90)
Re[Z] R frequencies outside that range. The bandwidth ∆ω is a
measure of the width of the frequency response at the two
Resonance frequency ω0 is half-power frequencies ω1 and ω2 . As a result, this mea-
1 sure of bandwidth is sometimes called the full-width at
ω0 = √ . (91) half-power. Since electrical power is proportional to the
LC
square of the circuit voltage
√ (or current), the frequency
The averaged power delivered into a passive one-port response will drop to 1/ 2 at the half-power frequen-
network cies. Thus the frequencies are found as the solutions of
( ) the equation
1 ∗ 1 2 1
P = VR · IR = Re(V I ) = |V | Re . (92)
2 2 Z E0 E0
√ =√ . (95)
Problem A.2 Find the impedance of the parallel RLC 2
(ωL − 1/ωC) + R2 2R
circuit.
We obtain
Problem A.3 ** A two terminal ”black box” is known
to contain an inductor, a capacitor and a resistor. When R
∆ω ≡ ω2 − ω1 = . (96)
a 1.5V battery is connected to the box, a current of 1.5mA L
flows. When AC voltage of 1.0V (rms) at a frequency of
Thus the relative bandwidth is
60Hz is connected, a current of 0.01A (rms) flows. As
the AC frequency is increased while the applied voltage is ∆ω 1
= . (97)
maintained constant, the current is found to go through ω0 Q
a maximum exceeding 100A at f=1000Hz. What is the
circuit inside the box and what are the values of R, L In addition RLC circuit can be used as an amplifier. No-
and C? tice that from Eq. (89) follows that under resonance
conditions
In physics and engineering the quality factor or Q fac- VL VC
tor is a dimensionless parameter that compares the time = = Q. (98)
E0 E0
constant for decay of an oscillating physical system’s am-
plitude to its oscillation period. Equivalently, it com-
pares the frequency at which a system oscillates to the Problem A.4 Find the Q factor of the parallel RLC cir-
rate at which it dissipates its energy. A higher Q indi- cuit.
cates a lower rate of energy dissipation relative to the os-
cillation frequency, so the oscillations die out more slowly.
B. Ideal Transformer as a Two–Port Network
Generally Q is defined to be
Energy Stored The transformer is based on two principles: firstly that
Q = 2π × (93)
Energy Dissipated per cycle an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electro-
magnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field
In a series RLC circuit
√ within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends
1 L of the coil (electromagnetic induction). By changing the
Q= . (94) current in the primary coil, it changes the strength of
R C
 11

Thus that transformer changes the voltage

N2
V2 = VP = nV1 . (103)
N1
A transformer with n > 1 is called a step–up transformer,
a transformer with n < 1 is called a step–down trans-
former.
If the voltage changes by the harmonic law, from Eq.
(101) we obtain
V1 = iωL1 I1 + iωM I2
V2 = iωM I1 + iωL2 I2 . (104)
For a general two-port network we can define matrix
impedance by the equation
( ) ( ) ( )( )
FIG. 11. Transformer V1 I1 Z11 Z12 I1
= Ẑ = . (105)
V2 I2 Z21 Z22 I2

For the ideal transformer we obtain by inspection

( )
L1 M
Ẑ = iω . (106)
M L2

If the two-port network is terminated by a load with

the impedance ZL , then V2 = −ZL I2 . Hence the input
FIG. 12. Two-port network
impedance is
V1 Z12 Z21
Zin ≡ = Z11 − . (107)
I1 ZL + Z22
its magnetic field; since the changing magnetic field ex-
tends into the secondary coil, a voltage is induced across For the ideal transformer we obtain
the secondary. A simplified transformer design is shown iωL1 ZL
on Fig. 11. A current passing through the primary coil Zin = . (108)
ZL + iωL2
creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary
coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic There are alternative (but essentially equivalent) ways
permeability, such as iron; this ensures that most of the to describe conductance of a two-port network. For ex-
magnetic field lines produced by the primary current are ample, we can introduce the ABCD parameters, defined
within the iron and pass through the secondary coil as as
well as the primary coil. Transformer will interest us also ( ) ( )( ) ( )
V1 A B V2 V2
as an example of a two-port network, hence the directions = ≡ [a] (109)
of currents are chosen as it is accepted in that theory. I1 C D −I2 −I2
Consider two inductively coupled contours. Let their
(The parameters are also called chain, cascade or trans-
energy is
mission parameters). If we have two-port networks in
1 1 series, the ABCD matrix of the whole network is just
U= L1 I12 + L2 I22 + M I1 I2 . (99) the product of the ABCD matrices
2 2
Applying the energy conservation laws we obtain [a] = [a]1 [a]2 . (110)
V1 I1 + V2 I2 = U̇ = (L1 I˙1 + M I˙2 )I1 + (M I˙1 + L2 I˙2 )I2 . Problem B.1 a) Obtain relation between the matrix
(100) impedance Ẑ and the ABCD matrix.
b) Check up that the input impedance, being expressed
Thus equations describing the transformer are through the ABCD parameters, is
V1 = L1 I˙1 + M I˙2 V1 AZL + B
Zin ≡ = . (111)
V2 = M I˙1 + L2 I˙2 . (101) I1 CZL + D

For the ideal transformer c) Check up that for the ideal transformer
( ) ( )
L1 N2 A B 1 L1 0
= 12 , M 2 = L1 L2 . (102) = . (112)
L2 N2 C D M 1/iω L2
 12

FIG. 14. Transmission line.

FIG. 13. Electric door bell Now let the power is transmitted at high voltage Vt ,
and at the factory a step-down transformer reduces the
voltage from its high transmission value to a value 380 V.
Problem B.2 For an electric door bell step–down trans- Assuming that the inductive reactance of the secondary
former is used. The primary circuit is permanently con- winding is much larger than the load resistance, calculate
nected to the power line (Fig. 13). What does the home the efficiency if (a) Vt = 80 kV, (b) Vt = 8 kV, (c) Vt = 2
owner pay electricity bills for: for the whole time that kV. Comment on the acceptability of each choice.
the primary circuit is connected, or only for the rare mo-
ments that the button is pressed? Why does the button is
in the secondary circuit?
IV. TRANSMISSION LINES
Consider a load ZL = R connected to the generator by
the power line with the resistance Rl . Part of the energy A. Derivation of the Governing Equation
will be waisted in the line, and the efficiency is
R For frequencies from a few KHz to some hundreds of
η= . (113)
R + Rl MHz (radio waves frequencies) electromagnetic signals
and power are usually transmitted via transmission lines.
If we connect the load to the power line through the
In other words, in many electric circuits, the length of the
transformer we obtain
wires connecting the components can for the most part be
Re (Zin ) ignored. That is, the voltage on the wire at a given time
η= , (114)
Re (Zin ) + Rl can be assumed to be the same at all points. However,
where when the voltage changes in a time interval comparable to
the time it takes for the signal to travel down the wire, the
ω 2 L1 L2 R length becomes important and the wire must be treated
Re (Zin ) = . (115)
ω 2 L22 + R2 as a transmission line. Stated another way, the length of
For ωLS ≫ R we get the wire is important when the signal includes frequency
components with corresponding wavelengths comparable
R/n2 to or less than the length of the wire. A common rule
η= . (116)
R/n2 + RL of thumb is that the cable or wire should be treated as a
transmission line if the length is greater than 1/10 of the
We see, that transmitting electric energy at high volt-
wavelength. At this length the phase delay and the inter-
ages and then reducing the voltage using the step–down
ference of any reflections on the line become important
transformer (n ≪ 1) we decrease the energy lost in trans-
and can lead to unpredictable behavior in systems which
mission. The following problem illustrates the physics
have not been carefully designed using transmission line
behind this technology.
theory. The most widely used types of transmission line
Problem B.3 An ac generator provides emf to a resis- are a coaxial cable consisting of a wire inside a cylindrical
tive load in a remote factory over a two-cable transmis- ”outer conductor” or ”shield” and a twin-lead, consist-
sion line. The load is designed for a voltage (rms) value ing of a pair of conductors held apart by a continuous
380 V, safe and convenient for use in the factory, and insulator.
consumes power 250 kW. The transmission line resis- Consider a transmission line. Let us start from a very
tance is 0.3 Ω/cable. simple static case: there is an ideal battery producing
Let electric power is transmitted from the generator at voltage V on one end of the line, and a load on the other
the voltage, the load is designed for. Calculate the effi- end. The conductors are ideal. Of course Ohm’s law is
ciency of the transmission. enough to calculate the current. However, some addi-
 13

tional effects are worth noticing. First, because there is

constant voltage between the conductors, is charge den-
sity λ on the conductors, given by Eq. (14). Second, the
current is accompanied by the magnetic field.
If instead of the battery we attach an ac generator, the
voltage and the current become time-dependent. Due to
electromagnetic induction the voltage between the con-
FIG. 15.
ductors, carrying current +I(t) and −I(t), changes also
in space and satisfies equation (if we ignore ohmic resis-
tance of the wires) B. Impedance of a Transmission Line
∂I
V (x + dx) − V (x) = −L0 dx, (117) Considering plane wave solutions
∂t
or alternatively V± (x, t) = V± eiωt∓ikx ,
I± (x, t) = I± eiωt∓ikx , (125)
∂V ∂I
= −L0 . (118)
∂x ∂t we may define the characteristic impedance of a trans-
mission line as
The voltage V changes with time, so is charge density λ.
But due to continuity equation V+ V−
Z0 = = , (126)
I+ I−
∂λ ∂I
+ = 0, (119)
∂t ∂x where + and − stand for the right and left going wave,
and the directions of currents for the waves are chosen
it means that the current depends also upon x. Assuming opposite. From the Telegrapher’s Equation follows that
that Eq. (14) in the form √
L0
λ(x, t) = C0 V (x, t) (120) Z0 = . (127)
C0
is valid, differentiating it with respect to t and taking For the coaxial cable, for example,
into account the continuity equation we obtain √
1 µ a
∂I ∂V Z0 = log . (128)
= −C0 . (121) 2π ϵ b
∂x ∂t
Most commercially available coaxial cables have a char-
Eqs. (118) and (121) are called the Telegrapher’s Equa-
acteristic impedance of either 50, 52, 75, or 93 Ω.
tion(s). Alternatively the name is given to the equation
for the voltage we may obtain combining Eqs. (118) and Problem B.1 Find characteristic impedance of a coax-
(121) ial cable with inner conductor radius 1 mm and outer
conductor radius 6 mm. The space between the conduc-
∂2V ∂2V tors is filled by dielectric with ϵr = 2.4.
= L0 C0 , (122)
∂x2 ∂t2
Problem B.2 ** Microstrip is a type of electrical trans-
(or similar equation for the current). One may notice
mission line which consists of a conducting strip sepa-
that Eq. (122) is a pure wave equation for the voltage
rated from a ground plane by a dielectric layer known as
with the velocity given by
the substrate. Assuming that the width of the strip a is
√
v = 1/ L0 C0 . (123) much larger than the separation between the strip and the
ground plane d (such kind of microstrip is called parallel
One may notice that for the cases we considered plane transmission line) and that the dielectric coefficient
of the substrate is ϵr , calculate characteristic impedance
v = c/(ϵr µr ), (124) of the microstrip.
where µr and ϵr are the characteristics of the dielec- Consider the transmission line of a finite length l. To
tric between the conductors (typically polyethylene with find the ABCD parameters let us connect input and out-
µr = 1 and ϵr = 2.25). Later we will prove that this is a put voltages and currents with the amplitudes of right
universal law. and left going waves.
Problem A.1 Consider an infinitely long transmission I1 = I+ − I−
line which consists of lumped circuit elements as shown
−I2 = I+ e−ikl − I− eikl
in Figure 15. Find the dispersion relation (ω versus λ )
for periodic waves traveling down this line. What is the V1 = Z0 I+ + Z0 I−
cut-off frequency? (The linear period is l.) V2 = Z0 I+ e−ikl + Z0 I− eikl , (129)
 14

