FIGURE1,0 Aras: doug excands, eat cea analogy fr the expanding Universe As the vay fom the others. in aves fart Bread Universe, imagine a ball of bread dough with raisins seat tered throughout. As the dough bakes and expands into a loaf, cach raisin moves away from its neighbors, in every direction (Fig. 140), Note that if wo raisins were originally 1 em apart, after a given time interval they spread to 2 em apart, and that during the same time interval raisins that were originally 4 cm, apart spread to 8 cm apart—so the farther apart the raisins are to start with, the faster they move apart. By this analogy, galaxies that lie farther away from the Earth are moving away from us faster than do galaxies closer to us so farther galaxies exhibit a greater red shift than do nearer on The Big Bang Hubble’ ideas started revolution in cosmological think- ing. Now we picture the Universe as an expanding buble, in which galaxies race away from each other at incredible speeds This image immediately triggers a key question of cosmology: Did the expansion begin at some specific time in the past? If itdlid, then that instant would mark the physical beginning of| the Universe the beginning of ouc space and time. luded thatexpansion did indeed begin ata specific time, with a cataclysmic explosion ealled the Big Bang. According to the Big Bang theory, all matter and energy—everything that now constitutes the Universe—was initially packed into an infinitesimally small point, called a singularity. The point exploded and the Universe began, accond- ing to curren estimates, 13.8 Ga (billion years ago). Of course, no one was presenta the instant ofthe Big Bang, s0 no one actually saw it happen. But by combining clever ca culations with carefal observations, researchers have developed ent model of how the Universe evoled, beginning an inseant after the explosion. According to this mode, the Universe consisted ently of energy during the fst instants of its exs- tence. Atoms, or even the smallest subatomic particles that make up atoms, did not exist (Box 1.3). Within a few seconds, hove eve, the Universe ad cooled enough that hydrogen atoms could begin to form (Box 1.4). And by the tine the Universe reached an age of 3 minutes, when is tempe {billion degrees and its diameter had grown to about 53 milion “Most astronomers have c sure had fallen below kilometers, hyirogen atoms could fuse together to form helium atoms. Formation of new atomic nuclei in the frst few minutes of time is called Big Bang nucleosynthesis because it happened before any stars existed. This process could produce only small atoms, meaning those containing a small number of protons (an atomic number less than 5), and it happened very rapidly. Infact, virtually all of che new atoms consisted of hydrogen and helium, and all of the Eventually, the Universe cooled enough for chemical bonds to bind atoms together in molecules. Most notably, hydrogen atoms bonded to form molecular hydrogen (H,). As the Universe ‘expanded and cooled further, atoms and molecules slowed down, and accumulated into patchy clouds called nebulae. The earliest nebulae ofthe Universe consisted almost entirely ofhydrogen and helium gas. The initial expansion ofthe Universe took place very rapidly. This inflationary epoch lasted less than a second, After that, the Universe expanded ata less rapid rate, Recent reseasch, suggests that its expansion has begun to aecelerate (Fig. 1.1), atoms existed by the end ofthe first 5 minutes, FIGURE 1.11 The concept the exganding Universe andthe Big Bang [rea 2s the Universe expand, {he cstance between Gales increases 4.2 Forming the Universe. 27SCIENCE TOOLBOX... Matter and Energy Matter, Atoms, and Molecules What does matter consist of? A Greek philosopher named Democritus (ca, 460-370 BCE) Teasoned that you cannot keep dividing @ ‘volume of matter into progressively smaller places, because Ifyou did, you would even- tually end up with nothing, Since its not possible to make something out of nothing, there must be a smallest piece of matter that con't be subdivided further. Democritus proposed the name atom for these smallest places, from the Greek word atomas, which means indivisible. (Our modern understanding of matter developed in the 17th century, when chemists (scentists who study the proper- ties, composition, and behavior of matter) recognized that some substances, such a8 hydrogen and oxygen, cannot be divides to form other substances, whereas