Biostudy with Nikhil

Ch6) Plant Water Relation

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The End
Biostudy with Nikhil

Ch7) Plant Growth &

Minerals nutrition

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The End
 Biostudy with Nikhil

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BIOSTUDY WITH NIKHIL

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The End
Biostudy with Nikhil

Ch9) Control & Coordination

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The End
Biostudy with Nikhil

Chapter 10)
HUMAN HELTH & DISEASE

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 1)The stage of complete physical, mental and social well beige
is called as health.
2) Health simply does not simple means disease free condition
or physical fitness.

Heath is affected by :-
a) Genetic disorders
- The defect which child inherits from it parent
b) Infection from microbes or other organisms.

l
c) Life style- includes food and water we take, exercise and rest.

hi
ik
Good heath can be maintained by:
-Personal hygiene, N
ith
-Regular exercise,
-Awareness about the disease and their effect,
w

-Immunization against the infections disease,

dy

-Proper disposal of wastage

control of rectors,
tu

-Maintenance of hygienic food & water.

os

Disease
Bi

A) Infectious disease B) Non-infectious disease

Diseases which are easily The disease which can not

transmitted From one person to easily transmitted From one
another person are called as person to
infectious disease another person is called as non
egg. AIDS, common cold, malaria, infectious disease
tuberculosis etc. .egg Cough, fever
 concepts of Immunology
1) Immunology is the science which deals with the study of
immune system, immune responses to foreign
substance and their role in resisting infection.

2) The study of structure and function of immune system is

called basic immunology.

l
hi
3) The human immune system consists of lymphoid organs
tissues, widely distributed cells and molecules like

ik
antibodies.
N
ith
4) The most peculiar characteristics of immune system are
w

a) It can differentiate between

dy

self (own body cells or molecule) &

non-self ( foreign molecules)
tu

It possesses immunological memory.

os

b)
Bi

5) Any foreign substance invading body and capable of

simulating an immune response it is called an antigen.

6) The protective chemicals produced by immune cells in

response to antigens are called antibodies
 Types of Immunity-

a) Innate immunity b) Acquired immunity

(Inborn immunity)

Innate immunity
it also called natural Immunity it is present from birth. It does
not depends on previous posure to foreign substance. It is
also called as non-specific immunity,
because of comprises of all those defence elements.

l
hi
It consists of following types of barriers:

ik
1) Anatomical
2) Physilogical
3) phagocytic
N
ith
4) Inflammatory
w

Anatomical barriers
dy

1)

these barriers prevent entry of the microorganisms into the

tu

body. They include skin and mucous membrane.

Mucous membrane secretes mucous and the mucous
os

coating of the epithelial lining of the respiratory

Bi

gastrointestinal and urinogenital tracts help trapping

microbes entering the body.

2) Physilogical barriers
physilogical barriers like body temperature.
pH of body secretions prevent growth of many invading
pathogenic micro-organisms.
Acidity of gastric juice in stomach kills most of the ingested
micro organisms.
3) phagocytic barriers (cellular barriers)
These bring about phagocytosis of invading microbes.
Neutrophils and monocytes are phagocytic leucocytes
which engulf and destroy invading microbes,
macrophages are large irregular shaped.
e.g. Kupfferis cells of liver
4) Inflammatory barriers
An infection of tissue injury often causes redness,
swelling & pain the production of heat that may result
in fever, such localized manifestation is called inflammatory

l
hi
response This response is due to release of the certain

ik
chemicals such as histamines and prostaglandins.
Acquired Immunity N
ith
Ability of the body to defend itself against invading foreign
agents like bacteria, viruses, toxins and transplanted tissues
w

is called specific resistance. This resistance of immunity that

dy

and individual acquires during life is called acquired immunity.

Unique Features of acquired immunity.
tu

1) Specificity
os

It is the ability to differentiate yarious foreign molecules, It is

Bi

specific for each type of pathogen

2) Diversity
It can recognize a vast variety of diverse pathogens or foreign
molecules.
3) Discrimination between self and non-self
It is able to differentiate between own body cells(self) and
foreign cells or molecules (non-self)
4) Memory
when the immune system encounters a specific pathogen
for the first time, it generates immune responses &eliminate
the invader
 Types of Acquired Immunity.

