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4.1 CHOICE OF EQUIPMENT

In any production process, the choice of the equipment from the different types is

very important, so as to meet the production capacity target, ensure good quality of

product, maximise cost, durability, safety to life and property and cost of production.

Equipment are built with different sizes and shapes, they are designed on different

working principle or operation, which are therefore characteristic of the use to which it will

be applied. It is therefore important to know the nature of the material in the process and

the equipment type that will serve ones purpose.

4.2 DOUGH AND PASTE

Dough and paste are mixed in machines, which have of necessity, to be heavy and

powerful. Because of the large power requirements, it is particularly desirable that the

motor posses reasonable efficiency; as the power dissipated in the form of heat may cause

substantial heating of the product. Such machines may require jacketing mixer to remove

as much heat as possible with cooling water (Richardson and Peacock, 1994).

The most commonly used mixers for these heavy material are the

(1) Z-blade mixers

(2) The pan mixers

(3) The Kneader, which employs two contra rotating arms of special shape, which fold and
shear the material across a cusp, or division, in the bottom

The blade of these mixers rotates at differential speeds, often in the ratio of 3:2.

Mixing action of the Z-blade mixers combines shearing and kneading which is brought

about by the specially shaped blades enabling it to mix, whip and knead materials ranging

from low viscosity paste to stiff dough.

Other types of machines employ very heavy contra-rotating paddles, whilst a

modern continuous mixers consist of an interrupted screw which oscillate with both rotary

and reciprocating motion between pegs in an enclosing cylinder. The important principle in

these machines is that the material has to be divided and folded and also displaced so that

fresh surfaces recombine as often as possible (Meyer, 1992; Perry and Green, 1997).

4.3 EXTRUDER

Extrusion is an operation in which a mass of plastic or semi soft material inside a

heavy walled cylindrical container is forced to flow through an orifice (die or mould) at

one end of the container as a result of pressure applied to the material by a piston (ram)

acting at the other end of the container. The process is often successful on materials, which

are too brittle to work by other shaping methods such as rolling. The instruments for this

process are generally called extruders. They may come in many shapes and work with

different principles e.g. the extrusion mixer, presses the material via a kneader.

Extrusion is well suited to producing long bars of constant cross section. The shape

of the cross section, which is determined by the die opening, may be quite complex. The

force required for extrusion may be supplied by a hydraulic cylinder, which drives the ram.

The material to be extruded must have sufficient plasticity so that it begins to flow through

the die at a pressure less than the breaking point of the material. The ram pressure should

not be above 180,000lb/m2. The die is another limiting feature of the process since it may

lose its shape if pressure and temperature becomes excessive and abrasive wear may occur.

The pressure (force/area) required for extrusion is a function of the stiffness of the

material, surface friction and changes in cross sectional are from the billet to the rod or

shaped material (Perry and Green, 1997).

A useful expression is P = KlnR.

Where R = Ratio of the initial to final cross sectional areaPowerful presses up to 15,000 tonnes capacity are used for extrusion, but the
most

common size is about 2,500 tonnes. Suitable lubricants (ground nut oil) must be used to
reduce extrusion force, increase die life and give better surface on the extruded product. In

general the force required to overcome friction, even in well-lubricated operation is about

25% of total force (Richardson and Peacock, 1994).

Extruded product are usually or sometimes used as extruded, but it is more

common practice to employ a subsequent cold working operation, such as drawing to

improve the surface finish and to get greater dimensional accuracy or desired thickness.

4.4 OVEN (DRYER)

Drying (baking) is the removal of volatile substances (moisture) by heat from a

mixture that yields a solid product (biscuit). Dryers are classified by:

(1) HEATING METHOD: The manner whereby the moist material removes heat i.e. by

conduction heating from the sheets or very wet material. Convective heating is the most

common, where mild heating is necessary to avoid heavy degraded product, and radiation

drying is used in the microwave oven (Macrea and Robbinson, 1997).

