306 Anton Weissenbach, Achim Hettler, and Brian Simpson 2.6 Passive earth pressure In many cases the soil beneath the bottom of the excavation is used as an earth support for the wall. A passive carth pressure is generated in the soil. For planar problems K,-values from Coulomb's solution and solutions assuming curved rupture surfaces are available (see Chapter 1.4 of Volume 1). In the case of soldier pile walls, K,-values from planar theories may lead to an uneco- nomical design and spatial investigations are recommended. Following Weissenbach’s proposal [81] the spatial passive earth pressure resultant E, is given by ” i 1 Eh, Zee +2 coq 77 Om ace (is) where y denotes the weight density of the soil, t the pile embedment, c the cohesion and a, the distance between the axes of the piles. The factors og and @x depend on the frietion angle @’ and the ratio of the width b; of the pile and the embedment depth by t (16) They are summarised in Table 2, The factors «p and @x in Eq. (15) were derived based on the assumption that the rupture zones of two adjacent piles do not coincide. This means that one must check if the calculation assuming intersecting rupture zones do result in a smaller earth resistance (see Eq. 19). Table 2, Coefficients of spatial passive earth pressure for soldier piles a) Coefficients oe t | as’ | uzs?| 20° |22se| 2s? | 27.5°| 30° | 325° | as° | 375° aos | 040 | 0.48 | 0.59 | 0.72 | 0.90] 1.43 | 144 | 71 | 209 | 2.57 O10 | 057 | 0.67 | 083 | 1.02 | 1.28 | 1.50 | 2.04 | 2.42 | 2.96 | 363 0.15 | 0.69 | 0.82 | 102 | 1.25 | 156 | 195 | 250 | 297 | 3.63 | 44s 020 | 80 | 0.95 | 1.17 | 145) 180 | 226 | 288 | 3.43 | ate | saa 025 | 090 | 1.06 | 1.31 | 1.62 | 202 | 2.52 | 3.22 | 393 | 468 | 5.74 030 | 098 | 116 | 144 | 1.77 | 2.21 | 2.76 | 3.53 | 420 | 5.13 | 629 b) Coefficients «oq t | ase | 175° | 20° 27s°| a [ase | as° [7s | 40° | a2se| ase aos | ov | 108 | 120 f 134] si | 170] 194] 214 | 241 $273 | a0 | 355 | 4.09 010 | 139) 153 | 169] 1.90 | 214 | 241 | 2.75 | 303 | 3.41 | 386 | 4.98 | 5.02 | 5.78 ois | 170) 1.88 | 207 | 2.32 | 262 | 295) 3.37 | amr} ais | 473 | 5.36 | 614 | 7.08 0.20 | 197 | 2.17 | 240 | 268 | 303 | 3.41 | 3.9 | 429 | aga | 5.47 | 6.19 | 7.09 | 8.18 0.25 | 220 | 2.42 | 2.68 | 3.00 | 3a | asi | 439 | 479 | 5.40 | ou | 693 | 793 | 9.15 0.30 | 241 | 266 | 2.93 | 3.29 | a71 | 4.17 | 476 | 525 | 5.91 | 669 | 7.59 | 8.69 | 19.003.4 Stability of excavations 307 For practical purposes soldier pile walls are often calculated assuming a fictitious con- tinuous wall. In this case, following Eq. (15), the equivalent planar passive earth pressure value 2: Bip yea (17) Oph = inay be uscd. For cohesionsless soils with ¢ = 0 in Eq. (15), Eq. (17) can be written as Rt a om = (18) For a relatively srnall spacing between the soldier piles, the rupture zones intersect and the equivalent planar passive earth pressure value is obtained by a ace —— pn = Kn (8, #0) +88 Kon (6p = 0) +75 y/Ken (Bp #9) (19) ‘ , : a where 5, denotes the wall friction angle, For cohesionsless soils, the third term in Eq. (19) is zero, If the soldier pile is restrained from moving vertically and the wall lriction may be fully activated, the maximum valuc for 8p is 8, = -(9' ~ 2,5") for soils with @’ < 30° 8, = -27. According to the principle of minimum security the collapse mechanism resulting in the smallest earth resistance must be adopted. The minimum Kp-values thercfore have to be inserted in Eq. (19). Weissenbach proposes Streck’s Ky-values (Table 3). The values for 8, are marked in a separate line on top of Table 3, For zero wall friction with dp Streck’s values caincide with the results from Coulomb's theory, As discussed before, top, must be calculated both from Eq. (17) and from Eq. (19). ‘The smallest value is then adopted for design. For walls with a fixed earth support the cal- culation procedure is analogous. for soils with 9’ > 30° According to the EAB recommendations