1) Acquired active immunity.

is the resistance developed by an individual as a result

of an antigenic stimulus of invading pathogens of
vaccine. it is of two types.

l
hi
ik
Natural acquired B) Artificial acquired
A)

active immunity. Nactive immunity.

ith
Immunity acquired This immunity is acquired
w

due to infection is Actively by Vaccination,

vaccines contain dead or
dy

called as natural
acquired active live but they artificially
tu

immunity. weaked pathogen or

os

it is developed after toxins

entry of pathogens consisting of microbial
Bi

in the body. compounds or toxins

secreted by the
pathogens.
eg. person who has
recovered from an eg. polio vaccine, BCG
attack of measles. vaccine, etc.
 2) Acquired passive immunity:
Passive immunity is go acquired when readymade antibodies
are received by the body passive immunity can be acquired
either naturally or artificially

l
hi
1) Natural acquired 2)Artificial acquired

ik
passive immunity passive immunity
N
This immunity is
ith
Before birth developed by
w

maternal injecting previously

antibodies are prepared antibodies
dy

transferred from using serum from

tu

mother to foetus humans or animals.

through placenta. eg. antibodies
os

obtained from
Bi

after birth hyperimmunised

antibodies are horses are injected to
transferred from humans against
mother to child rabies pathogens.
infant through
clostrum.
Lymphocytes (cells of immune system)

1) These are the chief cells of specific immune

System of the body.

2) 2) They are of two types

l
hi
-T- lymphocytes (T cells)

ik
-B - lymphocytes (B-cells)

3)
N
3) Both the types of lymphocytes, are
ith
produced from stem cells in bone marrow by a
process called haematopoiesis.
w
dy

4) 4) The mature lymphocytes circulate in the

body fluids and many of them reside in
tu

lymphoid organs such as the lymph nodes,

os

spleen etc.
Bi
Mechanism of action of T-lymphocytes on antigens

on coming in contact with an antigen a T-lymphocyte

forms a clone of T-cells which are similar but they perform
different functions. as the clone has four types of

Helper (T cells)
T-lymphocytes Killer (T-cells)
suppressor (T-cells)
Memory T-cells,

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hi
1)Helper T-cells,

ik
N
sensitized helper T-cells produce lymphokines for performing
ith
several types of functions like proliferation of other T-cells,
simulation of B-Lymphocytes attraction of macrophages etc.
w

2) killer T-cells or cytotoxic-cells,

dy
tu

They directly attack and destroy invading microbes.

os

infected body cells and cancer cell. It also releases cell killing
substances, hence the name cytotoxic T-cell
Bi

3)suppressor T-cells

These cells suppress entire immune system against attack on

the own body cells

4)Memory T-cells.

These cells previously sensitized & retain the sensitization for

future.
Mechanism of action of B-Lymphocytes to
antigens

1) B-lymphocytes are sensitized both directly by antigens as

well as by helper T-cells

2) Activated B-lymphocyte multiples very fast to produce

clone of plasma cells and memory B-cells.

The plasma cells produce specialized glycoprotein called

l
3)

hi
antibodies which passed through body fluids like blood

ik
and lymph
N
The antibody molecules may bind to a cell membrane or
ith
4)

they may free

w

The free antibodies have three main function

dy

5)

Agglutination of particulate matter, including bacteria

tu

and viruses,
os

Antigen presenting cells

Bi

6) These are specialized cells which include macro-phages,

B-lymphocytes and dendritic cells.
eg. (Langerhans cells of epidermis of skin)

2) Antigen presenting cells engulf invading pathogens and

process the antigens.

3) These cells are able to deliver a co-stimulatory signal that

is necessary for T-cell activation.
 Structure of Antibody

1) Antibodies are glycoproteins which are highly specific

to specific antigens.

2) They are the also called as immunoglobulins.

3) Antibodies are produced by plasma

cells which in turn are formed by

l
B - lymphocytes.

hi
ik
The plasma cell produces about 2000 molecules of
N
4)

antibodies per second.

ith
Antibody is a ‘y’ shaped structure. It consists of four
w

5)

polypeptide chains, two heavy or H chains

dy

and two light or L chains.

tu

6) The four polypeptide chains are held together by

os

disulphide bonds (s-s) to form ‘y’ shaped structure

Bi

7) Variable regions constitute the antigen-binding site.

(paratope)

8) Most antibodies carry two antigen binding sites, they

are said to be bivalent.
Bi
os
tu
dy
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ith
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ik
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 Vaccination.
1) Administration of vaccine i.e.
(inactivated pathogen or antigenic protection of
particular pathogen) to protect against pathogen is
called as vaccination

2) The body’s immune system helps to protect against

pathogens that cause infection.

l
hi
3) The pathogens most likely to cause problems, are the

ik
ones the body do not recognize.
N
4) Vaccination is a way to teach the immune system as to
ith
how to recognize and eliminate pathogenic organisms
w

5) vaccination is an important form of primary prevention

dy

that can protect people from getting sick, vaccination

tu

has allowed us to control disease Like measles, polio

tetanus and whopping caught that once threatened
os

many lives.
Bi

6) Its important that as many people as possible. get

vaccinated, vaccinations don’t just protect Individuals
when enough people are vaccinated,

7) It also helps to protect the society.