C. Transmission Line with Losses

V cos ωt ZL When shunting is taken into account Eq. (119) be-

comes
∂λ ∂I
x=0 x=l + + G0 V = 0, (132)
∂t ∂x
FIG. 16. Loaded transmission line. where G0 is the shunting conductance per unit length.
Hence instead of Eq. (121) we obtain
√ ∂I
= −C0
∂V
− G0 V. (133)
where k = ω L0 C0 . Solving Eq. (129) we obtain ∂x ∂t
( ) ( )( )−1 When resistance is taken into account we obtain
A B Z0 Z0 Z0 e−ikl Z0 eikl
= ∂I
C D 1 −1 e−ikl −eikl V (x + dx) − V (x) + I(x)R0 dx = −L0 dx. (134)
( ) ∂t
cos(kl) iZ0 sin(kl)
= (130) where R0 is the resistance per unit length, or alterna-
i sin(kl)/Z0 cos(kl)
tively
Thus for the transmission line of length l ended by a load ∂V ∂I
ZL = −L0 − R0 I. (135)
∂x ∂t
ZL cos kl + iZ0 sin kl We differentiate Eq. (135) with respect to x and Eq.
Zin = Z0 . (131) (133) with respect to t to obtain
Z0 cos kl + iZL sin kl
∂2V ∂V ∂2V
For a driving generator the system (the line and the load) 2
− (R0 C0 + G0 L0 ) − L0 C0 2 − G0 R0 V = 0.
∂x ∂t ∂t
presents complex input impedance Zin .
(136)
Problem B.3 Find the matrix impedance Ẑ of a trans- Problem C.1 Obtain analog of Eq. (127) for a trans-
mission line of length l; Using it calculate the input mission line with losses.
impedance of the transmission line ended by a load ZL .
An arbitrary traveling wave, which was a solution of the
Compare obtained result with Eq. (131).
wave equation, is no longer a solution of Eq. (136). Early
telegraph engineers discovered that if they made their
Problem B.4 Find the input impedance a) of a short- telegraph lines too long, the dots and dashes character-
circuited transmission line; b) of an open-circuited trans- izing Morse code turned into a muddled, indecipherable
mission line. mess. Although they did not realize it, they had fallen
victim to the heinous effects of dispersion!
Problem B.5 a) A transmission line with the specific To understand the problem better, consider a particu-
impedance Z0 is ended by load with the impedance ZL . lar solution of Eq. (136)
Show that the ”reflection coefficient” at the load, that is
the ratio of the amplitude of the wave reflected from the V = V+ eiωt−γx , (137)
load and the amplitude of the impinging wave is given by where
√
V− ZL − Z0 −2ikl γ= (R0 + iωL0 )(G0 + iωC0 ). (138)
r= = e .
V+ ZL + Z0 Thus the phase velocity
ω
The line is called matched to the load (or the load is called vp = (139)
matched to the line) if r = 0; all the energy propagat- Im γ
ing down the line is absorbed, and there is no reflected depends upon the frequency, hence the signal is distorted.
wave. Check up that the lined is matched to the load when The condition for distortionless transmission of pulses
Z0 = ZL . Show that a line of characteristic impedance through an electrical transmission line, telegraph cable,
Z0 may be matched to a load of arbitrary impedance ZL etc. demands independence of the phase velocity upon
by a quarter wavelength line of characteristic impedance frequency, that is the condition
2
Zm if Zm = Z0 ZL .
R0 /L0 = G0 /C0 . (140)
Problem B.6 Find the input impedance of a twin-lead Typically R0 /L0 > G0 /C0 . But, we can reduce the ra-
transmission line for the frequency ν = 5 · 107 Hz, if the tio R0 /L0 (until it is equal to G0 /C0 ) by adding series
radius of each lead is 1 mm, the distance between them is inductors periodically along the transmission line. This
12 mm, the end of the transmission line is open and the was Heavisides solution - and it worked! Long distance
length of the line is 2 m. transmission lines were made possible.
 15

Problem C.2 Another way to understand Heaviside

condition is to make in Eq. (136) a substitution
R0 C0 +G0 L0
V = e− 2L0 C0 t
Ṽ . (141)
Obtain explicitly that after the substitution Eq. (136)
turns into
∂ 2 Ṽ 1 ∂ 2 Ṽ
2
− 2 2 + b2 Ṽ = 0, (142)
∂x v ∂t
where
(R0 C0 − G0 L0 )2
b2 = . (143)
4L0 C0
Comment on the result.

FIG. 17. James Clerk Maxwell (1831 - 1879) was a Scot-

V. MAXWELL EQUATIONS tish theoretical physicist and mathematician. His most signif-
icant achievement was the development of the classical elec-
tromagnetic theory. His set of equations – Maxwell’s equa-
A. Integral Form
tions – demonstrated that electricity, magnetism and even
light are all manifestations of the same phenomenon: the elec-
Gauss’ law for electricity tromagnetic field. Maxwell’s work in electromagnetism has
I been called the ”second great unification in physics”, after
q
E·ndS = . (144) the first one carried out by Isaac Newton.
ϵ0
Gauss’ law for Magnetism
I C. Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum
B·ndS = 0 (145)
Looking for the plane wave solutions
Faraday’s law
I ∫ E(x, t) = Eei(ωt−k·x) , H(x, t) = Hei(ωt−k·x) (153)
E·dl = − Ḃ · ndS (146)
of Maxwell equations in vacuum, we see that E and H
Ampere-Maxwell law satisfy equations
I ∫ ∫
k × E = ωµ0 H
B·dl = µ0 ϵ0 Ė · ndS + µ0 j · ndS. (147)
k × H = −ωϵ0 E. (154)
Solving Eqs. (154) we obtain
B. Differential Form
E = e1 E1 + e2 E2
√
Using Gauss and Stocks theorems, we can go from the ϵ0
H= (e1 E2 − e2 E1 ) , (155)
integral to the differential form of Maxwell equations. µ0
The first pair of Maxwell equations is
where e1 and e2 are two unit vectors perpendicular to
∇ × E = −Ḃ (148) each other and to the vector k, and
∇·B=0 (149)
k
The second pair of Maxwell equations is ω=√ ; (156)
µ0 ϵ0
∇·D=ρ (150) √
hence 1/ µ0 ϵ0 is the velocity of propagation of electro-
∇ × H = Ḋ + j. (151) magnetic waves in vacuum. When two complex ampli-
We have introduced electric displacement D and mag- tudes E1 and E2 have the same phase, we get linearly
netic field H by the relations polarized plane wave. In general case the plane wave is
elliptically polarized.
D ≡ ϵ0 E, B ≡ µ0 H. (152)
√
Problem C.1 Check up numerically that 1/ µ0 ϵ0 is
equal to the velocity of light in vacuum..
Problem B.1 Show that from Maxwell equations follows
that the density and current satisfy continuity equation Electromagnetic waves with frequencies up to 300MHz
∂ρ (that is with the wavelength down to 1 m) are called ra-
+ ∇ · j = 0. dio waves. Electromagnetic waves with frequencies from
∂t
 16

300MHz to 300GHz (that is with the wavelength from 1 For Electrostatics and Magnetostatics problems Eqs.
m to 1 mm) are called microwaves. The microwave range (162) and (163) take the form
includes ultra-high frequency (UHF) (0.3 − 3 GHz), su- ρ
per high frequency (SHF) (3 − 30 GHz), and extremely ∇2 φ = − (164)
ϵ0
high frequency (EHF) (30 − 300 GHz) signals. Electro-
magnetic radiation in the frequency range 300 GHz - ∇2 A = −µ0 j, (165)
10 THz, or in the wavelength range from 1 mm to 30 and hence are just Poisson equations.
µm is called ”submillimeter waves”, terahertz radiation
or even T-rays. Electromagnetic radiation in the wave- Problem D.1 Obtain Eqs. (155) starting from Eqs.
length range from 30 µm to 0.8 µm is called infrared. (162) and (163).
(Sometimes the whole region with the wavelength from 1
mm to 0.8 µm is called infrared.) Electromagnetic radia-
tion in the wavelength range 800 − 400 nanometers is vis- E. Energy Density and Energy Flux
ible light. Electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength
range 400 − 10 nanometers is called ultraviolet. Elec- Let us find energy connected with electromagnetic
tromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range 10 − 0.01 wave. The rate of working of electric field
nanometers is called X-rays. Electromagnetic radiation ∫ ∫ ( )
with the wavelength below 0.01 nanometers is called γ- P = E · jdV = E · ∇ × H − Ḋ dV (166)
rays. ∫ ∫ ∫
= − E · ḊdV + H · (∇ × E)dV − ∇ · (E × H)dV,
D. Scalar and Vector Potentials where we have used the identity
∇ · (E × H) = H · (∇ × E) − E · (∇ × H) (167)
The first pair of Maxwell equations guarantees the pos-
sibility of introduction of vector and scalar potentials Using the divergence theorem we finally obtain
(and turns into a pair of identities after such introduc- ∫ ∫ ∫
tion). That is, from Eq. (149) follows that we can intro- P = − E · ḊdV − H · ḂdV − (E × H) · ndS.
duce vector potentials
(168)
B = ∇ × A. (157)
Hence the energy flux (called Poynting vector) is
Substituting this into Eq. (148) we see that we can in-
troduce scalar potential S = E × H, (169)
∂A and the energy density is
E = −∇φ − . (158)
∂t 1
u= (E · D + H · B) . (170)
Substituting Eqs. (158) and (157) into Eqs. (150) and 2
(151) we obtain Maxwell equations in the form
Problem E.1 Show that electric energy of a sphere of
∂ ρ radius a carrying a charge Q is: a) Q2 /(8πϵ0 a) if the
−∇ φ − ∇ · A =
2
(159)
∂t ϵ0 sphere is conducting; b) 3Q2 /(20πϵ0 a) if the sphere is
( ) uniformly charged (ϵr = 1).
∂φ ∂2A
−∇2 A + ∇ · ∇ · A + µ0 ϵ0 + µ0 ϵ0 2 = µ0 j.
∂t ∂t Problem E.2 The magnetic field in the interstellar
Vector and scalar potentials are not unique. (This is space of our galaxy has a magnitude about 10−10 T. Eval-
called Gauge invariance of Maxwell equations). Instead uate up to ±1 order of magnitude, how much magnetic
of A and φ we can introduce new potentials A′ and φ′ energy is stored in our galaxy. (You will have to find out
connected with the old ones by the equations from any source you like the size of the galaxy.)