shear parameters are taken as characteristic values estimated as mean values on the safe side. The calculations of the active and the passive earth pressure thercfore lead to approximations close to the real forces. To prevent the wall from failing, the passive earth pressure must be reduced in design by a safety factor np. For sheet pile walls, slurry trench walls and pile walls (20) is obtained and for soldier pile walls Bo doe a By B= Fray an‘Table 3. Coefficients of passive earth pressure Ky, from Streck’s method w [ae 7» lar ls pape pes [ye] | asf =% | sN zw | 277 | 323 | sar fast | sao | ois | 72 | 827 | 908 tia [ 36 "6 uso | iss | v7 ua | wz) ass | iss om | is | 23. as | ns rar | x | 978] na | as | se an | 72 | 9m] ios | as | us K ais | 72 | sz | soe] ua | 36 s ‘ ses | on | 7} o12| 107 | 2s Gan | ast sss | oa | ra | naz] ini | 20 a0 | 340 | age | sas om sr] 7 | a8 | 10s oye | 3s | are | 427 | aso oat | rae | sae | 97 ss 27 | 322 | a@ | amr | as sos | a0 | 72 | 908 veo | um 26°] a2 | 2a | 2s | son | aan | ser | sas | aor PSL aoe | 228 | ao ui | 2s) 28 | 268 | 2a0 faze | soe | an aos | a3 gam | ver | an | 29 | ant | 290 | aoe | 4s | ass ass | sanKez: | 70 % [1a | 1m | tm | am | am | 20 | a | 900 | 200 ta | sor | SM, os 1 17 | 1a6 | 20 | 22 | 246 | 2m | 3m | a2 an | 46 | S16 80€ HL KINDY "ypequassIOg, UONTY wosduts 224g pur 39p3.4 Stubility of excavations 309 where K, Kn (22) and wy, 23) oT (23) For continuous walls the ordinates of the reduced passive carth pressure are Chey = 7 Ky (24a) 2eee Dre: / Kon (240) uD As discussed in Simpson and Powrie [69] or Burland, Potts and Walsh [17] other defini- tions are possible to apply a safety factor. But it is believed that a safety factor applicd to the resistant forces gives the most realistic results. A further advantage is that the de- formations under working conditions can be calculated within the same calculation pro- cedure. For soft soils, or if the excavation is adjacent to buildings, higher safety factors can be chosen to limit the deformations under working conditions. The factor 1, in Eqs. (20) to (24) is to guarantec a sufficient safety against rupture, but at the same time it must ensure that the deformations and rotations necessary to activate the reduced earth resistance are compatible with the deflections of the whole construction. Experience and field monitoring show that for sheet pile walls, slurry trench walls, pile walls and vertical timbered constcuctions in medium dense or dense granular soils a, = 1.5 may be assumed to be sufficient to keep the deformations within tolerable limits. For soldier pile walls a safety factor of n,, = 2.0 is necessary to ensure similar limitations to the deformations as for shect pile walls. Higher safety factors should be considered for very loose granular soils, for soft cohesive soils and for organic soils, Eq. (15) was originally derived for granular soils with capillary cohesion. Investigations with cohesive soils showed that in these cases only 50 % of the cohesion can be adopted to get realistic results for the passive carth pressure (Weissenback [81]). Otherwise the carth resistance is overestimated. Introducing K, and o/,, in design, the safety factor n, influences both the bedding depth and the sectional forces. For the carth pressure distribution in the working state the EAB recommendations admit that in the case of propped and anchored walls in medium dense granular soils or stiff cohesive soils the sectional forces may be determined using a re- duced safety factor: with tly = 1.3 for shect pile walls and n,, = L.5 for soldier pile walls. Assuming the distribution of the passive carth pressure and introducing a safety factor 1), is a common model in practice for designing walls, Alternatively the earth support may be modelled by a Winkler halfspace, The effect of the soil is then replaced by springs assuming a subgrade modulus (see Section 3.4).