Formation of antigen antibody complex.

1) study of antigen-antibody interaction is called as serology,

each antibody is specific for a particular antigen

2) combining sites of antigen, called antigenic determinants

(epitopes) react with the corresponding antigen binding sites
of antibodies called as Paratopes

l
hi
ik
N
3) The antigen binding sites (paratopes) are located on the
variable regions of the antibody.
ith
w

4) Small Variations in the variable regions make each antibody

dy
tu

highly specific for a particular antigen.

os
Bi

5) The variable region enables the antibody to recognize the

specific antigen and bind the specific antigen lock and key
manner forming an antigen antibody complex .
Antigen on Blood cells

1) There are several known antigen on the surface of

human red blood cells.

2) There are many genetically determined blood groups

system

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ith
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 ABO Blood Groups.

1) The A, B and 0 blood groups were discovered by Karl

Landsteiner in 1900. after that the blood group AB was
discovered by Landsteiners students decastello and sturli in
1902

2) Landsteiner found two antigen or agglutinogens on the

surface of human red blood cells and named them as antigen
A and antigen B.

l
hi
ik
3) He also noticed the corresponding antibodies or agglutinius
in the serum called a) & b).
N
ith
4) The blood group of person is classified in to four groups A B,
AB and O
w
dy

1) Blood group A 3) Blood group AB

Individuals, with blood group Individual with blood group
tu

(A) have the antigen A on the (AB) have both antigen on

os

surface of their red blood cells their the surface of their

Bi

(RBCs) & antibody b in their (RBCs) and no antibody in

plasma. their plasma.

2) Blood group B 4)Blood group 0

Individuals with blood group Individual with blood group
(AB) have the antigen B on the (0) have both antigen on
surface of their (RBCs) and no this the surface of their
antibodies in their plasma. (RBCs) and show presence
of both ’A’& ‘B’ antibodies
in their plasma.
 l
hi
ik
Rh factor N
ith
1) Rh is the most complex of the blood group System
Rh- factor is an antigenic protein present on the
w

surface of the red blood cells in the human beings.

dy

2) It was first discovered by Landsteiner and Wiener

tu

(1940),on the surface of RBCs of Rhesum monkey so

os

it is called Rh- factor & also called as (D antigen)

Bi

3) The person having Rh factor (D antigen) are called Rh

positive (Rh+ve) and those lacking of D-antigen
are called Rh negative ( Rh-ve)

4) Rh- blood group is an important factor in blood

transfusion and it involved in haemolytic diseases of
the Newborn (HPN) which is called as
erythroblastosis Foetalis.
 common Human Diseases

All human diseases can be broadly categorized into congenital

diseases and acquired diseases

A) Congenital
1) diseases are present from birth may be caused by genetic
abnormality or metabolic disorders.

l
hi
2) They may be permanent and were practically incurable

ik
3) Modern diseases research has helped to cure some inborn
N
diseases through gene therapy, enzyme replacement therapy,
ith
etc.
w

B) Acquired
dy

disease develop after a birth can be sub divided into

1)communicable or infectious diseases
tu

2)non- communicable or non infectious diseases.

os

communicable.
Bi

a)

The diseases which are transmitted from infected person to

another healthy person either directly or indirectly are
known as communicable or Infectious diseases.
eg. Malaria

b) Non communicable.
The diseases which not transmitted from infected
person to another healthy person either directly or
indirectly are known as non communicable disease
eg. cancer
 A) Malaria
It is a vector (mosquito) borne infectious disease caused by
protist plasmodium.

There are four species of plasmodium

p vivax
P ovale,
P malaria,

l
P falciparum.

hi
Only P falciparum causes serious illness while others are fatal.

ik
1)Signs and Symptoms
N
ith
w

symptoms of malaria begin to appear about 7 to 15 days after

the bite of infective mosquito
dy
tu

Initial symptom are fever, headache, and chills may be difficult

os

to recognized as malaria
Bi

classical symptoms of malaria is cyclic occurrence of high fever

followed by sweating and sudden shievering such entire episode
lasts for 4 to 6 hours and recurs every two days or three days.

vomiting and convulsions.

