Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 745±751

Locating air-conditioners and furniture inside residential ¯ats

to obtain good thermal comfort
M. Bojic*, F. Yik, T.Y. Lo
Department of Building Services Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
Received 22 June 2001; accepted 12 November 2001

Abstract

Majority of residential apartments in Hong Kong may be equipped with up to three window-type air-conditioners that operate during 7
months of hot and humid weather. The units are placed in the living rooms and bedrooms. The positions of these units and furniture inside
these small rooms are directed in some extent by the architectural design, however, residents have possibility to decide about their actual
position. The occupants should locate their air-conditioner with respect to the room furniture to avoid the cold air re-circulation and draft,
and to obtain good thermal comfort for residents. To accomplish this, ¯at manufacturers should give some recommendations to the occupants,
and architects should include such concerns in their design. For three positions of an air-conditioner unit and one position of a bed and a
cupboard in a typical Hong Kong residential bedroom, the air velocities, temperatures, and air diffusion performance index are determined by
using the computational ¯uid dynamics (CFD) software FLOVENT. The cases with the maximum bene®t and maximum consequences in
terms of thermal comfort in the bedroom are identi®ed. # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Computational ¯uid dynamics; Buoyant air¯ow; Cooling

1. Introduction
Cooling of the residential spaces combined with mechan-
ical ventilation consumes a large amount of non-renewable
fossil energy in the world. The increased use of fossil fuels
leads to atmospheric pollution and climate changes.
Effective distribution of fresh air within an occupied space
is of considerable importance in enabling good thermal
comfort and good indoor air quality [2]. So far, extensive
research was devoted to mechanical ventilation, heating and
cooling of of®ces [1,6±8], however, relatively little is done
to investigate mechanical ventilation and cooling of resi-
dential spaces. Especially, an interesting topic is to achieve
effective air distribution without creation of draft in resi-
dential living rooms, and bedrooms when window-type air-
conditioners (WAC) are used.
Majority of residential apartments in Hong Kong may be
equipped with up to three WACs placed in the living rooms
and bedrooms. They operate during 7 months of hot and
humid weather. Some recommendations on their location
Abbreviations: WAC, window-type air-conditioner
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: ‡852-2766-4697; fax: ‡852-2765-7198.
E-mail address: bebojic@polyu.edu.hk (M. Bojic).
inside the room are available from HK-BEAM recipes [3].
Sometimes, the occupants may unfavorably locate their
WAC with respect to furniture to cause the cold air re-
circulation, which would create draft and thus jeopardize
thermal comfort of occupants. This research is an attempt to
establish some recommendations to ¯at occupants, where to
place WACs [5].
For three positions of a WAC unit and one position of a
bed and cupboard in the typical Hong Kong residential
bedroom from Fig. 1, the air velocities, temperatures, and
air diffusion performance indices are determined by using
the CFD software FLOVENT [4]. The case with the max-
imum bene®t in terms of thermal comfort, and energy
consumption of air-conditioner serving room is identi®ed.
During these analyses, the following assumptions are
introduced. The simulations are carried out for a steady
state indoor and outdoor environment though, in real situa-
tion, indoor and outdoor conditions change with time. The
air-conditioner operation is assumed steady, although it is
intermittent in nature, meaning that the air-conditioning will
start when the temperature of the room is above the set
temperature and stop when the temperature of the room is
below the set temperature. The metabolic rate of the occu-
pant may change with time. Substantial change in outdoor
temperature may occur. The wind effects are ignored. The

0378-7788/02/$ ± see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 7 7 8 8 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 1 4 3 - 8
746 M. Bojic et al. / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 745±751

Nomenclature

ADPI air diffusion performance index

B source term for k due to buoyancy (m2/s3)
C1e, C2e, empirical constants of turbulence equations
C3e, Cm
gi gravitational acceleration in xi direction
(m/s2)
k kinetic energy of turbulence (m2/s2)
L distance from the wall where the wardrobe
was attached (m)
p local static pressure (Pa)
Pk source term for k due to shear (m2/s3)
T,T0 mean, fluctuating temperature (K)
tx local air-stream dry-bulb temperature (8C) Fig. 1. Three-dimensional scheme of the investigated room.
tc average (control) room dry-bulb temperature
(8C)
2. Theoretical analysis
ui, uj fluctuating velocities along coordinate axes
(m/s)
The governing equations for buoyant air¯ow established
uj ui Reynolds stress (m2/s2)
in this room consist of the time-averaged continuity and
uj T 0 Reynolds heat flux (m K/s)
momentum equations, which can be expressed for a steady
Ui, Uj mean velocities along coordinate axes (m/s)
state as follows:
Vx local air-stream centerline velocity
xi, xj distances along coordinate axes (m) @Ui
Continuity : ˆ 0: (1)
@xi
Greek letters    
@Uj @ @Ui @Uj
b thermal expansion coefficient (1/K) Momentum : rUi ˆ m ‡ ruj ui
dij Kronecker delta @xi @xi @xj @xi
e turbulence energy dissipation rate (m2/s3) @p
‡ g…rr r†: (2)
Gt turbulent diffusion coefficient of temperature @xj
(kg/m/s)
In the k±e turbulence model, the unknown Reynolds stresses,
k thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
uj ui , are assumed to vary linearly with the local strain rate as
m viscosity of air (kg/(m s))
 
