believe everyone should have a broad picture of how the Universe operates and our place init. Itis a basic human desire. And it also puts our worries in perspective Stephen Hawking Brtishcosmolois, born 1842) 1.1 Introduction Sometime in the distant past, humans developed the capacity for complex, conscious thought. This amazing ability, which distinguishes ous species from all others, brought with it the gift of curiosity, an innate desire to understand and explain the workings and origin of the Universe, meaning space and everything it contains, including our home, the Earth. For most of human history, such musings have spawned legends in which heroes, gods, and goddesses used supernatural pow cs to ignite the Sun, to make the Moon glow, to mold the Earth from nothingness, to sculpt its surface into dramatic shapes, and to speckle the night with points of light. Only recently have people applied seientifc principles (se Box P1) to the systematic study of the overall structure and history of the Universe, thereby establishing the modern discipline of scientific cosmology. In the context of scientific cosmology, # tains of two basic entities: matter, the substance that makes up objects, and energy, the inherent ability ofa region of space and the matter wi (to change itself or its surroundings). We can refer to the amount of matter in an object as its mass, so an object with greater mass contains tific cosmology provides foundation from which we can begin to explore the composition, structure, and evolotion of the Earth, So we begin this book on geology, the study of the Earth, with a chapter that outlines key principles of scientific cosmology. In effect, we must look outward in order to be able to understand what we'll sce when we look inward atthe Barch (ig. 1.1). We startby characterizing the architecture ofthe Uni- verse overall, and then focus on our neighborhood, the Solar System, in particular. Next, we introduce the Big Bang theory, which researchers use to explain the formation of the Universe, and the production of the elements that eventually came together to form the Sun, the Earth, and other celestial objects (naturally ‘occurring bodies in the Universe). We conclude by discussing. the nebulae theory forthe birth ofthe Earth itself, 1 Universe con thin it to do “worl Scie “acing page The Hubble Space Telescope can seit space fom its ech in Far obit above the atmosphere. nts phot, taten troegh he telescope, we see gas an dst in Nebule S06 (2.20 light eas mh Ent a binhpiace of nw stars 1.2 An Image of Our Universe What Is the Structure of the Universe? "Think about the mysterious spectacle of a clear night sky (Fig. 1.20), What objects sparkle up there? How big are they? How far away are they? How do they move? How are they arranged? Ancient cultures around the world thought long and hard about such questions, and by 3,000 years ago, keen observers —the first astronomers (people who study celestial bodies) —had realized that what they could see above had a recognizable order. Speci ically, they noticed that most ofthe thousands of points of light Visible to the naked eye move slowly across the sky nightly, as if revolving around a fixed point (Fig. 1.2b), and that che postions ‘of these points relative to one another remain fixed. These points ‘became known as the star. In contrast, a handful of the lights in the night sky etch seemingly complex paths, moving relative to one another and relative to the backdrop of stars (Fig. 1.2c). ‘These lights came to be known as the planets (from the Greck lands which means wanderer), Early observers did not know what the stars and planets ‘were, and they die’ understand the relationship among these points of light and the Earth, Moon, and Sun. It wasn a all ‘obvious, in fact that the Earth might itself be a planet and the Sun a star In the days of the Greek philosopher Homer (ca. 850 nce), for example, people in the Mediterranean FIGURE 1.1 Astronauts inthe Lunar Landing Module of Apollo 11 saw “Eatvise” over the Moon's horizon Such images forever changed turmanty’s perception four island in space.FIGURE 1.2 The sky tright,showi oty of cles objacts. (a) imagine what woul ba the not ta know whet oalastl obits, 35 the Moon are. Unt the past vv hundres years, we da (€) Certain osjocsin the night sky appear to move relative tothe ron of star. These "wend Panets. The numbers give mronticay when the planet shovin was ata gwen locaton cegion considered the Earth to be a flat disk, wich land toward 1 center and water around the margins, lying at the center of a celestial sphere, a dome to which the stars were