Arthralgia (joint pain), aneamia due to repturing of RBCs.

Haemoglobinuria, hepatomegaly (liver enlargement)
Retinal domage(eye),
cerebral malarial (brain infection)
2) Modes of transmission
1) plasmodium is transmitted from one person to other through
an insect vector - female anopheles mosquito

2) when infected female Anopheles sucks the human blood, it

may transfer sporozoites to human circulation.

3) sporozoites reproduce asexually through fission in the liver

cells or erythrocytes, the cells are formed are now called

l
hi
merozoites.

ik
N
4) The cells formed within erythrocytes function as gametocytes
(gamogony). Besides, if forms gametocytes within erythrocytes
ith
(gametocytes)
w

5) oocyst Forms large number of haploid sporozoites through

dy

meiosis (sporogony) sporozoites migrates to salivary glands and

tu

are ready to infect any human host.

os

3)Diagnosis and Treatment

Bi

1) malaria can diagnosed by microscopic study of blood smear

Besides, other rapid diagnostic tests based on nucleic acid
amplification techniques are also used.

2) Treatment of malaria includes artemisin based combination

therapies (ACTs). who has recommended five different Acts
which includes various combinations of artesunate sulfadoxine,
pyrimethamine etc.
In addition quinine is also used.
4) Prevention and control.
1) Prevention of mosquito bite by using mosquito nets and
insect repellents
2) Spraying insecticides and draining stagnant water where
mosquito lays eggs.
3) Mosquito larve con be controlled by using Gambusia fresh
water fish (biocontrol).

l
hi
ik
N
ith
w
dy
tu
os
Bi
 B) Amoebiasis
Amoebiasis is also known as amoebic dysentry it’s a common
infection of human gastro intestinal tract which affects 15%
population of India.
Amoebiasis is caused by a protist parasite-Entamoeba
histolytica,

1)Signs and Symptoms

l
l) Diarrhoea, flatwence, stool with mucus and abdominal pains

hi
(cramps) are common.

ik
N
2) passing of blood with stool is common in several cases.
ith
3) Hepatomegaly occurs if parasite enters the liver develops
w

amoebic liver abscess accompanied with fever and pain in right

dy

abdomen.
tu

2) Mode of transmission
os

1) Foeco- Oral route.

Bi

2)Eating with dirty hands

3) Containing food and water

3) Diagnosis and Treatment.

1)diagnosis of amoebiasis is made through microscopic
examination of the stool sample.

2)Amoebiasis is treated by the use of metronidazole and

tinidazole which can destroy the E. histolytica in the digestive
tract as well as other tissues.
4) Prevention and control.
1) Wash hands with water and soap after using toilets &
changing body’s diaper.
2) Drink boiled water otherwise water must be chlorinated &
filtered. Avoid eating unhygenic food.
3) vegetables must be properly washed and cooked. proper
sanitary facilities including sewage disposal help in prevention

l
hi
ik
N
ith
w
dy
tu
os
Bi
 C) Ascariasis
It is an infectious disease of human intestinal tract, caused by
roundworm- Ascaris lumbricoides is an endoparasitic
roundworm or nematobe

1) Signs and symptoms

•
Gastro-intestinal discomfort accompanied with vomiting
•
and fever

l
•
presence of live worms in feacal matter

hi
•
Pulmonary disorders occur in some patients, Pneumonitis

ik
(inflammation in aveolar wall)
•
Loss of apetite and weight loss N
ith
•
Eosinophilia ( number of eosinophils is increased )
w

2) Mode of transmission
dy

food and drinks contaminated with the eggs of these worm

tu

1)

is the main mode of transmission,

os

2) Eggs hatch inside the intestine of the new host

Bi

3) The larvae pass through various organs and settle as adults

in the digestive system.

3) Diagnosis and Treatment

4) Diggnosis can be done by microscopic examination
of the stool.
2) Anti-helminthic drugs like piperazine mebendozole,
Levamisole,Pyrantel are effective against Ascaris
lumbricoides
4) Prevention and control
1) Avoiding defaecation in open space prevents the
spread of Ascaris, personal hygienic habits like
washing hand with water and soap of after using
toilet are also important

2) Washing vegetables throughly before cooking and

avoiding raw vegetable is important of prevention of
ascariasis.

l
hi
ik
N
ith
w
dy
tu
os
Bi
D) Filariasis Elephantiasis.