∂f Problem E.3 How many megatons of energy are con-

A′ = A + ∇ f, φ′ = φ − (160) tained in the magnetic field of the earth external to the
∂t
earth? Assume that the field is produced by a dipole in
Choosing the Lorentz gauge the center of the earth. A strength of magnetic field at
∂φ the equator is about 2/3 gauss (2/3 · 10−4 T). A mega-
∇ · A = −µ0 ϵ0 , (161)
∂t ton is the energy released by the explosion of 1-million
we obtain wave equations tons of TNT or 4.2 · 1015 J. The yield of the Tsar Bomba
detonated at 11:32 a.m. on October 30, 1961 on Novaya
∂2φ ρ Zemlya Island in the Arctic Sea high in the atmosphere
∇2 φ − µ0 ϵ0 =− (162)
∂t2 ϵ0 was 50 megaton. In view of your answer, consider how
∂2A much you think the explosion could disturb the earth’s
∇2 A − µ0 ϵ0 2 = −µ0 j. (163) field.
∂t

Problem E.4 A capacitor consists of two parallel circu-
lar metal plates each of radius R=1 m, separated by a
distance d=1cm. A current I=1A charges the capacitor.
The power delivered into the capacitor is known to you
to be equal to IV , where V is the potential difference be-
tween the plates. Use the Poynting vector to show that
this is the rate at which the electromagnetic field feeds
energy into the capacitor. Show that this is also the time
rate of change of the electrostatic field energy stored in
the capacitor.
Problem E.5 One square meter of the earth’s surface is
illuminated by the sun at normal incidence by an energy
flux of 1.35 kW. Show that the amplitude of the electric
field at the earth’s surface is 1010 Vm−1 and that the
associated magnetic field in the wave has an amplitude
of 2.7 Am−1 .
Problem E.6 From Eq. (170) show that thee energy of
magnetic field created by DC distribution is
∫ Resistance of a cylindric conductor is simply connected
1 with the resistivity.
U= A · jdV. (171)
2
VI. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS IN
MATERIAL MEDIUM
A. Material Equations
It can be shown that in a material medium Maxwell
equations (148) – (151) are still valid, only the connec-
tions between the electric field E and electric displace-
ment D on one hand, and magnetic field H and magnetic
induction B on the other hand are
D = ϵ0 E + P
B = µ0 (H + M), (172)
where P is the polarization of the material (the electric
dipole moment per unit volume), measured in coulombs
per meter square, and M is the magnetization of the
material (the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume),
measured in amperes per meter. Often polarization is
proportional to electric field and magnetization is pro-
portional to magnetic field
P = χe ϵ0 E (173)
M = χm H, (174)
where χe is electric susceptibility and χm is magnetic
susceptibility. Hence we obtain
D = ϵr ϵ0 E = (1 + χe )ϵ0 E
B = µr µ0 H = (1 + χm )µ0 H. (175)
Relative dielectric permittivity for typical dielectrics ny-
lon and porcelain is ϵr = 3.5 and ϵr = 6 respectively.
Most materials you meet in everyday life are either
diamagnetic or paramagnetic. A diamagnetic material
17
placed in an external magnetic field develops a mag-
netic moment directed opposite the magnetic field (χB
is negative). For a typical diamagnetic material, copper,
χB = −6 · 10−6 . A paramagnetic material placed in an
external magnetic field develops a magnetic moment in
the direction of the magnetic field. For a typical para-
magnetic, aluminium, χB = 2 · 10−5 . A ferromagnetic
material can have µ ≫ 1. For example, for iron at room
temperature and low magnetic field µ ∼ 103 . (In fact,
ferromagnetic can have magnetic moment in the absence
of external magnetic field, so Eq. (174) is inapplicable.)
Conductivity of materials can often be described by
Ohm’s Law:
j = σE, (176)
where σ is the electrical conductivity, which depends only
upon the material of the conductor. It is measured in
Ω−1 ·m−1 . Alternatively, we can use the resistivity of
the material ρ = 1/σ. Resistivity is measured in Ω·m.
L
R=ρ , (177)
A
where L is the length of the conductor, and A is the
cross-section.
Problem A.1 A conducting wire has a 2 mm diameter,
a 10 m length and a 50 µΩ resistance. What is the resis-
tivity of the material?
For a good metal (like silver or copper) at room tem-
perature ρ ≃ 2 · 10−8 Ω·m. Conductivity of semi metals
is several orders of magnitude less; thus for graphite at
room temperature ρ = 1.2 · 10−6 Ω·m. For a good solid
dielectric (like fused quartz) ρ ≃ 1016 Ω·m. The relation
between temperature and resistivity for metals and most
alloys over a broad temperature range (around room tem-
perature) is given by the empirical linear law
ρ − ρ0 = ρ0 α(T − T0 ), (178)
where T0 is a selected reference temperature (usually
T0 = 293 K) and ρ0 is the resistivity at that temper-
ature. The quantity α is the temperature coefficient of
resistivity. For silver α = 4.1 × 10−3 K−1 . For copper
α = 4.3 × 10−3 K−1 . On the other hand, for manganin
α = 2 × 10−6 K−1 .
For a superconductor instead of Eq. (176) we have
London equations
∂js ns e2
= E
∂t m
2
ns e
∇ × js = − B. (179)
m
Here js is the superconducting current, e is the charge of
an electron, m is electron mass, and ns is a phenomeno-
logical constant loosely associated with a number density
of superconducting carriers.
 18

B. Dielectric Constant and Polarizability 1. Electrostatics of conductors

Electric susceptibility can be related to the polarizabil- The boundary conditions for electrostatic field in di-
ity of a single atom (molecule) α electric at the surface of the conductor S are

p = αE, (180) φ|S = const (190)


∂φ  σ
where p is the dipole moment of the atom (molecule). In = , (191)
∂n S ϵ
dilute medium the relation is
Nα where the derivative is taken in the direction of external
χe = , (181) normal to the surface.
ϵ0
Consider the method of images in electrostatics. Let
where N is the concentration of atoms (molecules). the point charge q is situated above the infinite conduct-
In condensed medium ing grounded plane. Eq. (164) and the boundary con-
dition (190) will be satisfied if we consider the electric
Elocal = E0 + E1 + E2 + E3 . (182) field above the plane as created by the charge q and its
fictitious image −q, which is a mirror reflection of the
charge q.
1 Problem C.2 Find the force of attraction between the
Elocal = E + P. (183)
3ϵ0 point charge q and the infinite conducting plane a dis-
tance h apart.
Hence
( )
1
P = Nα E + P . (184) 2. Electrostatics of dielectrics
3ϵ0

Thus we get Clausius-Mossotti relation Method can be applied in a more complicated case of
the plane contact of two dielectrics with the dielectric
ϵr − 1 Nα coefficients ϵ1 and ϵ2 . Let a charge q is situated in the
= . (185)
ϵr + 2 3ϵ0 first dielectric a distance h apart from the boundary. Eq.
(164) is satisfied if electric field in the first dielectric can
be considered as created by the charge q and its fictitious
C. Boundary Conditions image q ′ , which is a mirror reflection of the charge q, and
electric field in the second dielectric can be considered as
Applying Gauss laws we obtain conditions for the nor- created by the fictitious charge q ′′ , whose position coin-
mal components of D and B on the boundary between cides with the charge q. Continuity of scalar potential
two media 1 and 2 and the boundary condition (186) give respectively

n · (D2 − D1 ) = σ (186) q q′ q ′′
+ =
n · (B2 − B1 ) = 0. (187) ϵ1 ϵ1 ϵ2
q − q ′ = q ′′ . (192)
Applying Faraday’s and Ampere-Maxwell laws we obtain
conditions for the tangential components of D and B on Solving Eq. (192) we obtain
the boundary between two media 1 and 2 ϵ1 − ϵ2 2ϵ2
q′ = q, q ′′ = q. (193)
n × (E2 − E1 ) = 0 (188) ϵ1 + ϵ2 ϵ1 + ϵ2
n × (H2 − H1 ) = K, (189) Hence electric field in the first dielectric is
qx ϵ1 − ϵ2 qx′
where n is a unit normal pointing from region 1 into E= + , (194)
region 2, σ is the surface charge density, and K is the 4πϵ1 x3 ϵ1 + ϵ2 4πϵ1 x′3
surface current density. and electric field in the second dielectric is
Notice that in terms of scalar and vector potentials qx
boundary conditions (187) and (188) reduce just to con- E= , (195)
4π(ϵ1 + ϵ2 )x3
tinuity of the potentials at the surface.
where x and x′ are the vectors to the considered point
Problem C.1 * Consider an infinite plate at y = 0 with from the charges q and q ′ respectively.
a current density K = K0 eiωt ẑ. Calculate the magnetic
and electric field at a distance y0 along the y axis. Hint: Problem C.3 Find the force acting on the charge q in
use Eq. (163) and boundary condition (189). the system considered above.
 19