attached, Philosophers of Homer’ day argued about the nature of the Sun and why it produced heat and light: to some, the Sun was a burning bowl of ol, while to others itwas a ball of red-hot iron, Many favored the notion that movements of celestial bodies represented the activities of gods and goddesses, and they named censtellations—distinetive arrangements of stars—afte developed quite different mythol- ‘gies, full of symbolism, in which to interpret the heavens In the Western world, two distinct schools of thought developed concerning the arrangement of stars and planets and their relationship to the Earth, Sun, and Moon. The first, school advocated a geocentric model (Fig. 1.38), in which shese deities, Other socicte mology and the Birth ofthe Earth sad over a whole nigh, star inthe sorter ve around Pls. the Nor Sa the Earth sits without moving atthe center of the Universe while the Moon and the planets whil around it in circular orbits, all within a shel of stars. The second school advocated 4 heliocentric model (Fig. 1.36), in which the Sun lies at the center of the Universe, with the Earth and other planets ‘orbiting around it. The geocentsi image gained a widespread following due tothe influence of an Egyptian mathematician, Prolemy (100-170 e-2}, who developed equations that to predict the wanderings of the planets, in the context of the geo y. During the Mid- alle Ages (ca. 476-1400 cb), church eaders in Europe adopted rolemy’s geocentric mage as dogma because it seemed to jus tify the comforting chought that humanity’s home occupies the most important place in the Universe. Eventually, anyone who disagreed with this view risked charges of heresy Then came the Renaissance. In 15th-century Europe, bold thinkers spawned a new age of exploration and scientific is- covery. Thanks to the eifrts oft Copernicus (1473-1543) and th Galilei (1564-1642), people eventually came to realize that the Earth and planets did indeed orbit the Sun, so the Earth could not possibly be at the center of the Universe. The idea soli- fed when the Dutch astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) showed that Prlemy was wrong and that plants fllow ell cal orbits. And when the British physicist Isaac Newton (1643— 1727) explained gravity, the attractive force tht on on another (Box 1 ‘why celestial objects display the mations that they do semed entrie model, with remarkable accur Polish astronomer Nicolaus Italian astronomer Galileo it finally became possible to understand Stars and Galaxies After Galileo popularized use of the telescope for looking skyward, astronomers gained the ability to see and measure features progressively farther into space and gradually fined:FIGURE L.3 Contrasting views ofthe Universe, as dawn by artists hundreds of years ago. {a} Pram’ gsoventricimage of te Univer atthe conte, (6) The heiocentrc image of he Universe puts tre Sun atthe comer, as envisioned by Copernicus, our understanding of the Universe’ structure, We now realize that, although ie looks like a point of light, a star is actually an immense sphere of incandescent gas that emits intense energy— stars resemble our Sun but lie farther away. Furthermore, stars do not ly randomly through the Universe. Rather, gravity holds ‘them together in immense groups called galaxies. Our Sun is ‘one of over 300 billion stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. From our vantage point on the Earth, the Milky Way looks like a hazy band (Fig. 1.40), but if we could view the Milky Way from a great distance, it would look like a flattened spiral with vast ‘curving arms that slowiy swirl around a glowing, disklike center (Fig, .4b), Presently, our Sun lies near the outer edge of one of these arms. Astronomers estimate that as many as 2 trillion galaxies sit within the visible Universe (Fig. 4c) Clearly, human understanding of the Earth’s place in the Universe has evolved radically over the past few centu- ties. Neither the Farth nor the Sun, nor even the Milky Way, ‘occupies the center of the Universe. While the Earth seems {quite special to us because we live here, there’s nothing par- ticularly special about its position in the Universe. The Nature of Our Solar System ‘Our Sun's gravitational pull holds on to many objects, which, together with the Sun, comprise the Solar System (Fig. 1.50). “Most of the mass of the Solar System—99.8%, to be exact— resides in the Sun itself. The remaining 0.29 includes a great variety of objects, the largest of which are the planets, Astron- ‘omers define a planet as an object that orbits a star, is roughly spherical, and has “cleared its