energies

Article
Hydrogen Injection in a Dual Fuel Engine Fueled
with Low-Pressure Injection of Methyl Ester of
Thevetia Peruviana (METP) for Diesel Engine
Maintenance Application
Mahantesh Marikatti 1 , N. R. Banapurmath 2 , V. S. Yaliwal 1 , Y.H. Basavarajappa 3 ,
Manzoore Elahi M Soudagar 4 , Fausto Pedro García Márquez 5, * , MA Mujtaba 4 , H. Fayaz 6 ,
Bharat Naik 7 , T.M. Yunus Khan 8 , Asif Afzal 9 and Ahmed I. EL-Seesy 10
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dharwad,
Karnataka 580002, India; mkmarikatti@rediffmail.com (M.M.); vsyaliwal2000@rediffmail.com (V.S.Y.)
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, B.V.B. College of Engineering and Technology KLE Technological
University, BVB College Campus, Hubli, Karnataka 580021, India; nrbanapurmath@gmail.com
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, P.E.S. Institute of Technology and Management,
Shivamogga 577204, India; basavarajappa_yh@yahoo.co.in
4 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; me.soudagar@gmail.com (M.E.M.S.); m.mujtaba@uet.edu.pk (M.M.)
5 Ingenium Research Group, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real 13071, Spain
6 Modeling Evolutionary Algorithms Simulation and Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Electrical & Electronics
Engineering, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City 758307, Vietnam; fayaz@tdtu.edu.vn
7 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jain College of Engineering, Belagavi Karnataka 590014, India;
bharatnaik.bgm@gmail.com
8 Research Center for Advanced Materials Science (RCAMS), King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004,
Abha 61413, Asir, Saudi Arabia; yunus.tatagar@gmail.com
9 P. A. College of Engineering (Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi),
Mangalore 574153, India; asif.afzal86@gmail.com
10 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Benha Faculty of Engineering, Benha University,
13512 Benha, Qalubia, Egypt; ahmed.elsysy@bhit.bu.edu.eg
* Correspondence: FaustoPedro.Garcia@uclm.es; Tel.: +34-926-295300




Received: 31 July 2020; Accepted: 22 October 2020; Published: 29 October 2020


Abstract: The present work is mapped to scrutinize the consequence of biodiesel and gaseous
fuel properties, and their impact on compression-ignition (CI) engine combustion and emission
characteristics in single and dual fuel operation. Biodiesel prepared from non-edible oil source
derived from Thevetia peruviana belonging to the plant family of Apocynaceaeis. The fuel has been
referred as methyl ester of Thevetia peruviana (METP) and adopted as pilot fuel for the effective
combustion of compressed gaseous fuel of hydrogen. This investigation is an effort to augment
the engine performance of a biodiesel-gaseous fueled diesel engine operated under varied engine
parameters. Subsequently, consequences of gas flow rate, injection timing, gas entry type, and
manifold gas injection on the modified dual-fuel engine using conventional mechanical fuel injections
(CMFIS) for optimum engine performance were investigated. Fuel consumption, CO, UHC, and
smoke formations are spotted to be less besides higher NOx emissions compared to CMFIS operation.
The fuel burning features such as ignition delay, burning interval, and variation of pressure and heat
release rates with crank angle are scrutinized and compared with base fuel. Sustained research in this
direction can convey practical engine technology, concerning fuel combinations in the dual fuel mode,
paving the way to alternatives which counter the continued fossil fuel utilization that has detrimental
impacts on the climate.

Energies 2020, 13, 5663; doi:10.3390/en13215663 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 5663 2 of 27

Keywords: methyl ester Thevetia peruviana (METP) biodiesel; manifold injection; combustion
parameters; hydrogen injection; electronic control unit