1) filariasis caused by thread like Worms -nematodes.

these nematode parasites are transported from person to
person by mosquito bite.
filariasis can be divided into 3 subtypes

1) Lymphatic filariasis
2) Subcutaneous filariasis

l
hi
3) serous (abdominal) cavity filariasis

ik
1)Lymphatic Filariasis
Elephantiasis is caused by the N
ith
worms-wucheneria bancofti, Brygio malayi , Brugia timori
w

Signs and symptom

dy

1)

1) Edema with thickening of skin and underlying tissue

tu
os

2) Wuchereria bancrofti affects the legs, arms, breasts ,scrotum

etc
Bi

3) lymphatic filariasis , worms infect lymphatic system, and

causes enlargment of lymph vessels and nodes,
this is elephantiasis i.e. lymph are Swollen like legs of elephant.

4) Lymphedema i.e. accumulation of lymph fluid in tissue

causing swelling,

5) Hydrocele i.e. testis are enlarged due to accumulation of

lymphatic Fluid in testis.
2)Mode of transmission
1)Wuchereria bancrofti is transmitted human to human body
by female culex mosquito.

2) The larvae escape mosquito body and arrive on the human

skin. They penetrate the skin, undergo two moultings before
they become adults and settle the lymphatic system,

l
hi
3) Incubation period can be as long as 8-16 months.

ik
3)Diagnosis and Treatment. N
ith
w

1) Use of diethyl carbamazine citrate twice a day for three

weeks and there after for five days & every six month is
dy

effective against filarial worms

tu

4)prevention and control

os
Bi

a)Avoid mosquito bite by using mosquito nets and insect

repellents.

b)Eradication of mosquitoes is essential for control of Filariasis.

Bi
os
tu
dy
w
ith
N
ik
hi
l
E)Typhoid
1) Typhoid is an acute infection of intestine it is caused by
Salmonella typhi. It is Goram-ve bacteria found in intestinal
lumen of infected person.
2) pathogenicity is due to ‘0’ antigen a lipopoly-saccharide
(LPS) present on surface coat. Flagella contain H antigen .

1)Signs and symptoms

l
hi
ik
1)Prolonged fever as high as 104°F
2)General nausea, fatigue, headache
N
3)Abdominal pain, constipation or diarrhoea
ith
4)Rose - coloured rash on skin
w

5)white coat on tongue

6)Anorexia (loss of apelite).
dy

7)If not treated - breathlessness,

irregular heartbeats haemorrhage.
tu
os

2)mode of transmission
Bi

1) It is a food and water borne disease,

2) Insects like housefly & cockroaches feeding on fecal

matter, may transfer the bacteria to food material,

3) Poor hygiene habits and poor sanitation conditions are

responsible for the spread of typhoid.
3)Diagnosis and Treatment
1) Widal test is used for diagnosis of typhoid.
Treatment of thyroid involves surgical of gall bladder in several
cases,

2) Antibiotics like chloromycetin is helpful treatment.

3) For prevention of typhoid who recommendes two vaccines

l
hi
as oral (Ty21a vaccine) & injectable (Typhoid polysaccharide

ik
vaccine)

N
ith
w
dy
tu
os
Bi
Pneumonia
Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of lungs or alveoli
of lungs. It is caused by Variety of pathogens. which may be
viruses like influenza virus

Adenovirus para influenza and Respiratory syncytial virus.

(RSV)or bacteria Like streeptococus pneumocystis jirovecil.
pneumocystis carinii

l
hi
Pneumonia can also be caused by chemical burns or

ik
physical injury to lungs.

Signs and symptoms.

N
ith
w

-caught produces yellow or greenish sputum or phlegm.

dy

-High fever
tu

-shortness of breath (pyspnea)

os

-chest pain during deep breath on coughing

Bi

-Loss of appetite, Fatigue, headache, vomiting, joint pains

and muscle aches.
Mode of transmission
a) Pneumonia mostly spreads by direct person to person
contact.

b)It also spread via droplets released by infected person or

even by using shared clothes and utensils
 Diagnosis and Treatment
course of treatment depends upon pathogen leading to the
disease, for bacterial pneumonia
antibiotics like Benzyl
penicillium

Ampicillin and chioromphenicol are effective

l
hi
Prevention and control.

ik
1)
N
Vaccination is important prevention in both children and
ith
adult.
2) Vaccines against Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus
w

pneumoniae in first year of life help greatly to reduce the

dy

chances of causing pneumonia,

tu
os
Bi
G) Common Cold.
1) It is upper viral infectious disease of upper respiratory region.
It is also known as nasopharyngitis acute viral
rhinopharyngitis,

2) it is caused by a group of viruses known as Rhinoviruses and

corona viruses

l
hi
signs and symptoms

ik
N
cough, sore through , running nose and fever
ith
Nasal congestion, sneezing
conjunctivits ( red eyes)
w
dy

muscle rashes, fatigue, headache, shivering and boss of

appetite.
tu
os

Prevention and control.