neighborhood of other objects” “The last phrase in this definition sounds a bit strange at fist, but it merely implies that a planet's gravity has pulled in all, particles of matter in its orbit. According to this definition, formalized in 2005, our Solar Syster includes eight planets: Mercury, Venus, Barth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Until 2005, astronomers considered one more objec, Pluto, tobe a planet. But Pluto has not cleared its orbit, soit does not ft the modern definition of a planet and has been dropped from the roster. The eight planets orbit the Sun in the same direction and more or less in the same plane (Fig. 1.5). Significantly, land-based instruments, as well as those of the Kepler Space Telescope (launched into obit in 2008), Ihave allowed astronomers to locate more than 3,500 exeplancts (planets that orbit stars other than our Sun) as of 2017. Some of| these resemble the Earth in size. In fact, astronomers now esti- rate that the Milky Way hosts billions of Earth-sized planets Planets in our Solar System differ radically from one another in both size and composition, ‘The inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), the ones closer to the Sun, are relatively small. We call ther the terrestrial planets because, ike the Earth, they consist ofashell of rock surround- ing a ball of metal. The sue planets Qupites, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) are known asthe giant planets, or Jovian plan- cts, The largest, Jupiter, contains 318 times as much mass as the Earth and accounts for about 7196 of the non-solar mass in the Solar System. The overall composition of giant planets, differs markedly from that of terrestrial planets. Specifically, most of the matter in Jupiter and Saturn consists of hydrogen and helium as a gas, liquid, or as a strange liguid-metal state, Because so little solid material occurs in these planets, astronomers reer to them as gar giants. In conteast, most of the matter in Neptune and Uranus consists of water, carbon dioxide, and methane that has been frozen into solid ice. (Note that, in the context of discussing Solar System mate- rials, the term fee refers to any compound, not just water, that ‘ean evaporate relatively easily at Earth-surface conditions) 1.2 An Image of Our Universe. 19SCIENCE TOOLBOX. . Force and Energy “Types of Forces We use the word force fre- quently in everyday Englsh—but what does Itmean scientifically? saac Newton defines 8 force as simply a push or pull that causes velocty ofan object to change in magnitude (peed) andlor direction. In your everyday experience, you constantly see or feel the cffects of forces, Forces can cause objects to slow down or go faster. Forces can also tear, stretch, squash, spin, and twist objects and ean make them float or sink. Any system {@ defined volume of space and everything ini contains energy, mearing thatt has an Inherent abilty orcapacity todo work. Inthis context, work formally efers tothe product lof the force and the distance over whieh the force acts~you do work when you it this, book 10 em, and you do more work when youliftit20 cm. Doing work transfers energy from one partofa system to another, butthe total amount of energy in the system cannot be changed (fer energy cannot be created or destroyed} Physicists (sclentists who study matter, energy, and the interactions between them) slstinguish between two genera types of force, The first type, © contact force, of mechonical force, results when ‘one mass moves and comes in contact with another. You apply a mechanical force to a boulder when you push on it (Fig. Bx.ta), and the wind applies a mechanical force to sal when it blows. The second type, a non-contact force, or fleld force, applies across a distance; gravity and magnet serve as examples. Grovity 1s the force of ‘attraction between two masses—it is what holds you to the surface of the Earth and pulls objects from higher elevations to lower ‘ones (Fig. Bx1.1b). The strength of gravity depends on the quantity of matter In the two masses ang on the cistance between them. For example, you feel a much stron- ger gravitational pul tothe huge Earth than you do to a small baseball. Weight is the force that an object exerts due to gravita- tional pul, so the stronger the gravitational pull the greater the weight of an object. For example, on the Moon, you weigh much less than on the Earth because the Moon is smaller, soit exerts ess gravitational pul Magnetism, simplistically, is the force generated by electri flowing ina wire, or by special materials called magnets, Unie gravity, magnetic force can be