D. Electromagnetic Waves in a Material Medium E. Transmission and Reflection at the Surface

In a material medium the amplitudes of the plane wave We can introduce impedance to electromagnetic waves
solutions (153) satisfy equations by equation
k × E = ωµH E = Z H × n, (202)
k × H = −ωϵE + iσE. (196)
where n is a unit vector in the direction of the wave-
Similarly as it was done for Maxwell equations in vacuum, vector. For vacuum
we obtain transversal wave. The dispersion equation now √
µ0
is Z = Z0 = . (203)
ϵ0
k 2 = ϵµω 2 − iσωµ. (197)
With the precision of Eq. (3)
Problem D.1 Obtain Eq. (197) from Eq. (196).
Z0 = 120πΩ ≈ 376.7Ω. (204)
In a dielectric medium σ = 0. Thus the only difference √
with vacuum is that we should substitute ϵ for ϵ0 and Problem E.1 Check up that the quantity µ0 /ϵ0 has
µ for µ0 . In the conducting medium the wave vector the dimensions of resistance.
becomes complex
In a medium
k = k ′ − ik ′′ . (198)
Z0
Complex value of k, means that the electromagnetic wave Z= , (205)
n
propagating in a conductive medium exponentially de-
cays. The skin depth is defined as the distance δ through where
√( )
which the amplitude of a traveling plane wave decreases
iσ
by a factor e−1 and is therefore 1/k ′′ . For the case of n= ϵr − /µr . (206)
weak attenuation (σ/ω ≪ ϵ) ωϵ0
√
ϵ2 Both electric and magnetic field is continuous at the
δ= . (199) surface. Consider contact between a media with n1 for
µσ
x < 0 and n2 for x > 0 (we’ll put µr = 1). We seek a
For the case of strong attenuation (σ/ω ≫ ϵ) we obtain solution of the form
√ {
µσω A1 ei(ωt−k1 x) + B1 ei(ωt+k1 x) for x < 0
k = (1 − i) . (200) H= (207)
2 A2 ei(ωt−k2 x) for x > 0
The skin depth is thus at x = 0 we get
√
2 A1 + B1 = A2 . (208)
δ= . (201)
µσω
Continuity of electric field gives
Problem D.2 The electrical properties of the Atlantic
Ocean are given by: Z0 Z0
(A1 − B1 ) = A2 (209)
−1 n1 n2
ϵr = 81, µr = 1, σ ∼ 4 S · m .
Reflection coefficient of amplitude
a) Calculate the skin depth of electromagnetic waves with
the frequencies 106 and 102 hertz propagating in water. B1 n2 − n1
b) To communicate with the submarine fleet the US = (210)
A1 n2 + n1
Navy’s system (called Seafarer) operates at 76 hertz, the
Soviet/Russian system (called ZEVS) at 82 hertz. Do Transmission coefficient of amplitude
you think the frequency 106 hertz could have been chosen A2 2n2
for the communication with the submarines? = (211)
A1 n2 + n1
Problem D.3 Evaluate the skin depth values for com- Energy reflection coefficient
mon good conductors (like silver or copper) at a frequency    
of 10GHz (microwave region).  Z1 B12   n2 − n1 2
R =  =  . (212)
Z1 A21   n2 + n1 
Problem D.4 How deep does an electro-magnetic radia-
tion penetrate into your head due to a cellular phone with Energy transmission coefficient
a frequency of 900 MHz? Consider the following assump-  
tion about your head: ϵ = 50(1 − 0.3i)ϵ0 , σ = 1(Ω · m)−1 ,  Z2 A22  4Re[n1 n2 ]
T =  = . (213)
µ = µ0 . Z1 A21  |n2 + n1 |2
 20

Problem E.2 Find reflection and transmission coeffi- Maxwell equations in vacuum written in terms of po-
cients when light traveling in free space is normally inci- tentials are given by Eqs. (162) and (163). From Eq.
dent (a) on glass (n = 1.5); (b) on water (ϵr = 81). (220) follows that their solutions are retarded potentials
∫
1 ρ(x′ , t − |x − x′ |/c) ′
Problem E.3 Derive the Hagen – Rubens formula φ(x, t) = dV (221)
4πϵ0 |x − x′ |
( )1/2 ∫
8ωϵ0 µ0 j(x′ , t − |x − x′ |/c) ′
R=1− , A(x, t) = dV . (222)
σ 4π |x − x′ |
From here on we’ll consider the fields created by a sys-
describing reflection of electromagnetic wave impinging
tem of moving charges at the distance x much larger than
from vacuum on the surface of non-magnetic metal (as-
the system size d (x ≫ d). In this case we may use ap-
suming strong attenuation of the wave in metal).
proximation |x − x′ | ≈ x in the denominator of Eq. (222)
and approximation
Problem E.4 How would you expect the material with
ρ = 1.6 · 10−8 Ω·m to look to your eye? |x − x′ | = x − n · x′ (223)
in the expression for the delay time, thus obtaining
∫
VII. RADIATION µ0
A(x, t) = j(x′ , t − x/c + n · x′ /c)dV ′ . (224)
4πx
A. Retarded Potentials Vector potential allows us to calculate magnetic field.
In principle, to calculate electric field we should know in
Consider equation addition scalar potential. However, in all the cases we’ll
consider it turns out possible to calculate electric field
1 ∂ 2 φ̃ e(t)δ(x) from the vector potential only, using Maxwell equation
∇2 φ̃ − 2 2
=− . (214)
c ∂ t ϵ0 (151) in the form
Everywhere save the origin this equation is Ė = c2 ∇ × ∇ × A. (225)

1 ∂ 2 φ̃ Problem A.1 Solve Problem C.1 from Section VI using

∇2 φ̃ − = 0. (215) Eq. (224).
c2 ∂ 2 t
It is obvious that the solution has spherical symmetry.
In spherical coordinates Eq. (215) becomes B. Radiation in the Far–Zone: x ≫ λ
( )
1 ∂ 2 ∂ φ̃ 1 ∂ 2 φ̃ The condition x ≫ λ (by λ here and further on we’ll
x − , (216)
x2 ∂x ∂x c2 ∂t2 understand the velocity of light c divided by the typical
frequency of the current) allows, when calculating the
where x is the radial coordinate. Rewriting Eq. (216) in curl of vector potential (224), to differentiate only the
the form integral, thus obtaining
∂ 2 (xφ̃) 1 ∂ 2 (xφ̃) B = Ȧ × n/c
2
= 2 , (217)
∂x c ∂t2
E = [Ȧ × n] × n. (226)
we obtain two spherical waves
That is we obtain (locally) a plane wave, with the Poynt-
f (t − x/c) g(t + x/c) ing vector
φ̃(x, t) = + , (218)
x x 1
S= [Ȧ × n]2 n. (227)
one running inward, and the other running outward. We µ0 c
can consider only one of them, running outward. To find For the current harmonically dependent upon time from
the function f1 notice, that for x → 0 we should get the Eq. (224) we obtain
Green’s function of electrostatics ∫
µ0 eiωt−ikx ′

e(t) A(x, t) = j(x′ )eikn·x dV ′ , (228)

lim φ̃(x) = . (219) 4πx
x→0 4πϵ0 x
where k = ω/c, and the averaged power radiated per unit
Thus we get solid angle is
∫ 2
e(t − x/c) dP Z0 k 2  ′ ikn·x′ ′

 .
φ̃(x, t) = . (220) =  j(x )e dV × n  (229)
4πϵ0 x dΩ 32π 2
 21

1. Hertz dipole fields in the near–zone: λ ≫ x

In near–zone (λ ≫ x) we can ignore the retardation,

thus recovering the Biot-Savart and Coulomb laws
1 ṗ(t) × n
H(x, t) =
4π x2
1 3x (x · p(t)) − x2 p(t)
E(x, t) = . (234)
4πϵ0 x5

2. Hertz dipole radiation: x ≫ λ

In the opposite case (far-zone) we obtain

FIG. 18. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857 - 1894) was a Ger-

1 p̈(t − x/c) × n
H(x, t) =
man physicist who clarified and expanded the electromagnetic 4πc x
theory of light that had been put forth by Maxwell. He was 1 [p̈(t − x/c) × n] × n
the first to satisfactorily demonstrate the existence of elec- E(x, t) = . (235)
4πϵ0 c2 x
tromagnetic waves by building an apparatus to produce and
detect VHF or UHF radio waves. The power radiated per unit solid angle is
dP [p̈ × n]2
= , (236)
Problem B.1 A flywheel of radius R, with charge Q dΩ 16π 2 ϵ0 c3
uniformly distributed along the rim, rotates with angular and the total radiated power is
velocity ω. What is the rate at which energy is radiated
by the system? p̈2
P = . (237)
6πϵ0 c3
From here on when we talk about radiation we have in If the dipole changes in time by harmonic law, averaging
mind far–zone. with respect to time we obtain
ω4 2
p̈2 = p . (238)
C. Hertz dipole: λ ≫ d 2 0
Problem C.1 Find what fraction of the total power ra-
In the case λ ≫ d we can neglect the term n · x /c in ′ diated by an oscillating dipole falls on a area 1 m2 normal
the argument of the current in Eq. (224), thus obtaining to the radius vector x from the dipole. The radius vector
is at an angle 30◦ with respect to the axis of oscillation,
∫ and its length is 25 km.
µ0
A(x, t) = j(x′ , t − x/c)dV ′ . (230)
4πx Problem C.2 A massive atom with an atomic polariz-
∑ d
∑ ability α(ω) is subjected to an electromagnetic field (the
Using obvious identity ev = dt ex, we obtain atom being located at the origin)
∫ E = E0 eiωt−ikx ẑ. (239)
jdV = ṗ, (231)
Find the asymptotic electric and magnetic fields created
by the atom and calculate the power radiated per unit
where p is the electric dipole moment. Hence the vector solid angle.
potential is

µ0 ṗ(t − x/c) D. Multipole Expansion of Radiation: λ & d

A(x, t) = . (232)
4π x
Eq. (230) is the zero order term in the expansion of
Differentiating we get
Eq. (224) with respect to the parameter λ/d. The first
1 ṗ(t − x/c) × n µ0 p̈(t − x/c) × n order term is
H(x, t) = + . ∫
4π x(2 4πc ) x µ0 d
A(1) (x, t) = j(x′ , x − c/t)(n · x′ )dV ′ .
1 p(t − x/c) 4πcx dt
E(x, t) = ∇× ∇× . (233)
4πϵ0 x (240)
 22

Integral in Eq. (240) can be presented as

∫ ∫
′ ′ 1
j(n · x )dV = x′ × jdV ′ × n
2
∫
1
+ [(n · x′ )j + (n · j)x′ ]dV ′ . (241)
2
Anti-symmetric part of Eq. (241) gives the contribu-
tion to the vector potential proportional to the magnetic
moment
µ0 ṁ(t − x/c) × n
A(x, t) = , (242)
4πc x
which gives in the far-zone the fields
1 [m̈(t − x/c) × n] × n
H(x, t) =
4πc2 x
1 n × m̈(t − x/c)
E(x, t) = . (243)
4πϵ0 c3 x
Comparing with Eq. (235) we see that the angular dis-
tribution of the radiation is the same in both cases.