(2) PROCESS CONDITION: The pressure and temperature of operation which are

constrained however by the nature of the materials to be dried. The thermal sensitivity of

the material fixes the maximum temperature to which the material may be heated. The

temperature rises with the time the material is held in the dryer.

(3) CONVEYING METHOD: The way the material is loaded or supported in the dryer.

The outward appearance of the dryer depends largely upon the way the drying material

moves through the equipment. Free flowing granules can be handled in many ways

(conveyor, rolling, trays etc), but more awkward materials often require special techniques.

Most modern dryers are operated continuously or semi-continuously over the working tray,

as a continuous dryer will require less labour, fuel and floor space than the batch dryers.

Certain factors are considered in the selection of dryer for particular purpose, they are:

(1) Feed Condition: is it solid, liquid, paste powder, crystals etc.

(2) Feed Concentration, the initial liquid content.

(3) Product Specification, dryers required, physical form.

(4) Throughput Required.

(5) Heat Sensitivity of The Product.

(6) Nature of Vapour, toxicity and flow ability.

(7) Nature of the Solid: flammability (dust explosion hazard), toxicity.

4.4.1 CONVEYOR DRYERS(CONTINUOS CIRCULATION BAND DRYERS)

The conveyor dryer (oven) has been chosen for the production of one tonne of

biscuit per day, because of the complete accessories it has to offer.

In this type the solids are fed onto the endless, perforated conveyor belt, through

which hot air is forced. The belt is housed in a long rectangular cabinet, which is divided

into zones, so that the flow pattern and temperature of the drying air can be controlled. The

relative movement through the dryer of the solids and drying air can be parallel or more

usually counter-current (Marcel and Dekkar, 1987).

This type of dryer is clearly only suitable for materials that form a belt with an

open structure. High drying rate can be achieved with good product quality control.

Thermal efficiency are high and with steam heating, steam usage can be as low as 1.5 per

Kg of water evaporated.

5.2 COST OF PRODUCTION

5.2.1 RAW MATERIALS

The main raw materials for the production of biscuit are flour, sugar, additives,

water, baking powder and yeast. Wheat flour and sugar are produced locally and this will

reduce the overall cost of production. Additives include; flavouring, shortening, colourants

and modifiers, which are also obtained locally while water, baking powder and yeast, are

readily available.

Most of these materials are locally produced (although most of them are still

imported to meet the demand of the populace) and thus help reduce the overall cost of

production and consequently produce biscuit at a cheaper rate, but putting into

consideration that they must of necessity be good food grade and hygienic.

5.2.2 LABOUR COST

In estimating the labour requirement and cost for plant personnel, a one eight hour

shift was assumed for the direct production workers. The indirect production workers will

also operate a single shift for eight hours. The full labour requirement which are detailed in

Appendix C are summarised below:

6.1.2 WASTE MANAGEMENT

This is a newer approach to cost-effective food-processing waste disposal. Through

waste management, modifications are applied to biscuit plant operation and manufacturing

processes. These modifications reduce the amount of solid and liquid wastes, recover more
product and by-products, often reduce energy consumption and exhibit other benefits. In

general, the principle is to convert waste liabilities into profitable assets.

One major objective of waste management is to eliminate or at least lessen the

dependence upon end-of-the-pipe sanitary engineering methods. This is achieved by

reducing both the amount of waste solids generated and the volume of the waste water

discharged (Adeniyi, 1998).

The following are examples of modifications, which can be made to biscuit plant

operations:

[1] Incorporating good manufacturing practices

[2] collecting culls and other solid wastes into containers rather than discharging to the

floor drain,

[3] recycling water

[4] reusing spent process water in another plant operation and

[5] using less or no water in plant operations that formerly used a fair to a large amount of

water.

Good manufacturing practices that reduce water usage and waste require good

personnel management and employee awareness of conservation practices. Such practices

as needless use of water or overloading of containers, thereby causing spillage, should be

discouraged.