mt turbulent viscosity (kg/(m s)) @Ui @Uj 2
n kinematic viscosity of air (m2/s) uj ui ˆ n t ‡ dij k; (3)
@xj @xi 3
nt turbulent kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
y effective draft temperature (K) where nt, the kinematic eddy viscosity, is evaluated from:
r density of air (kg/m3) k2
rr reference density of air (kg/m3) nt ˆ Cm : (4)
e
st turbulent Prandtl (Schmidt) number of tem-
perature The turbulence kinetic energy (k) and its dissipation rate (e)
sk turbulent Prandtl (Schmidt) number of k are determined from the following transport equations:
se turbulent Prandtl (Schmidt) number of e   
@k @ m @k
rUi ˆ m‡ t ‡ Pk ‡ B re; (5)
@xi @xi sk @xi
Subscripts   
i, j spatial coordinates @e @ m @e e
rUi ˆ m‡ t ‡ C1e …Pk ‡ C3e B†
k turbulent kinetic energy @xi @xi se @xi k
r reference value e 2
e turbulence dissipation rate C2e r ; (6)
k
where C1e, C2e, C3e, Cm, sk and se are constants. The rate of
heat transfer within internal walls and due to the accumu- production of turbulent kinetic energy due to mean velocity
lated heat in the wall and furniture is assumed not to exist. gradients, Pk, and that due to buoyancy, B, can be given as
In addition, radiation heat transfer from the outside to the
inside the room and that inside the room are not taken in @Uj
Pk ˆ ui uj ; (7)
account. @xi
 M. Bojic et al. / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 745±751
m @T
B ˆ bgi ; (8)
sT @xi
where b ˆ 1=r…@r=@T† ˆ 1=T is the volumetric expan-
sion coef®cient of air.
In the standard k±e model, the constants in these equations
are assigned with the following standard values: C1e ˆ 1:44,
C2e ˆ 1:92, C3e ˆ 0:8, Cm ˆ 0:09, sk ˆ 1:0, and se ˆ 1:3.
3. Simulation
3.1. Bedroom
The simulated bedroom is characterized by the side and
plan view shown in Fig. 2. This ®gure shows furniture that
exists in the bedroom: its wardrobe and bed. The dimensions
of the room and room furniture are given in the ®gure, and
their volumes in Table 1. The bedroom has 11.83 m3 in
volume; however, its net volume presents 78.7% of the
volume of the entire room. The net volume is obtained
when the volume of the furniture and the man lying at the
bed are subtracted from 11.83 m3.
The bedroom has one external wall, one external window,
three internal walls, ¯oor, and ceiling. The external wall has
three parts: the part above the window, and the part below the
window, and part at the level of the window at its side. This
wall has U-value (overall thermal transmission coef®cient)
at 2.35 W/m2 K. The wall above window contains the WAC.
It is assumed that WAC openings are the sole areas for air
exchange between the indoors and outdoors. The window
is a single-glazed, 1.33 m high, and 0.72 m wide with the
Fig. 2. Dimensions of the investigated room: (a) side view; (b) plan view.
747
Table 1
Size of the bedroom space
Volume (m3) Part of room volume (%)
Bedroom 11.83 ±
Cupboard 1.68 14.2
Bed 0.78 6.6
Man 0.06 0.5
Nett 9.31 78.7
U-value at 5.6 W/m2 K. Thermal radiation through the
window does not exist as Venetian blinds are used during
night. The internal walls are one along which the wardrobe is
located, one opposite to the wardrobe, and one opposite to
the external wall and window, containing door. The internal
walls, ceiling, and ¯oor halt any net heat transfer through
them. This may imply that either (1) all surfaces of these
constructions have the same temperature or (2) accumulated
heat in the room and furniture walls during daylight is small
and release of this heat during night may be neglected or (3)
all internal walls, ceiling, and ¯oor are thermally insulated.
In summer, the temperature of bedroom air is ®xed at 24 8C,
which is a summer design bedroom temperature. The tem-
perature of outdoor air is at 33 8C.
The bedroom is occupied by one person that sleeps in
the bed. The occupied zone is de®ned as the space 0.3 m
high from the bed surface, 1.8 m long, and 0.54 m wide.
The simulated person generates metabolic heat of 85 W. The
