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7th International Conference on Silicon Photovoltaics, SiliconPV 2017

7th International Conference on Silicon Photovoltaics, SiliconPV 2017
Local optimization of graphite heater to save a power consumption
Local optimization of graphite heater to save a power consumption
of The
Czochralski
15th International Si ingot
Symposium grower for PV
on District Heatingapplication
and Cooling
of Czochralski Si ingot grower for PV application
Assessing Wooseok
the feasibility
Wooseok
Nam*, Youngsik
Nam*, Youngsik of using Hahn,
Hahn,theSungsun
heat demand-outdoor
Sungsun
Baik
Baik
temperature function
R&D Center, for
Woongjin Energy a
Co. Ltd.,long-term district
37, Techno 2-ro, Yuseong-gu, heat
Daejeon, demand
34012, Rep. of KOREA forecast
R&D Center, Woongjin Energy Co. Ltd., 37, Techno 2-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34012, Rep. of KOREA

I. Andrića,b,c*, A. Pinaa, P. Ferrãoa, J. Fournierb., B. Lacarrièrec, O. Le Correc

Abstract
Abstract
a
IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
b
In Cz process,c Reducing heatVeolia loss is Recherche & Innovation,
the simplest and most 291important
Avenue Dreyfous
way toDaniel,
sustain78520 Limay, France
a company. However, in the ingot grower,
In Cz process, Département
Reducing Systèmes
heat loss Énergétiques
is the et
simplest Environnement
and most - IMT
important Atlantique,
way
this method is very difficult because it requires prediction of the internal thermal distribution to 4 rue
sustain Alfred
a Kastler,and
company. 44300
However,Nantes,
in France
designing the
theingot
shapegrower,
of the
this
heater based on the result. We have designed new hot-zone for commercial 8.3 inches diameter ingot growth in shape
method is very difficult because it requires prediction of the internal thermal distribution and designing the S-techofOSGthe
heater based
puller. on the
To predict theresult.
internalWethermal
have designed newwe
distribution, hot-zone
used a for commercial
commercial 8.3 inches
simulation diameter
program, ingot growth
CG-SIM. in S-techresults
The simulation OSG
puller.
were foundTo predict the internal
reasonably consistentthermal
withdistribution,
experimentalweobservations
used a commercial simulation
in the power program,and
consumption, CG-SIM.
oxygenThe simulation
content. results
The average
Abstract
were found reasonably consistent with experimental observations in the power consumption, and oxygen content. The average
power reduction is about 1.8 kW, which is similar to the simulation result of 1.5 kW.
power
Despitereduction
the inside is about 1.8 kW,
temperature ofwhich
grower is rises,
similartheto concentration
the simulationof result of 1.5
oxygen waskW.suppressed to 19 ppma or less as in a normal
Districtthe
Despite heating
inside networks
temperature are ofcommonly
grower rises,addressed in the literature
thesolar-cell
concentration as onewas
of oxygen of the most effective solutions forasdecreasing the
heater. And the other three major indicators for the performance were allsuppressed
similar. From to 19 ppma
these or less
results, it can in aseen
be normal
that
greenhouse
heater. And gasother
the emissions
three from the
major buildingforsector.
indicators the These systems
solar-cell requirewere
performance highallinvestments
similar. which
From theseareresults,
returned
it through
can be thethat
seen heat
the ingots have the same quality for PV applications.
sales.
the ingotsDuehaveto the
thesame
changed
quality climate
for PVconditions
applications. and building renovation policies, heat demand in the future could decrease,
prolonging the investment return period.
©
©The2017
2017 The
main Authors.
Thescope Published
of this
Authors. paper isby
Published by Elsevier
to Elsevier
assess the Ltd.
feasibility of using the heat demand – outdoor temperature function for heat demand
Ltd.
©
Peer2017 The
review Authors.
by the Published
scientific by Elsevier
conference Ltd.
committee of SiliconPV
SiliconPV 2017wasunder responsibility of PSE
PSE AG.
AG.district is consisted of 665
Peer review
forecast. by
The the scientific
district of conference
Alvalade, committee
located in of
Lisbon 2017
(Portugal), under
usedresponsibility of
as a case study.
Peer review by the scientific conference committee of SiliconPV 2017 under responsibility of PSETheAG.
buildings that vary in both construction period and typology. Three weather scenarios (low, medium, high) and three district
Keywords: monocrystalline; silicon; ingot; simulation; graphite heater;
renovation
Keywords: scenarios were
monocrystalline; developed
silicon; (shallow,graphite
ingot; simulation; intermediate,
heater; deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were
compared with results from a dynamic heat demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors.
The results showed that when only weather change is considered, the margin of error could be acceptable for some applications
1.(the
Introduction
error in annual demand was lower than 20% for all weather scenarios considered). However, after introducing renovation
1. Introduction
scenarios, the error value increased up to 59.5% (depending on the weather and renovation scenarios combination considered).
TheMostvalueof ofmonocrystalline
slope coefficientSilicon increased ingots provided
on average forthe
within PVrange
and ofsemiconductor
3.8% up to 8% applications
per decade, are that produced
corresponds bytoCzthe
Most
process. of
The monocrystalline
major difference Silicon
in ingots
production provided
method offor PV
single and semiconductor
crystal silicon ingot
decrease in the number of heating hours of 22-139h during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather applications
for PV or are produced
semiconductor by Cz
industryand
process.
is whether
renovation Theto major
scenarios difference
considered).inOn
use electromagnet production
or not. In Czmethod
the other process
hand, offor
single
function crystal
monocrystalline
intercept silicon
increased ingot
silicon
for for PVthe
ingot,
7.8-12.7% or semiconductor
pertemperature industry
variation
decade (depending on in
the
iscoupled
whether to use electromagnet or not. In Cz process for monocrystalline silicon ingot,
scenarios). The values suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and the temperature variation in
improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations.

© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Peer-review under
* Corresponding responsibility
author. of the Scientific
Tel.: +82-10-2553-3497; Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and
fax: +82-42-939-8098.
* Corresponding
E-mail address:author.
Cooling. Tel.: +82-10-2553-3497; fax: +82-42-939-8098.
parco4004@woongjinenergy.com
E-mail address: parco4004@woongjinenergy.com
1876-6102
Keywords:©Heat
2017demand;
The Authors. Published
Forecast; bychange
Climate Elsevier Ltd.
1876-6102
Peer review©by2017 The Authors.
the scientific Published
conference by Elsevier
committee Ltd.
of SiliconPV 2017 under responsibility of PSE AG.
Peer review by the scientific conference committee of SiliconPV 2017 under responsibility of PSE AG.

1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer review by the scientific conference committee of SiliconPV 2017 under responsibility of PSE AG.
10.1016/j.egypro.2017.09.083
768 Wooseok Nam et al. / Energy Procedia 124 (2017) 767–776
Wooseok Nam/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

crystal and melt convection causes the thermal stress and results in the dislocation generation, while the shape of
melt/crystal interface has effects on the perfection of crystal. So, most designs of hot-zone have been focused on the
improvement in ingot quality by thermal distribution control [1-3].
However, more researches have been made on the energy saving because the growers with the size of 20 inches
or more can manage the oxygen concentration contained in the ingot to 20 ppma or less. Nowadays, more and more
R&D is focused on energy saving through more efficient hot-zone or heat loss reduction [2].
Reducing heat loss from the photovoltaic industry point of view is the simplest and most important way to sustain
a company. Our factory has a total of 145 units which are 24 inches growers with single heating element, in order to
improve the productivity, we are operating ingot growth rate at 1.3 mm/min. However, since there is no bottom
heater, the melting time of silicon is long than both heating system (side and bottom heating). And if we don’t
increase bottom insulation, it is difficult to save the heat loss by the bottom. To do this, a short chamber must be
built between the main chamber and the bottom plate, or a new bottom heater must be built, all of which require a
large amount of money to 145 growers. Therefore, we have improved the structure of the hot-zone as a way to make
effective insulation with minimal amount of investment without any additional large-scale investment. However, in
the ingot grower, this method is very difficult because it requires prediction of the internal thermal distribution and
designing the shape of the heater based on the result, especially graphite side heater which is a main element in the
hot-zone. On this redesign, a commercial CFD code (CG-SIM V.15.3) was used for model prediction and the
predicted results well matched with the real operation data using S-Tech OSG puller. A benchmark group with CG-
SIM and the code developed by Jung’s group at Youngnam Univ. on the Czochralski modelling [2-8] In this report,
we focused on the effect of newly designed graphite heater, and the growth experiments with the new heater
assembly were carried out. The power reduction by different components and materials is excluded in this article
because of to match the actual operation conditions.