Recycling of water in the same plant operation can be achieved by treating spent

process water with activated charcoal or sand filter or by ion-exchange columns, chemical treatment, pH adjustment, temperature
adjustment, pasteurisation, or a combination of

these and other methods.

Counter currents water reuse systems can be established in many plant operations.

For example, spent wash water can be used again to initiate wash down of dirty floors or to

flume solid waste away from the process line.

6.2 PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTION

The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project,

and the scope for future expansion. The principal factors are:

(1) Location with respect to the marketing area

(2) Raw material supply

(3) Transport facility

(4) Availability of labour

(5) Availability of utilities (water, fuel, power etc.)

(6) Availability of suitable land

(7) Environmental impact and effluent disposal

(8) Climate

(9) Political and strategic consideration

6.2.1 MARKETING AREA

For a product such as biscuit in which case the product per tonne is low the plant

should be located close to the primary market.

6.2.2 RAW MATERIALS

The availability of suitable raw materials will often determine the site location. A

plant that will produce biscuit should be sited close to where the major raw materials are

available.

6.2.3 TRANSPORTATION

The transport of materials and products to and from the plant is an overriding

consideration in site location. The plant should be located close to at least two major forms

of transport: road, rail, waterway (canal and river) or airport. Choosing at least two will be

an added advantage for the two cannot be out of service at the same time.

6.2.4 AVAILABILITY OF LABOUR

Labour will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled

workers will be brought in from outside the site area, but there should be an adequate pool

of unskilled labour locally and labour suitable for training, to operate the plant. Skilled

tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance.

6.2.5 UTILITIES

A biscuit plant invariably requires large quantities of water for its operation

(process and general use). Hence the plant must be located near a source of water of

suitable quality. Process water may be drawn from borehole or purchased from local

authority. Electrical power will be needed for the plant production process (mixer, electric

pumping machine, oven heater etc.) and also for lightings.

6.2.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Full consideration must be given to the difficulties and cost of disposal of biscuit

plant's by-product.
6.3 LAND (SITE) CONSIDERATION

Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant and for future

expansion, the land should be ideally flat, well drained and have suitable load bearing

characteristics.

6.4 CLIMATE

Since weather in Nigeria is neither too hot nor too cold, the site consideration in

form of climate can be neglected since the raw materials will not degrade in quality over

the little time for storage and production. Also the country is not situated within the

earthquake region of the world.

6.5 POLITICAL AND STRATEGIC CONSIDERATION

Capital grants and other inducement are often given by government to direct new

investment to preferred area or locations such as high unemployment prone zone. The

availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection.

6.6 SITE LAYOUT

The biscuit industry and ancillary building should be laid out to give the most

economical flow of material and personnel around the site. Consideration must also be

given to the future expansion of the biscuit factory. The ancillary buildings and services

required on a site in addition to the main processing units (buildings) will include:

(1) Storage for raw materials and products

(2) Maintenance workshop

(3) Stores for maintenance and operating supplies

(4) Laboratory for process control

(5) Fire station and other emergency services

(6) Utilities (storage tank, cooling water, steam)

(7) Effluent disposal plant

(8) Offices for general administration

(9) Canteens, car park, security post etc.

When roughing out the biscuit factory layout the process unit will normally be sited

first and arranged to give a smooth flow of material through the various processing steps,

from raw material to final step.

The location of principal ancillary buildings should then be decided. They should

be arranged so as to minimize the time spent by personnel in travelling between buildings.

The sitting of the main process route will determine the layout of the plant roads,

pipe alleys and drains. Access roads will be needed to each building for construction,

operation and maintenance. Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical

runs of pipes to and from the process units. The main storage area should be placed

between the loading and unloading.