Problem D.1 Prove that the second term in Eq. (241) FIG. 19. Center-fed linear antenna.
gives the contribution to the vector potential proportional
to the derivative of the electric quadrupole moment, that
is Thus the time averaged power radiated per unit solid
∫ angle is
Ḋ  ( ) ( kd ) 2
[(n · x′ )j + (n · j)x′ ]dV ′ = , (244) Z0 I02  cos kd −
3 dP cos θ cos 2 
=  2
( kd )  . (249)
dΩ 8π 2  sin 2 sin θ 
where Dα = Dαβ nβ .
For kd ≪ 1 from Eq. (249) we obtain
( )2
dP Z0 I 2 d
VIII. RADIATION PATTERN OF ANTENNAS = sin2 θ. (250)
dΩ 32 λ
A. Center-Fed Linear Antenna In the field of antenna design the term ’radiation pat-
tern’ most commonly refers to the directional (angular)
In this Section we study radiation in the far-zone for dependence of radiation from the antenna or other source
arbitrary relation between d and λ. Current distribution (synonyms: antenna pattern, far-field pattern). Radia-
in a thin antenna is given by the equation tion patterns for kd ≪ 1 is presented at Fig. 20.
Problem A.1 Plot radiation pattern for center-fed lin-
j(x) = I(z)δ(x)δ(y)ẑ. (245) ear antenna (a) with d = λ/2; (b) with d = λ.
A rather realistic model of a center-fed linear antenna Problem A.2 To check up how sensitive are our results
of length d is specified by the equation to an assumption about the distribution of current in the
( ) antenna, obtain analog of Eq. (249) for the models
2 − k|z|
sin kd ( )
I(z) = I0 ( ) . (246) 2z
sin kd
2
a) I(z) = I 1 −
d
( πz )
Thus for the integral in Eq. (228) we obtain b) I(z) = I cos ,
∫ d/2 ( ) d
ẑ kd ′ and plot radiation pattern: (a) for d = λ/2; (b) for d = λ
( kd ) sin − k|z ′ | eikz cos θ dz ′ , (247)
sin 2 −d/2 2 and compare them with those of Problem A.1.

which after straightforward integration gives Integrating Eq. (250) we obtain the total radiative
[ power, and hence the radiation resistance
( ) ( kd ) ] ( )2 ( )2
2 cos θ − cos 2
cos kd π d d
2ẑ ( ) 2 . (248) Rrad = Z0 = 20π 2
Ω. (251)
sin kd
2 sin θ 6 λ λ
 23

FIG. 21. Radiation resistance of the center–fed linear an-

tenna calculated using several different methods, more ad-
vanced than the one we used.(For our present purposes it is
FIG. 20. irrelevant what these methods are.) The frequency 5 MHz
corresponds to a half–wave antenna.

The last equality is valid in the precision of Eq. (204).

Problem A.3 Consider copper wire of length 10 m and
radius 1 mm. For what frequency of the AC current the
radiative resistance is equal to the Ohmic? (This problem
explains why do we need transmission lines.)
For the commonly utilized half-wave antenna from Eq.
(249) we obtain
∫ ( )
Z0 π/2 cos2 π2 cos θ
Rrad = dθ. (252)
π 0 sin θ
Calculating numerically the integral we obtain Rrad ≈
73Ω.
Notice that formula FIG. 22. Imaginary part of the impedance of the center–fed
1 linear antenna; all the rest is the same as above.
P = I02 Rrad (253)
2
is absolutely correct and absolutely useless for calculation where Ra is the radiative resistance of the antenna, Ga is
of radiated power. The useful formula would be the directive gain of the antenna (the same as in emission)
in the direction of arrival of electromagnetic waves, λ is
1 U02 Rrad
P = , (254) the wavelength, Eb is the electrical field of the incoming
2 |Za |2 electromagnetic wave, and ψ is the angle of misalignment
where Za is the complex impedance of antenna (Rrad of the electrical field of the incoming wave with the an-
being the real part of it). This is illustrated on Figs. 21 tenna. Gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the
and 22. Pay attention that the more advanced methods intensity radiated by the antenna in a given direction
give for the radiation resistance the results which are very divided by the averaged (with respect to all directions)
close to those of our simple–minded approach. Looking intensity.
at these Figures you should understand that the linear
antenna is an oscillator, and to be able to recognize the
resonances. Comparing the scales along the y–axes of the B. Antennas Arrays
Figures you should understand the advantage of using a
half–wave antenna. If we write the phase in Eq. (228) in the form i(ωt −
For the antenna in reception it is possible to prove that kn · x), we understand that the equation can be written
the Thevenin equivalent circuit of a receiving antenna is as
∫
characterized by the impedance the same as the antenna ′

impedance Za and the voltage given by equation A(n) ∼ j(x′ )eikn·x dV ′ , (256)
√
Ra Ga λ cos ψ where A(n) is the amplitude of the (locally) plane wave
Va = √ Eb , (255)
πZ0 in direction n. When there are two antennas, the second
 24

where

ψ = α + kd sin φ. (260)

Hence
dP sin2 (N ψ/2)
∼ . (261)
dΩ sin2 (ψ/2)

Problem B.4 Four identical dipole radiators are aligned

FIG. 23. Thevenin equivalent circuit of a receiving antenna.
shifted relative to the first to the vector d, the total field
is
A(n) ∼ A1 (n) + A2 (n)eikn·d . (257)
Consider two identical vertical linear antennas at a dis-
tance d apart, the current in the second with the ampli-
tude I2 shifted by phase α relative to the current with
the amplitude I1 in the first. Radiation pattern in the
horizontal plane is
parallel to one another and are equally spaced along a
line at a distance 2.50 cm apart. They are driven at a
frequency of 3×109 sec−1 and are phased so that, starting
from one end, each successive dipole lags the preceding
one by 90◦ . Plot the horizontal pattern.
Eq. (261) and Huygens-Fresnel-Kirchhoff principle al-
low us to obtain the result for diffraction from a slit of
width D. For ϕ ≪ 1 we obtain
sin2 (πkDϕ/2)
P = Pmax . (262)
(πkDϕ/2)2
 2 C. Diffraction Grating
dP  
(φ) ∼ I1 + I2 ei[kd sin φ+α]  , (258)
dΩ For the case of a light wave, incident on the diffraction
where φ is the angle between n and the perpendicular to grating.
the line connecting antennas.
ψ = kd sin ϕout − kd sin ϕin , (263)
Problem B.1 Using Mathematica, or Maple, or Math-
Lab, or whatever, plot horizontal patterns for two iden- and our theory of diffraction grating will be based on the
tical antennas at a distance d driven in phase for (a) analysis of Eq. (261)
d = λ/4, (b) d = λ/2, (c) d = λ.
sin2 (N ψ/2)
Problem B.2 Two antennas at a distance λ/2 are P = P0 (264)
sin2 (ψ/2)
driven in phase. The antennas are driven so that one
would, if alone radiate a certain intensity I0 in all hori- The maximum intensity is in forward direction (ψ = 0)
zontal directions, and the other, an intensity 2I0 . Calcu-
late and plot the horizontal pattern. Pmax = P0 N 2 . (265)

Problem B.3 The two paraboloidal ”dishes” of the Cal- We’ll call it central, or zero order maximum, because
tech radio telescope in Owens Valley can be spaced at a there can appear higher order maxima, given by equation
distance of 1600 ft apart. Each dish concentrates the
incoming radiation onto a small receiver at the focus ψ = 2πn. (266)
of paraboloid, and the two signals are fed into a single
”mixer” located midway between the dishes. The mixer The maxima corresponding to n = ±1 are called first
adds the two signals together and evaluates the mean- order maxima and so on. Explicitly, Eq. (266) is
square amplitude of the resultant. How precisely should
the angular position of a distant point source be deter- d sin ϕn = d sin ϕin + nλ. (267)
minable by this system, if a fluctuation of ten percent
in the output signal is considered significant? Assume a
wavelength of 50 cm.
Problem C.1 Look at Fig. 24. Why does the third order
Consider N antennas situated on one line, with a phase have no red ray?
lag α between the adjacent oscillators. The resulting field
The minima about the main maximum are given by equa-
is
tion
eiN ψ − 1
A ∼ 1 + eiψ + e2iψ + · · · + ei(N −1)ψ = (259)
, N ψ = 2π(N n ± m), m = 1, 2 . . . . (268)
eiψ − 1
 25

IX. WAVEGUIDES AND RESONANT CAVITIES

A. Equations and Boundary Conditions

Monochromatic fields in empty space satisfy equations

∇ × E = −iωµ0 H (273)
∇ × H = iωϵ0 E. (274)

We’ll consider frequencies for which ωϵ0 ≪ |σ|, where

FIG. 24. Diffraction grating spectrum σ is the conductivity of the metal. Under such condi-
tions the
√ wavelength of electromagnetic wave in metal
δ ∼ c/ ω|σ| is much less than the wavelength in vac-
Problem C.2 You can find the statement in the liter- uum. Hence electromagnetic wave in the metal can be
ature, that the positions of maxima, subsidiary to the considered as propagating perpendicular to the surface,
main maximum (267) and situated in between the minima and the fields in the metal near the surface satisfy
(268), are given approximately (for large N ) by equation
H·n=0 (275)
[ ]
2m + 1 E = ZH × n, (276)
N ψ = 2π N n ± , m = 1, 2 . . . . (269)
2
where n is a unit vector perpendicular to the surface.
But from the boundary conditions we deduce that the
and hence the intensity at the m-th subsidiary maximum electromagnetic fields in vacuum near the metal surface
is will satisfy Eq. (275) and equation
4 Et = ZH × n, (277)
Pn,m = Pmax .
π 2 (2m + 1)2
At the surface of perfect conductor walls the boundary
Check up the approximation (269) by analyzing Eq. (264) condition (277) can be additionally simplified and written
a) for m = 1; b) for m ≫ 1? as

Et = 0; (278)

1. Resolving power of diffraction grating the boundary condition (275) is satisfied automatically.

The n-th order maximum for the wavelengths λ and λ′ B. Electromagnetic Cavity
appear at
For solution of the problem it is enough to consider
d sin ϕn = nλ equation
d sin ϕ′n = nλ′ . (270)
∆E + ω 2 ϵµ0 E = 0, (279)
For the spectral lines to be resolved, the angle between
supplemented by an additional condition
their maxima should be larger than the angle between the
maximum and the first minimum (Rayleigh criterium). ∇·E=0 (280)
The condition is
and boundary condition (278). When E is found, H can
δλ λ be found from Eq. (273).
δ sin ϕ = n > . (271)
d Nd