others, such as water and salt, can be. The “undi- vigable” substances came to be known ‘as elements. Jona Daton (1765-1844) adopted the word atom for the smallest piece of an element that has the property Of the element. During the 18th and 19th centuries, chemists idenited 82 naturally ‘occurring elements on Earth, and during the 20th century, physicists produced mote than @ dozen more. Each element has a name and a symbot: for example, N = nitrogen, H = hydrogen, Fe = iron, and Ag = silver. n 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) recognized that groups of ele- ments share similar characteristics, and he organized the elements nto a chart that we row call the periodic table (see Additional Maps ang Charts atthe back ofthis book) ‘Atoms don't always occur in isolation, but rather can attach to other atoms, Chom Ists refer to a combination of two oF more atoms as @ molecule, and to the "glue" that holds one atom to another as a chemical bond. Some molecules contain only ane ele- ment, whereas others contain atoms of dif {fetentelements; material whose molecules contain more than one element is called @ compound. We can incieate the proportions of dierentelements na molecule by means ofa chemical formula, A hydrogen molecule, ‘or example, contains two hydrogen atoms, 50 Its formula Is H,; note that nydrogen Is not a compound. Water, in contrast, Is 2 compound, for its molecules contain two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. ‘A molecule of water has the formule H,0. (Fig. Bxt.3a). What's Inside an Atom? Experiments in the ‘arly 20th century revealed that atoms con- sist of smaller pleces, known as subatomic pricles, of which there are three types: neu ‘ons, which have a neuital chege, protons, vinich have a postive charge, ang electrons, hich have a negative charge (Fig. 8x.3b) (Charge, simpisticaly, refers to the way in wich a particle responds to @ magnet or an electric current; unlike charges attract, ‘whereas lke charges repel) Protonsandneu- trons pack together in the nucleus, a dense ball atthe atom’s center. The bons holding these pantclestogether are krown as nuclear bonds. Electrons swir around the nucleus in ‘an election lous, Protons and neutrons are about the same size, but an electron contains only 1,836 as much mass asa proton Electron clouds have a complex internal structure. Speeitiealy, electrons group into intervals callee electron shells. Electrons in nner shells concentrate closer to the rucleus, while those in outer shelsliefartner away. Roughly speaking, the clameter of an electron cloud is 10,000 times greater than thatofa nucleus, yet the cioud contains only 0.05% of an atoms mass. Se, Inetfect, atoms consist mostly of empty spece! ‘The number of protons In the nucleus fof an atom derines the element's atomic FIGURE Bx1.3 The nature of toms. (a) Two ways of porvayng 2 wator molecu. Tho reds cxygen, the smal bala are hystogen, 28 CHAPTER 1 Cosmology and the Sith ofthe Earth number—small atoms have low atomic numbers, whereas large atoms have high atomic numbers. The smallest atom isthe hydrogen atom, with anatomic number of The largest naturally occurring atom, ura- Plum, has an atomic number of 92. Except {or hydrogen nuclei, all nucel also contain neutrons, In smaller atoms, the number of neutrons roughly equals the number of protons, butinlarger atoms, the number of, neutrons exceeds the number of protons. We define the atomle mass of an atom as approximately the sum of the number of neutrons and the number of protons. For example, an oxygen nucleus contains 8 protons and 8 neutrons, so it has an atomic mass of 16. States of Matter Matter can exist In df erent forms, known as states of matter, ‘depending onthe degreeto which the atoms ‘oF molecules in the matter hold together (Fig. Bxt.3c).Amaterialinwhich allthe atoms ‘or molecules bond so tightly thatthe material can retain ts shape for along time i called a solid. In contrast, a material in which the atoms occur indisorganized clumps or chains thatcan low past one another fairy eas so that the material can conform tote shape of its container even though itretains the same volume, Is called a liquld. Final, in a gas, atoms or molecules are not bonded to one fanother,s0 they can move around easly inal rections. As 8 consequence, a gas expands to fil any container i's placed in, When er! ronmental aneltions change, a material may Inner Outer ‘shel hall Noto scale Nucleus {b) Anienoge ofan atom witha