Bi

-staying away from person suffering from common cold

-washing hands with soap and Water

-Use of handkerchief to cover the nose and mouth during

caughing and sneezing.

- Alcohol based hand sanitizer can also be used

Ring worm (Dermatophytosis)
It is fungal infection of skin. It is caused by many fungal species
belonging to the genera Trichophyton and Microsporum.

These fungi feed on keratin in skin, hair and nails.

signs and symptoms

l
Infected skin shows enlarged, red ring caused due to ringworm

hi
ik
Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various parts of the body
N
These red patches cause intense Itching
ith
Infection of nails is termed as anychomycosis, in which nails
w

become thick, discoloured and disfigured.

dy

Athlete’s foot is the fungal infection that usually begins between

tu

the toes.
os
Bi

Mode of Transmission.
1) Ringworm spread by sharing of clothes of infected person.etc
close contact with infected person is another mode of
infection.
 Diagnosis and treatment
1) Diagnosis is by physical examination and treatment

2) Uses drugs like nystain fluconazole intraconazole etc.

prevention and control.

l
Avoid close contact sharing of clothes sport equipments.

hi
3)

ik
4) washing clothes in hot water with fungicidal soap to
destroy fungal pathogen. N
ith
w
dy
tu
os
Bi
Dengue.
Dengue fever is a painful, debilitating vector borne disease.
caused by one by one of Four closely related dengue
viruses.

Dengue virus is transmitted through the bite of female

Aedes mosquito.

The mosquito takes the dengue virus when it sucks blood

l
hi
of a person suffering from dengue.

ik
N
It can not spread directly from one person to another
person.
ith
w
dy
tu
os
Bi
 cancer
Abnormal, uncontrolled and purposeless division of cells
may lead to the formation development of mass of
undifferentiated cell i.e. tumor.

cancer harms the body when cancerous cells divide

uncontrollably to form new lumps or masses of tissue
called as neoplasm .

Study, diagnosis treatment and prevention of cancer are

l
hi
called as Oncologists

ik
N
ith
Benign or Nonmalignant 2) Malignant tumors or
w

1)

tumor cancer
dy

It grows slowly may The growth rate is rapid and

tu

attain quite a large size, mortality

os

but remain restricted at

the site of origine Rapid growth causes
Bi

It does not spread other
part of body some
benign tumors are
harmful and fatal.
( brain tumor)
moreover the benign
tumors may Sometimes
become malignant
overcrowding &disruption
of normal cell
The cancerous cell compete
with normal cell & kill them.
These cancer spread from
organ to organ by blood or
lymph form new tumor
these process is called as
Types of cancer.
1) Carcinoma
cancer that arises from epithelial tissue from connective
lymphatic covering or Lining the body organ is called as
carcinoma.
It included man It occurs breast cancer, lung cancer,
stomach cancer, skin cancer etc.

2) sarcomas

l
hi
Cancer that arises from connective tissue is called as
sarcomas

ik
It include bone tumor (osteosarcoma)muscle tumor
N
(myosarcoma)Cancer of cartilage (Chondrosarcoma)
ith
cancer of adipose tissue (Liposarcoma)
w

3) Lymphomas
dy

Cancer that arises from lymphatic tissue is called as

lymphoma.
tu

It occurs in lymphatic nodes spleen and tissue of immune

os

system.
Bi

4) leukemia
It is a type of blood cancer in which there is excessive
formation of white blood cells (WBCS),

The people suffering from these stage very high leucocyte

count. the blood contain millions of abnormal immature
WBCs
There are types of Leukemia
monocytic leukemia ,lymphocytic leukemia etc
 5) adenocarcinomas

Adenocarcinoma arises in thyroid gland pituitary gland

and other grandular tissue.

Causes of Cancer
Although it is still not very clear as to how the cancer is
caused several factors are now known to be cancer

l
hi
causing i.e. carcinogenic

ik
1)chemical N
ith
several chemicals are known to induce cancer The induce
nicotine, caffeine, products of combustion of coal and oil.
w
dy

Polycyclic hydrocarbons some sex hormone and steroids

are secreated in large amounts, may cause cancer.
tu
os

Breast cancer have hormonal relationship. It is more

commonly observed in women who avoid breast feeding.
Bi

2) Radiation.
The X-rays, gamma-rays cosmic rays, Ultra-violet rays etc
are carcinogenic.