Hence for the resolving power we obtain 1. Rectangular Cavity

δλ 1
= . (272) The solutions are
λ nN
Ex (x, y, z) = A1 cos(kx x) sin(ky y) sin(kz z), (281)
Problem C.3 The wavelengths of the D-lines of sodium
are 5889.95 Å and 5895.92 Å, respectively. How large a where
grating having 600 lines mm−1 is needed to resolve these n1 π n2 π n3 π
lines in the first order spectrum? kx = , ky = , kz = , (282)
a1 a2 a3
 26

in 1894; the mathematical analysis of the propagating

modes within a hollow metal cylinder was first performed
by Lord Rayleigh in 1897. Waveguide is a device that
constrains or guides the propagation of electromagnetic
radiation along a path defined by the physical construc-
tion of the guide. Electromagnetic waves may propagate
in space, as radio waves, but for many purposes waves
need to be guided with minimum loss from the generating
point to a point of application. Several guiding systems
are of importance, including two-conductor transmission
lines, various forms of striplines used in microwave in-
tegrated circuits, hollow-pipe waveguides, and dielectric
waveguides. Hollow-pipe guides are used primarily in the
microwave region of the spectrum, dielectric guides pri-
marily in the optical region.
Hollow-pipe waveguide consists of a dielectric region,
usually air, surrounded by a closed good conductor such
as silver, copper, aluminum, or brass. The cross-sectional
shape is usually rectangular, but may be circular or of a
variety of other shapes. Voltage and current concepts, so
useful for transmission lines, are not so useful for waveg-
uides. Distributions of electric and magnetic fields, ob-
tained from Maxwell’s equations, are needed.
Let us look for solutions of Eqs. (273), (274) in the
form
E(x, y, z, t) = E(x, y)eiωt−ikz
H(x, y, z, t) = H(x, y)eiωt−ikz . (285)

1. TM wave
FIG. 25. An illustration of the electric and magnetic field of
one of the possible modes in a cavity resonator.
Consider first the TM wave. Then x component of Eq.
(273) and y component of Eq. (274) are
and similarly for Ey , Ez . The constants A1 , A2 , A3 are
∂Ez
connected by the equation + ikEy = −iωµHx
∂y
kx A1 + ky A2 + kz A3 = 0, (283) −ikHx = iωϵEy . (286)
and the frequency is The y component of Eq. (273) and x component of Eq.
ω 2 = c2 (kx2 + ky2 + kz2 ). (284) (274) are
Magnetic field is ∂Ez
− − ikEx = −iωµHy
i ∂x
Hx (x, y, z) = (A3 ky − A2 kz ) sin(kx x) cos(ky y) cos(kz z), ikHy = iωϵEx . (287)
ωµ0
and similarly for Hy , Hz Solving this equations we obtain
If all three or two of the numbers n1 , n2 , n3 are equal ik ∂Ez ik ∂Ez
to zero, then E = 0. Hence the lowest frequency corre- Ex = − , Ey = −
κ2 ∂x κ2 ∂y
sponds to the mode when one of these numbers is equal iωϵ ∂Ez iωϵ ∂Ez
to zero, and the other two are equal to 1. Hx = 2 , Hy = − 2 , (288)
κ ∂y κ ∂x
Problem B.1 Look at Fig. 25. What cavity mode do where
you think is presented on the Figure?
κ2 = µ0 ϵ0 ω 2 − k 2 . (289)

C. Waveguide Thus all the components of both electric and magnetic

field can be expresses through Ez , for which we have a
two–dimensional equation
The first waveguide was proposed by J. J. Thom-
son in 1893 and experimentally verified by O. J. Lodge △2 Ez + κ2 Ez = 0, (290)
 27

where △2 is a two-dimensional Laplace operator. The

boundary conditions (278) are satisfied if we impose for
Eq. (290) boundary condition
Ez |S = 0. (291)

2. TE wave

Because Eqs. (273), (274) are symmetrical with re-

spect to transformation E → H, H → −E, for the TE
wave we obtain
FIG. 26. Rectangular waveguide.
ik ∂Hz ik ∂Hz
Hx = − 2 , Hy = − 2
κ ∂x κ ∂y
iωϵ0 ∂Hz iωϵ0 ∂Hz with the boundary conditions
Ex = − 2 , Ey = 2 , (292)
κ ∂y κ ∂x  
∂Hz  ∂Hz 
= =0
and Hz satisfies equation ∂x x=0 ∂x x=a
 
△2 Hz + κ2 Hz = 0, (293) ∂Hz  ∂Hz 
 = = 0. (299)
∂y y=0 ∂y y=b
with the same relation (289). The boundary conditions
(278) are satisfied if we impose for Eq. (293) boundary
The solution is
condition
 ( πmx ) ( πny )
∂Hz  Hz(mn) = H0 cos cos , (300)
= 0, (294) a b
∂n  S
where m, n are integers, starting from 0 (but 0, 0 combi-
We have two spectral problems, defined by the same
nation is forbidden), and the spectrum is
equation ((290) or (293)) but different boundary condi-
tions. For each problem we obtain discreet spectrum κ2λ , π 2 m2 π 2 n2
so κmn = 2
+ 2 . (301)
√ a b
k 2 + κ2λ
ωλ (k) = √ . (295) Problem C.1 For Hz given by Eq. (300) find two other
ϵ0 µ0
components of H and all the components of E.

For the TM mode the equation is

3. TEM wave
( 2 )
∂ ∂2 2
Consider the TEM wave. In this case we obtain the + 2 + κ Ez = 0, (302)
∂x2 ∂y
dispersion law
and the boundary conditions become
k 2 = µ0 ϵ0 ω 2 , (296)
and the equation for the two–dimensional vector E Ez |x=0 = Ez |x=a = 0
Ez |y=0 = Ez |y=b = 0. (303)
△2 E = 0, (297)
The solution is
which should be supplemented by the boundary condition
( πmx ) ( πny )
(278). We see, that E is the solution of a two-dimensional
Ez(mn) = E0 sin sin , (304)
electrostatic problem. Thus TEM can exist only if the a b
conductor is multiply connected, because static electro-
magnetic field inside a cavity is always equal to zero. where m, n are integers, starting from 1, and the spec-
trum is the same as above.

4. Rectangular waveguide Problem C.2 For Ez given by Eq. (304) find two other
components of E and all the components of H.
Consider TE mode in a rectangular waveguide with
inner dimensions a, b. We have to solve equation Problem C.3 Calculate the range of frequencies over
( 2 ) which only the lowest order waveguide mode will prop-
∂ ∂2 2 agate in rectangular waveguide having the cross sectional
+ 2 + κ Hz = 0 (298)
∂x2 ∂y dimensions 2 cm by 1.5 cm.
 28

coordinate is

x′ = x − V t. (305)

The correct transformations are

ct′ = γ(ct − V x/c)

x′ = γ(x − V t)
y′ =y
z′ = z. (306)
√
where γ = 1/ 1 − V 2 /c2 . Inverting Eq. (306) we obtain

ct = γ(ct′ + V x′ /c)
x = γ(x′ + V t′ ). (307)

Often it is convenient to use proper time τ (the time

FIG. 27. Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853 - 1928) was a
read by a clock moving with the particle). Eq. (307)
Dutch physicist who made contributions to mechanics, ther-
modynamics, hydrodynamics, kinetic theories, solid state the- gives
ory and light. His most important contributions were in the
dτ
area of electromagnetism, the electron theory and relativity. dt = √ , (308)
1 − v 2 /c2

where v(t) is the velocity of the particle relative to the

Laboratory system. From Eq. (308) we obtain result for
the time dilation
∫ √
τ = dt 1 − v(t)2 /c2 . (309)

Problem A.1 In the upper layers of earth atmosphere is

born muon moving with velocity v = .99c. Until its decay
it passes the distance 5 km. What is the muon lifetime
observed by us, and what is the lifetime in the frame of
reference connected with the muon itself ?

Problem A.2 A spaceship is moving away from the

FIG. 28. Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955) was an ethni-
cally Jewish, German-born, probably the greatest theoretical
physicist of the 20th century who is best known for his theo-
ries of special relativity and general relativity. He also made
important contributions to statistical mechanics, especially
his treatment of Brownian motion, and quantum mechanics.
X. THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATIONS
A. The Lorentz Transformations
The theory is based: (1) on the relativity principle; (2)
on the axiom that the speed of light in a vacuum c is the
same for all observers, regardless of their relative motion
or of the motion of the source of the light. The existence
of maximum velocity is in contradiction to the Galilean
transformations: If the system K ′ moves along the x axis
of the system K with velocity V and at t = 0 the origins
of the systems coincide), the law of transformation of the
earth at a speed v = 0.8c. When the ship is at a dis-
tance of 6.66 × 108 km from earth as measured in the
earth’s reference frame a radio signal is sent out to the
spaceship by an observer on earth. How long will it take
for the signal to reach the ship:
(a) As measured in the ship’s reference frame?
(b) As measured in the earth’s reference frame?
(c) Also give the location of the spaceship when the
signal is received in both frames.
Differentiating Eq. (307) and taking into account that
v = dx/dt and v ′ = dx′ /dt′ we obtain the law of trans-
formation of velocities
v′ + V
v= . (310)
1 + v ′ V /c2
Problem A.3 Two electrons are moving towards each
other, the velocity of each electron in the Laboratory
frame of reference is .9c. What is the velocity of one
electron in the frame of reference moving with the other
one?
 29