nucleus ‘tite by etectonschange from one state to another For exam- ple, during condensation, a gas becomes @ liquid and during freezing, a quid becomes solid ‘The Energy Stored In Bonds In Box 11, we Introduced the concept of potential energy. the eneray stored in a material. Chemical bonds and nuclear bonds store potential energy, and this energy can be released ‘uhen such bonds break or form. Chemical bonds break and form during @ chemical reaction, During such reactions, some mot- ‘ecules break apart and others form. During ‘@ nuclear reaction, in whieh nuclear bonds break or form, a small amount of mattor converts into energy following Einstein's famous equation, E = mc (In this equa tion, € stands for energy, m stands for mass, and c stands forthe speed of light) Nuclear reactions duting which nuclei break apart during which nuclei of two smaller atoms {use together are called fusion reactions (Fig. Bx1.3¢, ), Fission generates energy in ruclear power plants and in the explosion of, ‘an atomic bomb, whereas fusion reactions power the Sun and take place during the ‘explosion of @ hydrogen bomb. Fusion can feccur only when nucle collide at extremely igh velocity, because the nuclear force that binds nuciel together operates only at sub- atomic distances. FIGURE Bx1.3 (contiwedl ri ard are called fission reactions, whereas those Re ee ese nen eer Renal ope eer de rene\ Pree gat Teena aan ee energie Gens and gases expand tl ther container FN ton A e-* SUrveious Newton @7 Bu nusious (a1 A aium tom spits ing nude fsion Birth of the First Stars ‘When the Universe reached its 200 millionth birthday, it con- tained immense, slowly switling, dark nebulae separated by vast voids of empty space (Fig. 112). The Universe could not remain this way forever, though, because ofthe invisible but persistent pull of gravity. Eventually, molecules began sticking together to form specks ofc, and gravity began to zemold the ‘Universe pervasively and permanently All matter exerts gravitational pull—a type of force—on its surroundings, and as Isaac Newton frst pointed out, the Ficctes newton Se Fusion Het Tetum (61 Two atoms (versions of hyrogen! stick together to ‘orm ene stom of hllum during muses fusion. amount of pull depends on the amount of mass. Somewhere in the young Universe, the gravitational pull of an initially more massive region of a nebula began to suck in surrounding. ice and gas and, ina grand example of the rich getting riches, ‘grew in mass and thesefore density (mass per unit volume). [As this denser region attracted progressively more matter, the matter compacted into a smaller region, and the initial swirl- ing movement of a nebula transformed into a rotation around an axis, As matter continued to move inward, cramming into a progressively smaller volume, the rotation rate became faster and faster. (A similar phenomenon happens when a spinning 41.3 Forming the Universe 29SCIENCE TOOLBOX Heat and Temperature In everyday English, the words heat anc temperature may seem Interchangeable, but n sientifeeiscussion, they have itfe- font, distinet definitions. Scientists refer to the total kinetic energy contained in matter due to the motion ofits particles as thermal ‘energy, or heat. A jar of gas that has been ‘warmed in an oven contains more heat than, the same-sized ar that has been sitting ina refrigerator ‘The temperature of @ material Is a ‘number that represents the average veloc: lty of particles moving within the material. ‘These movements can include the vibra- tion of atoms or molecules in place ane the physical movement of atoms or molecules {rom one location to another. The fester ‘the particles vibtate or move, the higher the temperature. When heat is added to a material, ts temperature rises. For exam- ple, when you place a jar of gas on a hot stove, heat moves into the jar so that the temperature of the gas rises because the {Gas molecules stat to move faster. If, how= ‘ever, you place thejar Ina cold reigerat heat moves out ofthe jr, and the gas mol ‘ecules slow down, ‘With the above concepts In mind, con- sider the following experiment: Imagine thet ‘you have two jars, both containing gas atthe ‘same temperature. One jar contains 2 grams ‘of gas, and the other jr contains 1 gram of ‘gas. The jar containing 2 grams of gas holds more neat because it contains more atoms ‘and, therefore, more total kinetic energy. Scientists use the centigrade scale (also bra known as the Celsius scale) for c