Nomenclature

Cz Czochralski
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
MCLT Minor Carrier Life Time

2. Numerical simulation and experiments

The study was focused on the energy save of 8.3 inches monocrystalline Si ingot growing operation using S-tech
OSG grower and 24 inches quartz crucibles. This grower was the 1st model of S-tech using 24 inches quartz crucible
and only side-heater was installed. With this kind of grower, the heat of the melt escapes to the bottom during the
process. Of course, the latest growers are equipped with bottom heaters and have high thermal efficiency. However,
this is made of carbon with excellent thermal conductivity, and since the heater is turned off during the growth of
the ingot body, it acts as a conductor that draws heat from the process to the bottom. Therefore, to prevent the heat
dissipation along the bottom heater, new hot zone design have some bottom wing structures, which can transfer the
heat from the side heater to the silicon during the melting process like the bottom heater while blocking the heat
escaping to the bottom. Unlike the bottom heater, however, the bottom wing structures are considered to prevent the
loss of the conduction heat because it is away from the bottom of grower and the middle of the graphite support of
quartz crucible.
Newly designed heater is shown in Fig. 1. We have improved three of the heater components, (1) upward centre
of heating position to prevent concentration of heat on the bottom of quartz crucible, (2) heater bottom-wall
insulation, and (3) bottom heating, to prevent the heat loss. The most important point is that it has high thermal
efficiency without using a bottom heater and additional power supply. To compare only the effects of the heater, all
other major variables were fixed and compare with the normal production at the same commercial grower, S-tech
OSG model. So, the amount of initial charge was fixed at 197 kg and P-type. The initial rotation of the crucible was
10 RPM and the seed rotates -8 RPM in the opposite direction. Operation pressure is 30 bar and Argon flow rate was
 Wooseok Nam et al. / Energy Procedia 124 (2017) 767–776 769
Wooseok Nam/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

fixed at 50 LPM, and the pulling speed of seed starts at 1.3 mm/min initially (Body length 0mm) and gradually
increases to 1.7 mm/min (Body length 100 mm) at the ingot body growth step.

LE IN PRESS
Fig. 1. Schematic of a final design of L-type heater for a OSG puller using 24 inches crucible(left) and photo with L-type
heater installed inside of grower(right); (a) Trench(minus off-set 5 mm, to raise a centre of heating position), (b) heater
bottom-wall insulation, and (c) bottom wings for insulation

The simulation tool CG-SIM ver.15.3 was used for the calculation and simulation of new hot-zone. It is a finite-
volume-based simulation package for Czochralski crystal growth modelling developed by STR IP Holdings, Russia.
The total cell number used for the calculations was about 35,000~50,000. Each calculation took about 3~5 hrs of
CPU time in a work station (HP Z800, Xeon dual CPU 2.93GHz). Some physical properties used for simulation are
listed in Table 1 for reference.

Table 1. Physical properties for the numerical simulations [9-21, WJE]

Materials
Graphite support and
Ar Quartz Si (liquid) Si (solid)
Heater
Properties
Conductivity 6.5957+85.4736 0.5590+0.0485 238318+314.46
0.01+2.5e-5T 24.6+2.02e-2T
(W/m∙K) exp(-0.9e-4T) exp(0.2e-3T) exp(-3.6e-3T)
Heat 2416.6587T/ 722.26+0.29T
Capacity 520.8 753.94 961.35
(J/kg∙K) (258.5866+T) -7.3e-5T2

Emissivity 0.689+1.5e-4T
(-) - 0.85 0.318 0.9-2.62e-4T
-5.8e-8T2 +7.6e-12T3
depending on
Density 2330-2.14e-2T
(kg/m3) experimental 1820 1780 2915.9-0.2T
-3.2e-6T2
condition
Viscosity 8.5e-6+5.4e-8T 6.15e-3-5.3e-6T
- - -
(Pa∙s) -8.7e-12T2 +1.26e-9T2

Some properties were modified based on references and real production results and have been converted to
functions for Kelvin temperature and these equations have been entered into the simulation program.
770 Wooseok Nam et al. / Energy Procedia 124 (2017) 767–776
Wooseok Nam/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

The 4 major properties of ingot grown through the experiment, the resistivity (4-point probe method), oxygen and
carbon content (FTIR) and MCLT (Minor Carrier Life Time, µ-PCD) were measured and compared with those of
ingots grown using conventional heaters. Even 2 or 3 years ago, for P-type ingots, adjusting the oxygen
concentration below 20 ppma did not significantly affect the quality of the solar cell, because the influence of
oxygen on the lifetime was found less obvious. However, as monocrystalline solar cells gradually decrease in
efficiency gap with multi-crystalline solar cells, the importance of oxygen concentration as a control element for
higher efficiency has increased. Nowadays, in order to mass-produce high-efficiency solar cells or PERx cells, there
is a growing demand from solar cell manufacturers to control the oxygen concentration of wafers processed to the
top position of the ingot to 18 ppma or less. Of course, in this case, the ingot producer must not have an ingot that
cuts off because the oxygen concentration is 18 ppma or more for mass production of ingots and wafers. If ingots
produced over a long period of time cannot be commercialized and cut off, mass productivity will be reduced.
Therefore, the new heater should not heat the round position of quartz crucible, to reduce the melting of oxygen
from surface of quartz crucible to Si melt at silicon melting, stabilization, seeding and necking step. The heat
distribution inside the grower was confirmed by simulation using the new heater designed before the heater was
manufactured. The major verification subjects were the heating condition of the heater and the thermal distribution,
convection of the silicon melt and oxygen distribution in the melt. The calculation was performed by interfacial
temperature analysis in accordance with the melting temperature of silicon of 1685K.