FIG. 29. Standard configuration of coordinate systems for

Lorentz transformations.
FIG. 30. A source of waves moving to the left. The frequency
is higher on the left than on the right.
Problem A.4 A light beam is propagating through a
block of glass with index of refraction n. If the glass
is moving at constant velocity V in the same direction Problem B.1 Show that if a source radiating light with
as the beam, what is the velocity of light in the block as the frequency ω0 in its own system is moving from us
measured by an observer in the laboratory? with the velocity V , we’ll see light with the frequency
√
If we introduce rapidity ψ by the equation 1 − V /c
ω = ω0 , (318)
1 + V /c
tanh ψ = v/c. (311)
Eq. (307) can be written as and if it is moving towards us with the same velocity,
we’ll see radiation with the frequency
x = x′ cosh ψ + ct′ sinh ψ √
ct = x′ sinh ψ + ct′ cosh ψ. (312) 1 + V /c
ω = ω0 . (319)
1 − V /c
Notice that in terms of the rapidities the velocities addi-
tion law (310) is just Light with what frequency we will see if the source is mov-
ing perpendicular to our line of sight?
ψ = Ψ + ψ′ . (313)
Problem B.2 How fast would you need to drive towards
a red traffic light for the light to appear green?
Problem A.5 Prove the law of transformation of veloc-
ities Problem B.3 A star is emitting light of frequency ωc in
vx′
+V its own reference frame. An observer is in motion with
vx = , (314) velocity v relative to the star; v∥ is the component of v
1 + vx′ V /c2
along the line joining the observer to the star and v⊥ is
vy′ the component perpendiculat to that line. What frequency
vy = , (315)
γ (1 + vx′ V /c2 ) will the observer measure for the light?
vz′
vz = . (316) It is interesting for comparison consider Doppler effect
γ (1 + vx′ V /c2 ) in acoustics. The invariant phase of the wave is
φ = ωe (t − ne · x/c), (320)
B. Doppler Effect
where ωe is the frequency of sound wave, and ne is the
unit vector in the direction of propagation of sound wave,
The law of transformation of the frequency and wave
both measured in the immobile air (in the ether system),
vector of electromagnetic wave (ω/c, kx , ky , kz ) is identi-
and c is the velocity of sound. At the location of the
cal to the law of transformation of (ct, x, y, z). In vector
source moving with the velocity V the phase is
form (additionally taking into account that ω = kc) we
obtain φs = ωe (1 − ne · Vs /c)t = ω0 t, (321)
′
ω = γω(1 − n · V/c), (317) and at the location of the receiver moving with the ve-
locity Vr would be
where n is the unit vector in the direction of propagation
of light wave in the Laboratory system. φr = ωe (1 − ne · Vr /c)t = ωt. (322)
 30

Thus we obtain
1 − ne · Vr /c
ω = ω0 . (323)
1 − ne · Vs /c

Problem B.4 a) You are listening a band playing on

the bandwagon approaching you. b) The band plays on
the ground, but you are on the wagon approaching the
band with the same speed as before. In which case the
pitch would be higher?

Notice, that in linear with respect to Vr /c and Vs /c pa-

rameters approximation, Eq. (323) takes the form
ω0 FIG. 31. Electric field of an uniformly moving charge
ω= , (324)
1 − n · (Vs − Vr )/c

coinciding with linear with respect to V /c parameter ap- D. Transformation of Potentials and Fields
proximation to Eq. (317).
The law of transformation of scalar and vector poten-
tials (φ/c, Ax , Ay , Az ) is identical to the law of trans-
C. Aberration of light formation of (ct, x, y, z). Differentiating, we may obtain
Lorentz transformations of the fields
Assuming that the velocity is in z–direction and sub-
stituting v = v ′ = c into Eq. (314) we obtain E∥ = E′∥ , E⊥ = γ(E′ − V × B′ )⊥ ,
cos θ′ + V /c V
cos θ = . (325) B∥ = B′∥ , B⊥ = γ(B′ + × E′ )⊥ . (326)
1 + (V /c) cos θ′ c2

The fact that θ ̸= θ′ is called aberration of light. In appli- Problem D.1 Show that c12 E2 − B2 and E · B are in-
cation to astronomy aberration means that the celestial variant under Lorentz transformation. For what impor-
coordinates of a star depend upon orbital motion of the tant physical phenomenon are both of these invariants
earth and, hence upon the season. equal to zero?

Problem C.1 Obtain the results for the aberration of
light using Lorentz transformations of the vector (ω/c, k).
Problem C.2 Which of the angles θ and θ′ in Eq. (325)
is larger?
Suppose the earth would be moving relative to the stars
in the Galaxy with the velocity comparable to the velocity
of light in the direction of Polaris. Explain qualitatively
how different the starry sky would look.
Problem C.3 An observer A at rest relative to fixed dis-
tant stars sees an isotropic distribution of stars in a fi-
nite galaxy: the number of stars seen within an element
N
of solid angle dΩ is P dΩ = 4π dΩ, where N is a total
number of stars that A can see.
Another observer B moves uniformly along the z–axis
relative to A with a large velocity v = βc. Let θ′ and ϕ′
be respectively the polar (with respect to the z–axis) and
the azimuthal angles in the inertial frame of B, and let
P (θ′ , ϕ′ )dΩ′ be the number of stars within the element
dΩ′ = sin θ′ dθ′ dϕ′ seen by B.
(a) Compute P (θ′ , ϕ′ ), assuming that every star seen
by A, can be seen by B.
(b) Also in particular discuss for the limiting case
β → 1 what B sees in (1) the forward direction; (b) the
backward direction.
Problem D.2 a) Prove that if in a system K ′ either
E′ = 0 or B′ = 0, then in an arbitrary inertial system K
E · B = 0.
b) If in a system K ′ electric and magnetic fields are per-
pendicular, that is E′ · B′ = 0, and E ′ ̸= cB ′ , find the
velocity (relative to system K ′ ) of the system K where
either E = 0 or B = 0. What does it mean for a motion
of charged particle in perpendicular electric and magnetic
fields?
E. The Fields of a Uniformly Moving Charge
Let V is the velocity of the charge. In the frame K ′
moving together with the charge there is no magnetic
field, and
1 eR′
E′ = , (327)
4πϵ0 R′3
where
x′ = γ(x − V t), y ′ = y, z ′ = z, (328)
and R′2 = x′2 + y ′2 + z ′2 . Using formulas for Lorentz
 31

transformation of the fields, we obtain

1 ex′
Ex = Ex′ =
4πϵ0 R′3
γ ey ′
Ey = γEy′ =
4πϵ0 R′3
γ ez ′
Ez = γEz′ = . (329)
4πϵ0 R′3
Eq. (329) can be presented as
γ eR
E= , (330)
4πϵ0 R′3
where R = (x−V t, y, z). If we introduce angle θ between
the direction of motion and radius-vector R we have
FIG. 32. Leonhard Paul Euler (1707 - 1783) was a Swiss
( )1/2 mathematician and physicist who spent most of his life in Rus-
R′ = γR 1 − v 2 /c2 sin2 θ . (331)
sia and Germany. Euler made important discoveries in fields
Eq. (330) can be presented as as diverse as calculus and graph theory. He is also renowned
for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, and astron-
1 eR 1 − v 2 /c2 omy.
4πϵ0 R3 (1 − v 2 /c2 sin2 θ)3/2
E= . (332)

XI. RELATIVISTIC DYNAMICS

Thus, similar to static approximation, electric field of a
uniformly moving charge in any given point is directed
A. Lagrangian Mechanics
along the line, connecting the point and the instanta-
neous position of the charge, and is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between the point and the State of a system, defined by coordinate and time x, t
instantaneous position of the charge. However, in dis- is a point, and it’s motion is a trajectory in a space-
tinction to the static approximation, for a given distance time. Principle of Minimal Action states that given ini-
the electric field depends upon the angle θ between the tial (x0 , t0 ) and final (x1 , t1 ) points in space-time, the
line connecting the point and the charge and the velocity trajectory of the system with the Lagrangian L(ẋ, x, t) is
of the charge. Electric field has minimal value in the di- such that action
rection of motion (or in the opposite direction) (θ = 0, π) ∫ t1
S[x(t)] = L(ẋ, x, t)dt (338)
1 e ( ) t0
E= 1 − v 2 /c2 , (333)
4πϵ0 R2
takes the least possible value among all others trajecto-
and maximal value in the perpendicular direction (θ = ries with the same initial and final points.
π/2) From the variational principle we obtain Euler-
Lagrange equation
1 e 1 ( )
E= √ . (334) d ∂L ∂L
4πϵ0 R2 1 − v 2 /c2 − = 0. (339)
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x
Magnetic field in the frame K is obtained using Eq. (326)
If there are several coordinates, we obtain such equation
1 for every coordinate.
B = 2 v × E. (335)
c Lagrangian of a charged relativistic particle is
√
Another approach to the problem is based on calcula- L = −mc2 1 − ẋ2 /c2 + eA · ẋ − eφ = Lp + Lemp .
tion of the potential in K ′
(340)
1 e
φ′ = , A′ = 0, (336) Substituting Lemp into the Euler-Lagrange equation we
4πϵ0 R′ obtain
and applying Lorentz transformation to them dA
e − e∇(A · ẋ) + e∇φ. (341)
γ e γ ev dt
φ= , A= . (337)
4πϵ0 R′ 4πϵ0 c2 R′ The total derivative of vector potential has the form:
Problem E.1 Calculate E and B by differentiating po- dA ∂A
tentials given by Eq. (337). = + (ẋ · ∇)A. (342)
dt ∂t
 32

B. Motion in Uniform and Constant Field

Consider motion of charged particle in uniform and

constant (independent upon time) electric field. Solving
Eq. (347) we obtain
p = eEt + p0 . (351)
Considering for simplicity the case when the initial ve-
locity vt is perpendicular to the electric field. Choosing
axis x in the direction of the electric field and axis y in
the direction of initial velocity, from Eq. (348) we obtain
wt
ẋ = √
FIG. 33. Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736 - 1813) was an 1 + w2 t2 /c2
Italian-born mathematician and astronomer, who lived most vt
ẏ = √ , (352)
of his life in Prussia and France. Lagrange’s treatise on an- 1 + w2 t2 /c2
alytical mechanics offered the most comprehensive treatment √
of classical mechanics since Newton. where w = eE/ p20 /c2 + m2 . We easily integrate Eq.
(352) and get
√
Taking into account that c2 w2 t2
x= 1+ 2 (353)
∇(A · ẋ) − (ẋ · ∇)A = [ẋ × [∇ × A]], (343) w c( )
vt c wt
we obtain the expression (341) in the form y= sinh−1 . (354)
w c
−eE − e[ẋ × B], (344)
If we exclude t from Eq. (353) we obtain explicit equation
and the Euler–Lagrange equation in the form of the trajectory in the form
( ) ( )
d mẋ c2 wy
√ = eE + e[ẋ × B]. (345) x= cosh . (355)
dt 1 − ẋ2 /c2 w vt c

Introducing kinematic momentum Eq. (355) represents catenary.