Incidence of skin cancer is higher in the people working in

very sunny areas due to UV radiation in the sunlight.
3) Viruses
viruses causing cancer have genes called as viral
oncogenes. oncogenes. (v-one genes).

These Viruses are called oncogenic viruses

eg. EBV ( Epstein-Barr virus) HPV (Human papiloma
virus) etc.

l
hi
ik
4) Oncogens
N
ith
several genes called cellular oncogens (c-one genes) or
proto-oncogenes have been indentified in normal cell.
w
dy

when activated under certain condition could lead to

oncogenic transformation of cells.
tu
os

5) Addiction.
Bi

Types of addictions like smoking. chewing of tobacco

lead to cancer of mouth, lips and lungs.

Alcohol consumption may result in cancer of

esophagus stomach intestine and liver. Drugs
also cause cancer.
Treatment of Cancer
1)chemotherapy
chemotherapy compries administration of certain anticancer
drugs.

The anticancer drugs check cell division by inhibiting DNA

synthesis by more toxic to cancerous cell than to normal
cell.
chemotherapy may lead to hair loss but get corrected after

l
hi
all the treatment is stopped.

ik
2) Radiotherapy N
ith
In radiotherapy the basic principle is to bombard the Cancerous
w

tissue or cells with the ray from radioactive materials.

dy

cancer tissue or cells exposed to radiations from radioactive

tu

material such as cobalt, iodine, iridium.

os

The X-rays, gamma rays are used to distroy cancer tissue or

Bi

cells.
3) Surgery

cancerous tissue or cells are removed surgically. It has limited

utility.
In certain cases such as breast tumor or uterine tumor the
surgery is most effective other treatments are also used but
that escaped in surgery
4) Immunotherapy

Tumor cell have been shown to avoid detection & destruction

by immune system.

i.e. The parents are given substance called as biological

response modifiers such as a interferon which activate their
immune system help in distroying the tumor.

5) supportive therapy.

l
hi
ik
It used to treat Symptoms of cancer side effects of cancer
N
treatments objective of this therapy is to improve the quality
of life of cancer patient.
ith
w

depends upon condition of individual patients .

dy
tu
os
Bi
AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)

-(Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) is usually Fatal

illness caused by an retrovirus (ss RNA) known as Human
immuno deficiency virus (HIV)

-which Weakens the body’s immune system leaving the

l
hi
victim vulnerable to life threating opportunistic infections

ik
in neurological disorders & usually malignancies.
N
ith
-AIDS can be called a modern pandemic (World Wide)
w

affecting both industrialized & developing countries

dy
tu

-AIDS was first noticed in USA in 1981 In India first confirmed

case of AIDS April 1986 from Tamil Nadu
os
Bi

-AIDS virus has been found in urine, tears., saliva, breast milk
and Vaginal secretions but it seems not to be transmitted by
these fluids unless it gets into injuries.
structure of HIV
HIV is to 140 mm in diameter , spherical

virus particle shows centrally located at two ss RNA molecules

along reverse transcriptase enzymes.

it is covered by two layers of proteins.

outer(matrix protein)
Inner( capsid protein)

l
hi
ik
Over the matrix protein layers there is an additional layer of
N
lipids Impregnated with glycoprotein GP12O. and GP 41
ith
The virus has unique ability to destroy human T4 lymphocytes.
w

HIV found in greatest concentration in blood ,semen and

dy

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

tu
os
Bi
The disease can be transmitted through
1) Unsafe sexual Contact
Including oral ,vaginal ,sex

2) Blood
Blood transfusion or needle sharing
3) from mother to child (Trans placenta)

l
A pregnant woman can transmit the virus to her

hi
child through their shared blood circulation of a

ik
nursing mother can transmit it to her baby from
her breast milk. N
ith
clinical manifestations(symptoms) of AIIDS
w

1) Initial infection
dy

with the virus and formation 2) Asymptomatic carrier state

in which no Signs of
tu

of antibodies usually 2-8

disease are seen
os

Weeks after initial infection.

incubation period ranges
Bi

for 6 months to 10 years

3) AIDS related 4) Aids

complex
with one or more of the
following clinical signs by
recurrent fever for longer than
one month,Fatigue.
unexplained diarrhea ,night
sweats loss of more than 10%
of body weight
is the end stage of HIV
infection. It is characteris
by life threatening
opportunistic infection
(Like pneumonia)
Preventive measures
AIDS has no cure hence prevention is the best choice.