3. Results

3.1 Simulation

3.1.1. Heat distribution

Generally, ingot grower uses graphite heater which has slits in the middle [22]. The heating region is
concentrated in the middle of the overlapping of slits at the upper and lower sides, and this concentration heats the
lower side of the crucible like Fig. 2(a).

(a) (b)

Fig 2. Comparison of thermal distribution inside the grower (left) inside the Si melt (right) temperature distribution of heater and
periphery; (a) normal heater, (b) newly designed L-type heater, ① trench shape, ② heat insulation state of upper of heater wing

However, such concentration of heat has a disadvantage that oxygen is generated by heating the bottom of the
crucible. Another problem is the heat loss from the melt through the bottom of crucible support to bottom of grower.
The simulation result of the newly designed L-type heater is positively derived like Fig. 2(b). First of all, the
position of heat concentration is moved up by the trench structure. Because heat is mainly generated in the area
where the electrical cross-section area is reduced like Fig. 2(b)-①. The optimal position, depth, and width were
 Wooseok Nam et al. / Energy Procedia 124 (2017) 767–776 771
Wooseok Nam/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

calculated through simulation. Based on the calculation results, the optimal shape was selected by comparing the
power of the heater at the same ingot length under each trench condition. And the bottom wings are electrically
isolated. Therefore, only the heat of the heater is conducted, and this heat cancels the heat escaping from the crucible
to the bottom of grower. So, the inside of the grower becomes a little warmer than normal heater condition like Fig.
2(b)-②. According to the simulation result, the newly designed heater will produce the same result with less power
about 1.5 kW on average.

3.1.2. Melt convection

There is an optimum combination of crucible and seed rotations for obtaining the lowest oxygen concentration
for each operation condition [23]. In this study, rotation of the crucible was 8 RPM and the seed rotates 12 RPM in
the opposite direction, respectively, which indicate the best operating conditions for high speed growing over 1.5
mm/min using old grower.
During the crystal growth, the heater position is fixed and the crucible is moved upwards to keep the
predetermined gap (about 20~30mm) between the free surface of the silicon melt and the graphite heat shield.
Simulation results show that the flow of molten metal between an ordinary heater and an L-type heater is compared.

Fig. 3. Comparison of flow pattern (left) and thermal distribution in molten melt (right); (a) normal heater, (b) L-type heater
772 Wooseok Nam et al. / Energy Procedia 124 (2017) 767–776
Wooseok Nam/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

Fig. 3 shows the results of the temperature and stream trace between normal heater and the L-type heater,
respectively. There are 3 vortices in the melt: the buoyancy-thermocapillary vortex near the wall, Taylor-Proudman
vortex under the crystal, and secondary vortex between them. The oxygen impurity originating from the quartz
crucible wall is solved into the silicon melt. This is prevented at the crystal-melt interface by the suppression of the
flow motion of the Taylor-Proudman vortex and carried to the free surface of the melt by the buoyancy-
thermocapillary vortex [6, 24-26].
Generally, the maximum temperature at the crucible wall appears at the intersection of the vertical and bottom
wall. However, when L-type heater is used, the maximum temperature is seen in the vertical wall because the center
of the heating position is raised, as show in Fig. 2(b). The melt flow patterns are similar due to the small difference
in the maximum temperature between normal heater and L-type heater and the same combination of rotation rates of
crucible and seed. Therefore, the distributions of the isotherms and oxygen concentration isolines in the melt are
also similar.