Ing changes in temperatures in the metric systom of measurement. In the United States, weather reports typically give tom- peratures using the Fahrenheit scale of the English system of measurement. Water ‘reezes at0°C, or 32°F, and itbolls a 100°C, or 212° Note that a single degree In the centigrade scale represents a larger tem- perature change then does a single degree Inthe Fahrenheit scale. Matter becomes its coldest when its atoms or molecules stand stil, We call this temperature absolute zero, or 0 K {pronounced “zero kay"), where K stands for Kelvin fafter Lord Kelvin, 1824-1907, 2 British physicist), another unit of tem- perature. You simaly can't get colder than absolute zero, meaning that you can't fextract any thermal energy from a sub- stance at OK (-27315°C) FIGURE 1.12 Arepresertatin of sales nebule inthe early Universe Inrealty, tho clouds would have boon dar, fora stars exist. This rendition i modifi from a Hubble Space Telescooe oh ice skater pulls her arms inward.) Because of its increased rotation, the nebula evolved into a disk shape, As more and more matter rained down onto the disk, it continued to grow, until eventually, gravity collapsed the inner portion of the diskiinto a dense ball. As the matter compressed into a smaller 30. CHAPTER 1 Cosmology and the Birth of the Eart and smaller space, its temperature increased dramatically Decause as gas molecules squeeze together, they zip around ‘more rapidly. Eventually, che central ball of the disk became hot enough to glow, and at this point it became a protostar. “This protostar continued to grow, by pulling in successively ‘more matter, until its core became extremely dense and its temperature reached about 10,000,000°C. Under such con- ditions, very fast-moving hydrogen nuclei slam together so forcefully that they undergo a series of fusion reactions, wht ‘mately forming helium nuclei (ee Box 1.3). Such fusion reac tions produce huge amounts of energy, and the mass becomes 4 fearsome furnace. When the first nuclear fusion reactions began in the first protostar, the body “ignited,” and the first true star formed. When this happened, perhaps 800 million, years after the Big Bang, the first starlight illuminated the newborn Universe. This process would soon happen again and. again, and many first-generation stars came into existence, First generation stars tended to be massive, pechaps 100 times the mass of the Sun. Astronomers have shown that the larger the star, the hotter t burns, and the faster it runs ou of fuel and dies. A huge star may survive only a few million to a few tens of millions of years before it explodes. The explosion, of a giant star produces a supernova (From the Latin word nova, meaning new), so named because closer examples can be seen from the Earth, where they appear as “new” stars in the sky. As a result, not long after the first generation of stare formed, the Universe began to be peppered with the frst generation of supernovae,TAKE-HOME MESSAGE ‘Study of the red shift shows that all distant galaxies are ‘moving away from us, an observation that requires the Universe to be expanding, According to the Big Bang ‘theory this expansion and, therefore, the beginning of our Universe, began with a cataclysmic explosion at 138 Ga. ‘Atoms formed during the Big Bang collected into nebulae, ‘which gravity collapsed into dense balls that began to produce energy by nuclear fusion reactions, These objects were the first stare, {QUICK QUESTION: The farther a galaxy ies from the Earth, the greater the red shift it exhibits, Why? 1.4 We Are All Made of Stardust Where Do Elements Come From? The nebulae from which the first-generation stars formed con sisted entirely of small atoms (atoms with atomic numbers less than 5) because only these small atoms were generated by Big Bang nucleosynthesis. In contrast, the Universe of today con tains 92 naturally occurring elements. Where did the other 87 elements come fom? In other words, how did elements such as carbon, sulfu, silicon, ion, gold, and uranium form? ‘These elements, which are common on the Earth, have atomic numbers greater than 5, Por example, carbon has an atomic number of 6, znd ieon has an atomic number of 26. Physicists have shown that these elements form during the le cyele of stars by the process of stellarmucleosynthesis, Because of tl nucleosynthesis, we can consider star to be “element factories,” constantly fashioning larger atoms out of smaller atoms, ‘What