breathing of the person is not modeled, meaning that his
production of CO2 is not taken into account. The heat
transfer by convection and conduction from his body is
only modeled, although other heat transfer mechanisms take
place such as radiation and evaporation.
748 M. Bojic et al. / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 745±751
Fig. 3. Grid applied in the investigated room: (a) side view; (b) plan view.
The WAC supplies air with its temperature at 12 8C, and
its ¯ow rate at 5.85 air change per hour (ACH), of which
10% is fresh air and the rest is return air. The choice of air
characteristics is based on amounts of heat gain from the
external wall, window, and occupant.
Three positions of the WAC inside the room are simulated.
Its side position is de®ned by using the distance (L) of the
WAC exhaust from the wall along which the wardrobe is
located. Its vertical position is always the same at 2.16 m from
the ¯oor. For simulation 1, the WAC is placed to blow air
directly to the wardrobe (L ˆ 0:27 m, designated as its near-
to-wardrobe position), for simulation 2, the WAC is placed to
blow air in the middle of the room (L ˆ 0:72 m, designated
as its middle-to-wardrobe position), and for simulation 3, the
WAC was placed to blow air the furthest from the wardrobe
(L ˆ 1:17 m, designated as its far-to-wardrobe position).
The non-uniform grid shown in Fig. 3 is employed with
different number of cells, depending on the simulation.
When the WAC is at its near-to-wardrobe position, the
number of cells is 80,640; when the WAC is at its mid-
dle-to-wardrobe position), the number is 86,688; and when
the WAC is at its far-to-wardrobe position, the number is
83,592 elements.
The simulations are run by using the Pentium III personal
computer with the 128 MB RAM and one processor. Simula-
tion time budget approximately comprises 76 h, where 40 h
are used to prepare the run and 36 h to perform the com-
putations. The FLOVENT graphical capabilities are exploi-
ted to set up the run by the generation of the computational
geometry and creation of the computational mesh.
3.2. Presentation variables
To assess the exposure of the sleeping man to air velocity,
we will present the velocity magnitude diagrams in the
characteristic vertical plane. This plane is an imaginary
symmetry plane of the man lying in the bed. The velocity
magnitudes are presented in the format of velocity contours
given by thin black lines in Figs. 4±6.
To assess the exposure of the sleeping man to tempera-
tures, we will present temperature diagrams in the charac-
teristic vertical plane. The temperatures are presented in
format of temperature contours, given by the black thin lines
(Figs. 4±6).
To calculate a presence of draft, we use the air diffusion
performance index (ADPI). Draft is de®ned as any localized
feeling of coolness or warmth of any position of the body
due to both air movement and air temperature, with humidity
and radiation considered constant. ADPI presents the per-
centage of locations where measurements are taken that
meet speci®cations for effective draft temperature and air
velocity. If ADPI approaches its maximum value of 100%,
the most desirable conditions are achieved. The effective
draft temperature y should be between 1.5 and ‡1 K and
the air velocity less than 0.35 m/s. The effective draft
temperature is de®ned as
y ˆ …tx tc † 8…Vx 0:15† (9)
where tx stands for the local air-stream dry-bulb temperature
(8C), tc for the average (control) room dry-bulb temperature
(8C), and Vx for the local air-stream centerline velocity.
4. Results and analyses
In this section, the simulation results are presented and
analyzed for three locations of the WAC at the external wall
inside the bedroom: the near-to-wardrobe position, middle-
to-wardrobe position, and far-to-wardrobe position. The
simulation results presented are by using velocities, tem-
peratures, and ADPI.
 M. Bojic et al. / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 745±751 749