Consider motion of charged particle in uniform and
mẋ
p= √ , (346) constant magnetic field. Eq. (347) can be written as
1 − ẋ2 /c2
dp
we can rewrite equation in still enother form mγ = ep × B. (356)
dt
ṗ = eE(x, t) + e[ẋ × B(x, t)] (347) From Eqs. (347) and (348) we obtain that γ is constant.
cp
ẋ = √ . (348) Consider magnetic field in z direction. We have
m c 2 + p2
2
ṗx = ωpy
Energy is defined as ṗy = −ωpx
mc2 ṗz = 0, (357)
E=√ = γmc2 . (349)
1 − v 2 /c2 where
Thus E/mc2 = γ is the measure of the relativism of eB
the particle motion. If E/mc2 ≈ 1, the motion is non– ω= . (358)
mγ
relativistic. If E/mc2 ≫ 1, the motion is ultra relativis-
tic. For electron mc2 = .511 MeV. For proton mc2 = 938 The first two equations of (357) can be presented as
MeV. d
(px + ipy ) = −iω (px + ipy ) , (359)
Problem A.1 a) In Cornell synchrotron electrons are dt
accelerated to the energy 5.5 GeV. Find γ for such elec-
wherefrom we get
trons.
b) In LHC protons are accelerated to the energy 7 TeV. px + ipy = pt e−i(ωt+α) . (360)
Find γ for such protons.
Separating real and imaginary part we get
Problem A.2 Prove that
dE px = pt cos (ωt + α) ,
= eE · ẋ. (350) py = −pt sin (ωt + α) . (361)
dt
 33

Substituting into Eq. (347) and integrating once again

we obtain
pt
x= sin (ωt + α)
eB
pt
y= cos (ωt + α)
eB
z = vz t. (362)
Thus the trajectory of the particle is a spiral.
Problem B.1 In Cornell synchrotron electrons are ac-
celerated to the energy 5.5 GeV. The circumference of FIG. 34. Radial motion of a particle in a magnetic field a)
the synchrotron is 768m. What magnetic field should be with a large positive slope; b) with a small negative slope; c)
created at the path of electrons? with a large negative slope.

Problem B.2 Determine the frequency of vibrations of

a charged spatial non–relativistic oscillator, placed in a
constant, uniform magnetic field; the proper frequency of
vibrations of the oscillator (in the absence of the field) is
ω0 .

C. Weak Focusing

Consider axially symmetric magnetic field with Bθ = 0

(we introduced cylindrical system of coordinates). Con-
sider plane where Br = 0. For the orbit of radius R
γmv 2
= evBz (363)
R
(Bz ≡ Bz (R, 0)). Consider vertical stability of such mo-
tion. The z-component of the equation of motion is
 FIG. 35. A vertical guide field as seen in a cross section
∂Br  perpendicular to the orbits.
γmz̈ = evBr (z) = evz . (364)
∂z r=R,z=0
From the equation
Hence the radial component of the equation of motion
∇×B=0 (365) (345) can be presented as
we obtain d
(γmṙ) = γmrθ̇2 − erθ̇Bz (r)
∂Br ∂Bz dt
= . (366)
∂z ∂r γmv 2
= − evBz (r). (371)
Hence Eq. (364) can be presented as r
evnBz Taking
γmz̈ = z, (367)
R
where r(t) = R + x(t), |x| ≪ R (372)

R ∂Bz  and expanding the r.h.s. of Eq. (371) we obtain
n= . (368)
Bz ∂r r=R,z=0
γmv 2 evnBz
is the ”relative gradient” or field index. Hence the con- γmẍ = − 2
x− x
R R
dition of vertical stability is
γmv 2 (1 + n)
n < 0. (369) =− x. (373)
R2
Now consider radial stability. For the motion in plane Thus the condition of radial stability is
x = rer (370)
n > −1. (374)
ẋ = ṙer + rθ̇eθ
ẍ = r̈er + 2ṙθ̇eθ − rθ̇2 er + rθ̈eθ .
 34

D. Betatron In the system K ′ the potential is just the Coulomb

potential
From Eq. (363) we have 1 e
A′0 = , A′ = 0, (383)
p = eRB(R). (375) 4πϵ0 c R′
Consider a time–dependent magnetic field in z direction, which can be written in the form
which is supposed to give time–independent radius of or-
1 eu′i
bit. Differentiating Eq. (375) we obtain A′i = . (384)
4πϵ0 c Xk′ u′k
dp dB(R)
= eR . (376) Being presented in a covariant form, Eq. (384) is valid in
dt dt
any system of reference, including the laboratory system,
On the other hand, from Eq. (347) follows where it is
dp 1 eui
= eEθ . (377) Ai = . (385)
dt 4πϵ0 c Xk uk
From Faraday’s induction law
Transforming to the three–dimensional notation we get
2 dB(R)
2πREθ = πR (378) 1 e
dt φ(x, t) = (386)
4πϵ0 R − v · R/c
Hence µ0 ev
1 A(x, t) = , (387)
B(R) =B(R). (379) 4π R − v · R/c
2
where all the quantities on the right side of the equations
Problem D.1 The orbit of electrons in a betatron has a
must be evaluated at the time tret , determined by Eq.
radius of 1m. If the magnetic field in which the electrons
(380).
move is changing at the rate of 50 Wb m−2 s−1 , calcu-
late the energy acquired by an electron in one rotation.
Express your answer in electron volts.
B. Radiation By Non–Relativistic Moving Charges
Problem D.2 In a betatron of diameter 72 in operating
at 50 c/s the maximum magnetic field is 1.2 Wb/m2 . In the case of a slowly (v ≪ c) moving charge e we
Calculate can ignore the term v · R/c in the denominator of the
(a) the number of revolutions made each quarter cycle potentials and thus recover Eqs. (235) – (237) with the
(b) the maximum energy of the electrons substitution ṗ = v. In particular, the intensity of radia-
(c) the averaged energy gained per revolution. tion in a given direction is
2
dP e2 [n × v̇]
XII. RADIATION BY MOVING CHARGES
= , (388)
dΩ 16π 2 ϵ0 c3

A. The Lienard–Wiechert Potentials

and Larmor’s formula for the total intensity is
e2 v̇2
Let us determine the potentials for the field produced P = . (389)
6πϵ0 c3
by a charge carrying out an assigned motion along a
trajectory x = r(t). According to retarded potentials When the particle is rotating along the circle of radius
formulas the field at the point of observation xi = ρ with (non-relativistic) constant velocity v, Eq. (389)
(ct, x1 , x2 , x3 ) is determined by the charge at the point becomes
xiret = (ctret , r1 , r2 , r3 ), determined from the equation e2 v 4
P = , (390)
c2 (t − tret )2 − R2 = 0, (380) 6πϵ0 c3 ρ2

where R = x − r(tret ). Eq. (380) can be presented in a and Eq. (388), after averaging during rotation period,
covariant form becomes

Xi X i = 0, (381) dP e2 v 4
= (1 + cos2 θ), (391)
dΩ 32πϵ0 c3 ρ2
where X = x −
i i
xiret .
Hence it is valid in any system of
reference, including K ′ , at which the charge is at rest at where θ is the angle between n and the normal to the
time tret , where it is plane of rotation. Such radiation is called the cyclotron
radiation. The spectrum of cyclotron radiation contains
c2 (t′ − t′ret )2 − R′2 = 0. (382) a single line with the frequency ω = v/ρ.
 35

Problem B.1 Derive Eq. (391) from Eq. (388).

Hint: Choosing the plane of rotation as the xy plane, we
get

x = ρ cos ωt; y = ρ sin ωt; z = 0

nx = sin θ cos φ; ny = sin θ sin φ; nz = cos θ.

Problem B.2 Let a one-dimensional motion of a charge

particle is described by x = x(t). Show that the radiation
resistance force having the form
FIG. 36. In panel (a), a non-relativistic electron moving in
e2 ...
Frad = − x, a magnetic field emits in the classical manner into two lobes
6πϵ0 c3 with power proportional to sin2 θ, where θ is the angle be-
tween the emission direction and the acceleration vector. In
correctly describes time–averaged dissipation of energy of panel (b), the beaming effect on the radiation is illustrated
the particle by radiation. for a ultrarelativistic electron. The main emission power is
beamed into an angle of order 2/γ, where γ is the Lorentz
Problem B.3 Obtain Eqs. (386) and (387) by integra- factor.
tion in Eqs. (221) and (222).
D. Synchrotron Radiation

C. Radiation By Relativistic Moving Charges

Synchrotron radiation is electromagnetic radiation
generated by the acceleration of ultrarelativistic (i.e.,
According to Larmor’s formula, in a proper frame of moving near the speed of light) charged particles through
reference the particle radiates during time interval dτ magnetic fields. This may be achieved artificially in syn-
energy chrotrons or storage rings, or naturally by fast electrons
moving through magnetic fields in space.
e2
dE = w2 dτ, (392) For the circular motion of electron with constant ve-
6πϵ0 c3 locity from Eq. (396) we obtain
where w is the proper acceleration of the particle, and dE e2 v 4 γ 4
the radiated momentum is zero = . (398)
dt 6πϵ0 c3 ρ2
dP = 0. (393)
Analysis shows that when the velocity of the charge is
close to c, radiation is very anisotropic due to high power
Hence in an arbitrary system
of the difference 1−v · n/c in the denominator. Intensity
e2 duj duj i is great in a narrow cone where the difference 1 − v · n/c
dP i = − dx . (394) is small. For small θ (the angle between velocity of the
6πϵ0 c3 dτ dτ particle and the direction of radiation)
Thus the generalization of the Larmor’s formula (389)
v v θ2
that is valid for arbitrary velocities of the charge is 1− cos θ = 1 − + . (399)
c c 2
dE e2 dui dui Hence the width of the cone is
=− . (395)
dt 6πϵ0 c dτ dτ √
∆θ ∼ 1 − v 2 /c2 . (400)
Problem C.1 Prove that in a 3–vector form Eq. (395)
is Eq. (400) allows us to understand the spectrum of syn-
[ ] chrotron radiation. The radiation will be visible only
dE e2 γ 6 1 2
= v̇2 − 2 (v × v̇) . (396) when the particle velocity is directed toward the observer
dt 6πϵ0 c c with the precision ∆θ. During that time the particle
will travel the distance d = γρ , corresponding to a time
Problem C.2 A particle moves in external electric and ∆t = γvρ
. In the time ∆t the front edge of the pulse trav-
magnetic fields E and B. Show that Eq. (395) is equiv- els a distance D = γv cρ
. The rear edge of the pulse will
alent to ( )
be at a distance L = D − d = vc − 1 γρ ≈ 2γρ3 from the
[ ]
dE e4 γ 2 1 2 front edge. The pulse length is thus L in space, or L/c in
= (E + v × B) − 2 (v · E) .(397)
2
dt 6πϵ0 m2 c c time. From the general arguments about the Fourier the
 36

Fourier decomposition of finite wave trains this implies

that the most intense radiation has frequency

( )
c c
ωmax ∼ ∼ γ3. (401)
L ρ

Problem D.1 In what spectral range there is a maxi-

FIG. 37. Synchrotron radiation within the electromagnetic
mum of the Cornell synchrotron radiation spectrum?
spectrum. The major applications of synchrotron light are
in condensed matter physics, material science, biology and
medicine.

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