happens to the atoms produced by stellar nucleo- synthesi? Some escape into space during the star's lifetime, simply by moving fast enough to overcome the stars gravita- tional pull. The stream of atoms emitted from a its lifetime i its stellar wind (Fig. 1130). Mo ver, escape only when a star dies, A relatively low-mass star (ike our Sun) releases a large shell of gas as it dies, ballooning into a red giant during the process, whereas a zelatively high- rast star blasts matter into space during a supernous expla sion (Fig. 1436). Most very lange atoms (those with atomic rumbers greater than that of ron) can form only atthe ultra~ high temperatures that develop in a supernova explosion, The process of forming these lager, hesvier atoms is, therefore, called supernccs nusleogenei, FIGURE 1.13 Element factories in space, {a} A poo of so (sean wind sveamiaginv space (6) Very neavy we ee the rapily expanding shel of ges secre ito space fam zn explosion whose ight sched: in 1084 ce, This shel it ealed the Cao Nebua. When the first generation of stars died, it left a legacy of new, heavier elements, which then mixed with residual gas from the Big Bang. A second generation of stars formed out of these compositionally more diverse nebulae. When these stars died, they contributed heavier elements to third-generation stars, Succeeding generations of stars contain a greater proportion of heavier elements. (Nevertheless, most of the visible mass of the Universe still consists of 74% hydrogen and 24% helium) Because not all stars ive forthe same duration of time, at any given moment the Universe contains many different generations of stars. Our Sun may be a third, fourth-, or fifth-generation star. The mix of elements we find on the Earth includes relcts 1.4 We Are AllMade of Stardust 34TABLE 1.1 Top 10 Eler cone another by gravity. Eventually, as we've seen, gravity pulls 4 swirling nebula inward and it coalesces into a spinning disk with a bulbous center, In the case of our Solar System the central “bulb” of this disk became the Sua, whereas the remainder of ‘the Solar System formed from the material in the flattened outer ppartof the disk, a region now known as the protoplanetary disk. "Material in the disk does not fall to th it's moving fast enough to stay i orbit. “The protoplanetary disk of our Solar System contained all 92 elements, some as isolated atoms and some bonded to others in molecules, in a mixture of gases produced during the Big, Bang as well as gases expelled from earlier generations of stars er ofthe disk because FIGURE 1,14 Netuar + for planet formation (out of 1 Hydrogen 759000 Helium 240,000 ‘Oxygen 10.400 Nitrogen 360 Sticon 650 Magnesium 580 sulfur 440 Other (approx) 940 of primordial gas from the Big Bang as well as the dis- gorged guts of dead star. ‘Think of tthe elements that make up your body once resided inside a stax, of even a supernova! The proportions of elements reflect the processes of element formation and the degree to which stellar gases and supernova gases mix (Table 1.1), Did you ever wonder. . "where the atomsin your body Firet formed? ‘The Nebular Theory Earlier in this chapter, we described how stars formed from nebulae that consisted mostly of small atoms formed by Big Bang nucleosynthesis, But we delayed addressing the ques- tion of how the planets and other objects in our Solar System originated until we had discussed the production of heavier elements, such as oxygen, silicon, and iron, because planets, such as the Earth consist predominantly of these elements Now that we've shown how stars and supernovae can serve as element factories producing larger atoms, we return to the carly history of the Solar System and add an explanation for the origin of planets, moons, asteroids, and comets. In the context of scientific eosmolagy, the Sun and all other objects in the Solar System formed from material that had been swirling about in a nebula, an idea now known as the nebular theory ox, more recently, as the condensation theory (Fig. 1.14), According to the theory, the process of Solar System forma tion involved several stages (Geology at a Glance, pp. 34-35) Such a process begins when tiny ice and dlue particles (pecs of solids made of materials that do not evaporate easly) condense in a nebula. Other atoms or molecules attach to these particles, building into masses that are large enough to be attracted to 32. CHAPTER 1 Cosmology and the Birth ofthe Earth ro “The eight planets