Fig. 4. Contours of (a) the velocity magnitude and (b) temperature; the contours are given on a symmetry plane of the sleeping man; the WAC is located in its
near-to-wardrobe position in the room (L ˆ 0:27 m).

4.1. Velocity and temperature (WAC in the near-to-
wardrobe position)
Contours of the velocity magnitude and temperature are
shown in Fig. 4 for the WAC at the near-to-wardrobe
position. Fig. 4 reveals the following facts. The highest
velocities that the sleeping man is exposed are 0.22 m/s
at his head, 0.13 m/s at his chest, and 0.13 m/s at his foot.
Then, his head and chest together with his abdomen are
exposed to the lower temperatures ranging from 21.5 to

Fig. 5. Contours of (a) the velocity magnitude and (b) temperature; the contours are given on a symmetry plane of the sleeping man; the WAC is placed in its
middle-to-wardrobe position in the room (L ˆ 0:72 m).
750 M. Bojic et al. / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 745±751

Fig. 6. Contours of (a) the velocity magnitude and (b) temperature; the contours are given on a symmetry plane of the sleeping man; the WAC is placed in its
far-to-wardrobe position in the room (L ˆ 1:17 m).

23 8C. Other parts of the body enjoy relatively moderate
temperatures of 23.5 8C. To conclude, in this WAC position,
the head and chest of the sleeping man have high exposure
both to faster and colder air.
4.2. Velocity and temperature (WAC in the middle-to-
wardrobe position)
Contours of the velocity magnitude and temperature are
shown in Fig. 5 for the WAC in the middle-to-wardrobe
position. Fig. 5 reveals the following facts. The lower parts
of the man legs are exposed to the high velocities in the
range from 0.12 to 0.178 m/s and his feet to high velocity of
0.173 m/s. The man is exposed to the temperatures above
23.5 8C at his head level while other parts of the body are
subjected to the moderate temperatures around 23.5 8C. To
conclude, in this WAC location, the head of man is subjected
to higher temperatures and his legs to faster air.
4.3. Velocity and temperature (WAC in the far-to-
wardrobe position)
Contours of the velocity magnitude and temperature are
shown in Fig. 6 for the WAC in the far-to-wardrobe position.

Fig. 7. ADPI index as a function of the distance of the WAC from the wall where wardrobe is placed.
 M. Bojic et al. / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 745±751
Fig. 6 reveals the following facts. The highest velocities of
0.14 m/s that in¯uence the sleeping man at his chest and
abdomen are relatively moderate. The man is subjected to
the temperatures above 23.5 8C at his head while other parts
of the body enjoy the moderate temperatures around
23.5 8C. To conclude, in this WAC position, the man is
subjected to the higher temperatures at his head and air of
relatively moderate velocity at all parts of body.
4.4. ADPI
Finally, to determine the location of the WAC that will
produce minimum draft, we calculate ADPI at the occupied
zone for different positions of the WAC. The result is given
in Fig. 7 as the curve of ADPI as a function of the distance of
the WAC from the corner wall. Then the WAC was at the
same height, however, its distance from the corner wall
varied. Fig. 7 shows the following facts. When the WAC is at
its near-to-wardrobe position (L ˆ 0:27 m), ADPI has its
minimum value of 0.64. When the WAC is at the middle-to-
wardrobe position, then a value of ADPI has its higher value
of 0.77. When the WAC is at the far-to-wardrobe position, a
value of ADPI remains almost the same at 0.77. To conclude,
the minimum draft is produced when the WAC does not face
the wardrobe.
5. Conclusions
We investigated the bedroom in Hong Kong that is
equipped with one WAC that operate during one summer
night. For three positions of air-conditioner unit and one
position of a bed and cupboard in the typical Hong Kong
residential bedroom, the air velocities, temperatures, and air
diffusion performance index are determined by using the
CFD software FLOVENT. The maximum bene®t in terms of
thermal comfort is identi®ed to be when the air-conditioner is
placed at the far-to-wardrobe location. Although in this case,
the ADPI value is the same as in the case when the WAC is
placed in the middle-to-wardrobe position, the sleeping man
751
is exposed to the most moderate velocities and temperatures.
The worst situation in terms of thermal comfort is identi®ed
to be when the air-conditioner is placed at the near-to-ward-
robe location. Then, the cold jet from the WAC did not have
time to fully develop, but was bounced from the wardrobe
directly to the sleeping man head and chest.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the ®nancial support
provided by The Hong Kong Polytechnic University under
the Area of Strategic Development in the Faculty of Con-
struction and Land Use. The work is being undertaken
within the Centre for Building Environmental Performance,
Department of Building Services Engineering. We also
acknowledge Mr. M. Lee for his helpful discussions and
technical support.
References
[1] H.B. Awbi, Energy efficient room air distribution, Renewable Energy
15 (1±4) (1998) 293±299.
[2] Anonymous, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, ASHRAE
Standard 62, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA, USA, 1989.
[3] Anonymous, HK-BEAM, An Environmental Assessment for New
Residential Buildings, Centre of Environmental Technology Ltd. Hong
Kong, 1999.
[4] Anonymous, Guide to defining mathematical model, FLOVENT/MM/
1000/1/0, Flowmetric Ltd., 2000.
[5] M. Bojic, F. Yik, T.Y. Lo, M. Lee, Locating air-conditioners and
furniture inside residential flats, Clima 2000/Napoli 2001 World
Congress, Napoli, Vol. 1, 15±18 September 2001.
[6] G. Gun, Evaluation of room air distribution systems using computa-
tional fluid dynamics, Energy and Buildings 23 (1995) 83±93.
[7] K. HagstroÈm, E. Sandberg, H. Koskela, T. Hautalampi, Classification
for the room air-conditioning strategies, Building and Environment 35
(8) (2000) 699±707.
[8] D.B. Jouini, M.N. Said, E.G. Plett, Measurements of room air
distribution in a ventilated office environment, Building and Environ-
ment 29 (4) (1994) 511±521.