The following steps help in preventing this dreadful disease

People particularly those in high risk group, should be educated
about HIV transmission

Disposable needles and syringes should be used and disposed

properly and immediately.

l
hi
ik
Sexual habits should be changed immediately.
N
High-risk groups should refrain from donating blood.
ith
w

Tooth brushes, razors, other articles that can become

contaminated with blood should not be shared.
dy
tu

Before receiving blood, ensure that it has been screened for not
containing HIV infections.
os
Bi

Routine screening must be done for- Blood donors, Organ

donors ( kidney. Liver, lung, cornia)

Donors of semen and growth hormone Patients undergoing

heamodialysis of female in high risk group who are pregnant or
contemplating pregnancy .
Laboratory diagnosis
At first a test is used to detect the antibodies while a second
confirmatory test is used to in weed out an any false positive
result

The first test is ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immuno sorbent Assay)

The confirmatory test usually a western Blot is a highly specific

test.

l
hi
ik
Treatment of AIDS
N
ith
Although AIDS has no cure certain medicines called
Antiretroviral drugs can in reducing the viral load & prolong
w

the life of HIV patient .

dy

Examples of these drugs use in

tu

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) are

os

TDF ( tenofovir)
Bi

EFV(Efavirenz) etc.
Adolescence
it is the period of beginning with the appearance of secondary
sexual characters & the termination with of ceassation of
somatic i.e. body growth

The legal adulthood between ‘10 to ‘19 years of age where

individual is longer child not yet an adult

l
hi
ik
1)Early period 2)Middle period 3)late period
(15 to 17) N (18 to 19)
ith
(10 to 14 years)
it is characterized it is characterized
w

The changes by almost complete by establishment

include full development of of total physical
dy

beginning secondary sexual maturity

tu

of secondary characters
os

sexual character Abstract thinking

growth slow down intellectual &
Bi

rapid physical thinking is more Functional

growth, concrete abstract, concrete identity stable
thinking under relationship is
thinking & stressful condition change from child
defining romancing fantasy hood to adult
boundries hood
of dependence relationship
developing body
image
development
physical change of adolescence

Growth spurt -occurs in both boys & girls in boys muscles

develop skin become oily broadening of shoulders cracking of
voice

development of underarm hair enlargement of penis & testis

In girls development of breast pubic hair enlargement of uterus
& ovaries

l
hi
sexual development

ik
N
sex organs mature and enlarge sexual desire, erection of penis
in body sperm production ejaculation ovulation menstruation &
ith
initiation of sexual behaviour.
w

Emotional & social changes

dy
tu

This include establishment own identity attention fantasy ,day

os

dreaming seeking behavior emotional instability full of Rapid

mood changes .
Bi
Addiction
This is a complex condition characterized by compulsive use of
substance despite of it’s harmful
consequence

Addiction may involve the use of substance (drugs) such as

alcohol opioids , cocaine & nicotine other behaviors such as
gambling.

l
hi
cause of substances abuse during Adolescence

ik
In sufficient parental supervision
N
ith
Lack of communication between child & parent
w

poorly defined rules

dy
tu

family conflicts
os

favorable parental attitudes toward alcohol & drug use

Bi

Expectations from drug use.

Risk taking behavior.

methods to control drug abuse
1) always remember e prevention is better than cure.

2) Avoid undue pressure- a child should not be

forced perform beyond his / her capacities in studies, sports
& other activities

3) Education & counselling of child to face problems stress to

accept disapointment & failure as a part of life.

l
hi
Drugs Abuse

ik
N
surveys & statistics show that use of drugs & alcohol has been
the rise especially among the youth
ith
w

This is really a cause of concern as it could result in many

harmfull effects
dy
tu

A)opioids
os

These drugs binds to opioid receptors present in central nervous

Bi

system and gastro-intestinal tract ,Heroin otherwise called

smack is chemically di-acetyl morphine
It is extracted from latex of poppy plant (Papaver somniferous,

B) cannabinoids

Interact with receptors present in brain Inhalation & ingestion

of these substance affects the
cardiovascular system these are obtained from inflorescence
.and the other of cannabis sativa
c) cocaine
This is an alkaloid obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum coca it
increase Level of neurotransmitter - dopamine

It’s excessive dosage cause extreme happiness irritabilility

paranoia.

l
hi
Hallucinogens (mind exponding drugs)

ik
N
these are alkaloids causing dayd reaming
ith
Lycergic acid & cannabis hallucinogenic substances
w

hallucination unreal perception of unreal object due to

dy

disorder of nervous system.

tu
os
Bi