attractive (pulling objects together) or {pushing them apart) Over short distances, the magnetic force of even a small magnet, can be larger than the gravitational force produced by the Earth. Therefore, you ean overcome gravity and Itt objects with 2 ‘magnet (Fig. Bx). “Types of Eneray We've defined energy as. the Inherent ability of a region of space or the mater within it to do work. This define: tion simply means that energy can make matter move or change the character of matter For example, energy can cause a car 10 al along the highway, it ean turn an lee cube into 8 puddle of water, oritcan make a light bulb glow. Physicists cstinguish among several forms of energy: kinetic energy, the energy that an object has due to its move- ment; potential energy, the energy stored within @ material; and radiant energy, the energy that a glowing object sends outwara In the form of electromagnetic waves, COnetype of eneray can be convertedinto ‘another. For example, as long as it remains stationary, a boulder sitting atthe top of a hill stores potential energy. When the bout er starts to roll, this energy changes into kinotic energy. Similarly, raciant energy trom the Sun, when absorbed by a solar panel on the roof of a house, can be changed into potential energy stored In a battery. This potential energy can later be tured Into the kenetc energy of a moving car. FIGURE Bxd.1 Bxamplos of tho forcos of nature everyday lf. Machancal and fl orcs are very faiac (0) A porson ap ‘mechanical force to push a boulder 20 CHAPTER 1 Cosmology and the Birth of the Eart (0) Gravty, afd force pulls a person downa zine, (e) A magnet produces afield foce sulfcent to hols onto these cls,FIGURE 1.4 Agalaxy may contain about 300 bilion stars (a) The Mitky Way ona clr night. The “hana” (8) A spiral ostany tht los ike the Milky lescope vew of deep FIGURE1.S The relative sis ad positions of planets inthe Solar System. cons Jupiter (a) Relative sizes of he planets. Aare much smaller than the Sun but the g Gharneterabowt 172 times greater than that of ho Cari err ed RLU Be (b) Relative postions ofthe plnets. This gue isnot ta scle he Sun in his fique was the size ofa large crane, the Earth would be the sizeof & sosamo seed 1S motors away. Note tata planetary orbits Ho rough inthe same plane An image ofOur Universe 21FIGURE. Examples of ‘The Mon orbits the ert. fs composed cfrockandhoste raters andlarge mace | crates one I Genyrede oats Sintorconests ot | paints Suiteow ne ies erase fone I Deine omits Mars, IES composed of tock» andis non sphere. arg iinonerhetcl ED : Because so much ice occurs in these planets, astronomers call them ie git In addition to planets, the Solar System contains a great variety of other objects: + Moone: A moon is solid objec, of detectable siz, that orbits a planet, All planets except Mercury and Venus have noone. For example, our home planet has one (we cal it ‘he Moon), Mats has two, Jupiter has atleast 63, and Saturn 22 CHAPTER 1 Cosmology and the Birth ofthe Earth thas atleast 62. Moons vary greatly in size, composition, and surfice characteristics some consist mostly of rock, and others mostly of ice. Some have surfaces pockmarked by the impact of meteorites billions of years ago, while others have been resurfaced by materials erupted from volcanoes or geysers (Fig. 1.6). Asteroids: Ars asteroid isa relatively small rocky or metallic object that orbits the Sun. Most lie in the region between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Known asteroids range in diameter from 1 cm to 930 km. Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud Objets: About a trillion bodies cof ce, with diameters ranging from less than 1 em to 2,000 kan, lie outside the orbit of Neptune, Those that foccur ina domut-like ring closer in comprise the Kuiper Belt More distant ones form the Oort Cloud, which has a some: ‘what spherical shape. Most ofthese iey objects arc tiny (ess than afew centimeters across), but some are much bigger Duwarf Planets: Asteroids and Kuiper Bele objects with a ameter greater than about 900 kin ate known as dwarf planets. Though only five have yet been identified, there may be up to 200 dwarf planets. The largest known dwarf planets, Pluto and Eris have diameters of about 2,300 km, “The New Horizons space probe visited Plat in 2015-2016, allowing people to see, for the frst time, the amazing, com plex texture ofits surface (Fig. 1.7) Comets: Kuiper Belt or Oort Cloud objects that follow: clliptical orbits that bring them into the inner Solar FIGURE 1.7 A composite phtoin tuo coor of Puto, as soon by the ‘New Horizons space probe in 2015,