B1.1 OVERALL BALANCE

The composition of the feed is as listed in chapter three. From the material balance

carried out it can be seen that to get a product of 1000 kg (1 tonne) of biscuit, a feed mass

of 1357.15 kg of the raw material is required. This will require the following mass of feed:

[1] Flour 678.58 kg [2] Sugar 27.14 kg

[3] Water 407.15 kg [4] Baking powder 27.14 kg

[5] Addition/modifier 217.14 kg

B1.1.1 MATERIAL BALANCE

Taking a basis of 1000 kg of feed; the masses of the feed based on the composition

is:

(a) Flour = 50%=500 kg

(b) Sugar = 2.0%=20 kg

(c) Water = 30%=300 kg

(d) Baking powder = 2.0%=20 kg

(e) Additives = 16%=160 kg

Initial moisture content = 30%=300 kg

Final moisture content = 5% = 50kg

300 kg of moisture is associated with 700 kg of dough

300 kg ---> 700 kg (i.e. 300 kg + 700 kg = 1000 kg)

50 kg ---> 950 kg of dry matter (i.e. 50 + 950 =1000 kg)

==> (50 x 700)/950 =36.84 kg moisture associated with 700 kg

1000kg of original matter must loss (300-36.84)=263.16 kg of moisture

==> weight of dried matter leaving the dryer

=1000-263.16 =736.84 kg

Working backward,

0.30T ---> 0.70T

0.05T ---> 0.95T

Y=(0.05T x 0.70T) / 0.95T =0.0368T

x of the original matter must loss (407.15-49.998) = 357.15kg

0.3T - 0.0368T = 357.15 kg

T(0.3-0.0368) = 357.15 kg

T= 357.15/0.2632=1356.95 kg

The difference (1000-736.84) =263.16 kg of moisture lost

The difference (1356.95-357.15)= 999.8 kg of biscuit, this value is 0.2 short of the

expected 1000kg. This means that the original feed must be (1356.95 + 0.2)= 1357.15 kg.

B1.1.2 HEAT BALANCE

Heat capacity = ((4.19 P) +(0.84(100-P)))/100

where P= moisture content of biscuit dough =30%

Heat capacity=((4.19x30)+(0.84(100-30)))/100=1.845 kJ/kgoC

Latent heat = 335P/100= 335x30/100=100.50 kJ/kgoC

Heat required for 1kg original material:

= Heat energy to raise temp. to 100oC + Latent heat to vaporise water = m1Cp0 + m2L

=1 x 1.845(100-30) + (357.17 x 2257)/1357.15 = 715.97 kJ (kW/s)

The heat required in baking 1357.15kg

= 1357.15x1.845(240-30) + 357.17 x 2257

= 525827.77+806132.69 = 1331960.46 kJ

Since 10% of moisture is lost the overall heat balance over the oven is:

m1=(1357.15-(1357.15x10)/100 = 1221.44 kg

me=(357.17 - (357.17x10)/100 = 321.453 kg

Heat = 1221.44 x 1.845 (240-30)+ 321.453x2257 =1198766.35 kJ

From the material balance carried out, to get a product of 1000kg (1 tonne) of

biscuit we will need to feed a mass of about 1492.96 kg of the raw material. This will

require the following mass of feed:

[1] Flour 746.48 kg [2] Sugar 298.59 kg

[3] Water 447.84 kg [4] Baking powder 29.86 kg

[5] Addition/modifier 238.87 kg

The loss is estimated at 134.85 kg to make up to 1492.96 (1357.15 + 134.85)

B1.1.3 OVERALL MATERIAL BALANCE

In a hourly basis:
Mass in

Total material in = (1492.96/8) =186.62 kg/hr

Total dry solid in = (1045.12/8) =130.64 kg/hr

Total water in = (447.84/8)= 55.98 kg/hr

Mass out

Total material out = (1100/8) = 137.5 kg/hr

Total dry solid out = (1045/8) = 130.63 kg/hr

Total water out = (55/8) = 6.875 kg/hr

Loss = 49.11 kg/hr

3.1.2 UNIT MATERIAL BALANCE

3.1.2.1 MIXER

Mass in

Total material in = 1492.96 kg

Water in = (30% of 1492.96) = 447.84 kg

Solid in = (70% of 1492.96) = 1045.12 kg

Since there is no loss in the mixer

Material in = material out

1492.96 kg = 1492.96 kg

On an hourly basis:

Total material in = Total material out

Water in = Water out = 55.98 kg/hr

Solid in = Solid out = 130.64 kg/hr

3.1.2.2 EXTRUDER

Mass in

Water in = 447.84 kg

Solid in = 1045.12 kg

Total material in = (447.84 + 1045.12)=1492.96 kg

Mass out

Water out = 261.25 kg

Solid out = 1045 kg

Losses = 186.71 kg

Total material out =(1045 +261.25)= 1306.25 kg

37

On a hourly basis:

Water in = (447.84/8) = 55.98 kg/hr

Solid in = (1045.12/8) =130.64 kg/hr

Material in (total) =(55.98 + 130.64)= 186.62 kg/hr

Water out = (261.25/8)= 32.66 kg/hr

Solid out =(1045/8)= 130.63 kg/hr ; Losses = (186.71)/8=23.34 kg/hr

Total material out =32.66 + 130.63 = 163.29 kg/hr

3.1.2.3 DRYER

Basis: 1000kg/hr of product

Water in = 261.25 kg

Solid in = 1045.00 kg

Total material in = (261.25 + 1045)=1306.25 kg

Water out = 55 kg

Solid out = 1045 kg

Total material out =(55+1045) = 1100 kg

On a hourly basis:

Material in = 1306.25/8= 163.28 kg/hr

Material out =1100/8= 137.50 kg/hr

Dry solid in = 1045/8=130.63 kg/hr

Dry solid out =1045/8=130.63 kg/hr

Water in = 261.25/8= 32.656 kg/hr

Water out =55/8= 6.875 kg/hr

3.2 ENERGY BALANCE

3.2.1 OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE

HEAT GENERATED FOR THE MIXER + HEAT GENERATED FOR THE

EXTRUDER + HEAT GENERATED FOR THE DRYER = TOTAL HEAT LOAD

80568 + 469800 + 99990.824 = 650358.824 kJ/hr

3.2.2 UNIT ENERGY BALANCES

Most of the energy balances were done using the computer program developed (Appendix

D)

3.2.2.1 MIXER
Heat in = 80568 kJ/hr

Heat load in dough = 4226.72 kJ/hr

Heat loss in mixer = 76341.28 kJ/hr

3.2.2.2 EXTRUDER

Heat in = Heat out

Heat generated in extruder = Heat load in dough + heat loss in extruder

Heat generated = 469800 kJ/hr

Heat loss in extruder = 448516.8 kJ/hr

Heat load in dough = 21283.2 kJ/hr

3.2.2.3 DRYER

The dryer zone has three zones:

Zone 1 (heating zone)

Heat generated for solid = 19725.13 kJ/hr

Heat generated for liquid = 13682.864 kJ/hr

Total heat load for zone 1

19725.13 + 13682.864 = 33407.994 kJ/hr

Zone 2 (constant rate change zone)

Heat in = Heat out

Heat generated = 40953.265 kJ/hr

ZONE 3 (falling rate zone)

Heat load for solid = 3944.12 kJ/hr

Heat load for evaporated water = 21109.32 kJ/hr

Total heat load in the filling rate zone

= Heat in solid + Heat in evaporated liquid

= 3944.12 + 21109.32 + 576.125

= 25629.565 kJ/hr

Total load for the dryer = 33407.994 + 40953.265 + 25629.565

= 99990. 824 kJ/hr

Adeniyi O.D. (1998) “ Design of a plant to produce one tonne of Biscuit per day” Plant Design Thesis, Federal University of Technology,
Minna, pp. 1-63