3.1.3. Oxygen distribution in the melt

Oxygen precipitation is the one of the major indicators for the solar-cell performance is the lifetime of the
minority carriers. Oxygen precipitation in the solar cell usually reduces MCLT due to the formation of the interface
traps at the oxide surfaces [27-29]. However, in general, oxygen impurity at the free surface can vaporize to form
SiO gas which is removed from the grower by the flow of the argon gas [30]. However, the amount of oxygen
impurities remaining in the silicon melt may vary depending on the shape of the hot zone and the combination of
rotation of the crucible and the seed. Therefore, the increase in oxygen concentration is a result of contrary to the
purpose of heater improvement.
A commercial simulation code CG-SIM was used to predict the oxygen concentration in the melt due to the
silicon ingot growth using the Cz method. The comparison results of the calculations are shown on Fig. 4 for
situations. According to the calculation result, the L-type heater designed to control the heat loss at the bottom of the
graphite crucible caused the heat concentration at the intersection of the vertical and bottom wall to prevent the
oxygen concentration from rising. As a result, isoline of oxygen is distributed along the isotherm in the melt. The
oxygen concentration at the interface is slightly lower than that of the normal heater. The released oxygen
concentration from the crucible wall decreases as the temperature of the crucible wall and the amount of contact
surface of the melt and the crucible wall decrease. So, the temperature and oxygen gradients near the crystal-melt
interface become smaller when the length of crystal increases. In the results, the oxygen concentration was
distributed according to the respective temperature distributions when the general heater and the L-type heater were
used. So, when the normal heater is used, the lower part of the quartz crucible is hotter, so more oxygen should be
solved in the melt. However, the amount of oxygen precipitations delivered to the silicon ingot that is growing at
high speed pulling condition did not increase or decrease greatly than semiconductor ingot pulling. This is
fundamentally a limitation of the ingot of solar cell growing apparatus. A semiconductor ingot using an
electromagnet exhibits a much smaller amount of oxygen concentration since the convection is largely stabilized
and the absolute amount of solved oxygen present in the melt is lowered.
 Wooseok Nam et al. / Energy Procedia 124 (2017) 767–776 773
Wooseok Nam/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

Fig. 4. Comparison of calculated distribution of oxygen concentration;

(left) normal heater, (right) L-type heater

According to the experimental data, distributions of Oi level at the top position of ingot were 17~19 ppma on
average using normal heater condition, and similar results were obtained using other heater, fortunately. The optimal
location of the trench was set through simulation. These results are compared with actual production results for each
heater, and it is confirmed that they are similar to each other and shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Comparison of Oi level of ingots produced according to heater type using same grower and growing condition.

Comparing the actual production results, the oxygen concentration was lower than that of the general heater by
about 0.4 ppma based on the median value. Therefore, by increasing the heating center of the L-type heater and the
insulation of the lower part of the graphite crucible using the wings of heater helped control the oxygen precipitation.
774 Wooseok Nam et al. / Energy Procedia 124 (2017) 767–776
Wooseok Nam/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

3.2 Heater power consumption

The comparison of average heater power trends between commercial operation and experiments is shown in
Fig. 6. For comparison, we used a single grower. The average power consumption range is decreased from about
52.5 to about 50.7 kW.
The average pulling rate (growth rate) at the body step was about 1.3 mm/min, Ar flow rate was kept 30 LPM
and pressure was 30 torr. As shown, the power consumption was slightly decreased. What this means is that the
newly designed heater works as intended. As mentioned above, the thermal distribution, shown in Fig. 2(b), was
much higher temperatures under the bottom of crucible than normal heater. This means that it is possible to reduce
the amount of heat required to maintain the Si melt by effectively blocking the heat loss to the bottom.

Fig. 6. Comparison of average heater power histories by ingot growth using normal and L-type new heater.

According to the result, the power of about 0.87 kWh/mm is required for 8.3 inches ingot growth using a normal
heater. On the other hand, in case of L-type heater, it can grow with power of about 0.85 kWh/mm (calculated by
raw data integration). In conclusion, the newly designed heater worked as intended. Therefore, we will save
approximately 40 kWh/ingot reduction in body step based on 2,000 mm ingot.

4. Conclusions

We have designed new hot-zone for commercial 8.3 inches diameter ingot growth in S-tech OSG puller. The
simulation using CG-SIM was found reasonably consistent with experimental observations in the power
consumption, and oxygen content. The average power reduction is about 1.8 kW, which is similar to the simulation
result of 1.5 kW.
The other properties except oxygen concentration are the same as those of mass-produced ingots. Despite the
inside temperature of grower increasing, the concentration of oxygen was suppressed to 19 ppma or less as in a
normal heater. Particularly, it is very encouraging that the oxygen concentration for the high efficiency solar cell is
18 ppma or less based on the median value. And the other three major indicators for the solar cell performance were
 Wooseok Nam et al. / Energy Procedia 124 (2017) 767–776 775
Wooseok Nam/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

all similar. From these results, it can be seen that the ingots have the same quality for PV applications. The newly
designed heater has worked successfully and is expected to be of industrial benefit.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Korea Institute for Advancement of Technology(KIAT) of S. Korea, for the
support of this work through Project No. N0001972.

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