1. Introduction
Brake thermal efficiency, fuel consumption, power, consistency, and robustness of compression
ignition (CI) engines are more than their counterpart petrol engines. Hence, they are well accepted for
applications related to sectors of power, transport, and agriculture. Achieving improved conservation of
energy with high brake thermal efficiency associated with lower emissions are given prime importance,
and they are imperative for engine design and development [1,2]. Diesel engines operate on a wide
range of alternative and renewable fuels (biodiesels, alcohols, and gases like Compressed Natural
Gas (CNG), hydrogen, producer gas, and biogas) [3]. Researchers have explored these alternatives
to conventional fuel from the perspective of lowering oil-import burdens on developing countries,
heralding self-reliance through sustainable energy [4,5]. Several investigators have studied techniques
to strengthen the performance of a compression-ignition (CI) engine at reduced emission levels. In this
regard, natural gas exhibiting properties more similar to diesel, while operating at lower operating
costs, resulting in lower emission levels to be an encouraging substitute to diesel fuel. Compared to
diesel, CNG has a higher specific enthalpy that establishes its energy density per unit volume to be
equivalent to corresponding diesel fuel expressed per unit mass basis. The comparison between its
utilization and reserves has been found to be better off as compared diesel fuel, that clearly establishes
the contention to be a sustainable fuel for future [6,7]. Renewable, sustainable, and alternative fuels
have several advantages that include environmental benignity, conservative foreign exchange usage,
and arrest socio-economic anxieties [8–10]. Fossil fuels are primary energy sources, but they are
depleting in nature, and combustion of such fuels for power generation, resulting in hazardous
environmental degradation. The higher standards of living, urbanization besides socio-economic
development around the globe have worsened the environmental conditions, leading to epidemically
poor air quality. There is an urgent need to look into the issues caused by the burning of fossil fuels.
In this context, energy from renewable and sustainable fuels seems to be better for achieving
the improved economy of any nation and standard of life [11,12]. Therefore, the utilization of
biomass-derived fuels like biodiesel, biogas, hydrogen, producer gas, etc., dramatically contributes
to sustainable waste management systems to eliminate or reduce the use of fossil fuels [13]. Energy
management with high efficiency and lesser emission is significant for country development [14–16].
The government of India has been put into practice for the biomass power/co-generation program.
In general, overall, approximately 500 projects on biomass-based power generation and cogeneration
collecting to 4760 MW capability have been already established in India for maintaining power to
the network. In India, the possibility of biomass is anticipated at almost 500 million metric tons
annually. Studies showed that the Ministry had assessed additional biomass accessibility at about
120–150 million metric tons per annum, including both farming and forestry remainders corresponding
to about 18,000 MW. Additionally, about 7000 MW added power could be created using waste
bagasse-based cogeneration. This status indicates there is a tremendous amount of potential for
harnessing energy from such renewable sources of energy. Hence, in the present energy scenario,
power generation through biomass-derived fuels is of utmost importance. Power generation through
the integrated gasifier-engine system using waste biomass or pallets/briquettes is necessary. To harness
plenty of power through such devices, highly efficient power generation equipment’s production
and skilled person’s development are essential [17–19]. Use of gaseous fuels such as compressed
natural gas and hydrogenated compressed natural gas (HCNG) in a diesel engine is more attractive
fuels [7,20,21]. Maximum energy from the natural gas can be harnessed when it is mixed with hydrogen;
thereby, its flame speed further increased and leads to better and faster combustion.
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 3 of 27

Das et al. [22] addressed development of hydrogen-powered CI engines. They have described the
method of using hydrogen in diesel engines and addressed its advantages and disadvantages. Further,
they have studied objectionable burning trends such as backfire, pre-ignition, knocking, and speedy
pressure rise rate. In their work, an innovative and revolutionary viewpoint of the utilization of
hydrogen in CI engines has been demonstrated gas operated diesel engines on dual fuel mode suffers
from poor utilization of the gaseous fuel during combustion at lower and intermediate loads. Hence,
they result in poor engine performance and emissions [23]. However, at higher loads, gaseous fuel
performs better, leading to improved gaseous fuel utilization, engine performance, and higher CO
level were observed in comparison with normal diesel operation [20,24–26]. Researchers have reported
values of 20% to 30% higher thermal efficiency with the addition of hydrogen. This could be due to
the increased flame speed of HCNG caused by the addition of Hydrogen, and hence the equivalence
ratio is considerably greater than the stoichiometric situation, and distinct the burning of methane is
not as steady as with a combination of H2 -CNG [27]. Higher CO intensity under dual fuel mode has
been described contrasted to normal diesel function styles even at higher loads, which signaled some
flame extinction zones to exist [28,29]. High flame speed of hydrogen exists over an ample variety of
temperatures and pressures, and higher flame speed causes an increase in the rate of pressure rise
and combustion. The stratified combination procedure can be utilized to combust a lean combination
when it is lesser than the lesser flammability limit of hydrogen. Hydrogen managed engines can
have a durable and permanent flow of hydrogen without throttling as gaseous hydrogen has wide
flammability [23,30–34]. The impact of injection timing, injection interval, and hydrogen substance on
the burning aspects of a CI engine employed in the dual-fuel approach applying diesel and hydrogen
manifold injection has been described. Engine function at the optimum start of injection at gas exchange
Top Dead Centre (TDC) with an injection period of 30 ◦ CA for an H2 flow rate of 7.5 lpm caused
superior performance with appropriate levels of emission intensities [35–38]. Dimitriou et al. [39]
investigated the hydrogen on the combustion of diesel-powered diesel engines functioned on a dual
fuel approach. They have achieved a hydrogen energy share of up to 98% at low load operation.
They observed that the carbon-based and NOx formation were dropped and 85% reduced soot level
associated with the conventional diesel operation. They found increased NOx level at medium load
and claimed that this may be due to high energy content of hydrogen. Serrano et al. [40] addressed
energy efficiency enhancement and emissions reduction techniques by utilizing hydrogen in a diesel
engine. They have studied engine operation at two velocities and numerous injection approaches.
They have also addressed self-ignition, combustion knocking, and water was an injection in the intake
manifold to reduce the NOx intensity. Increased NOx and smoke formations have been described with
heightened hydrogen proportion. However, 30% of water injection resulted in 37% efficiency and
lowered NOx emissions. Khan et al. [41] scrutinized the performance and emission qualities of a CI
engine functioned on a dual fuel mode employing a B20 combination and analyzed the influence of
injection pressure and hydrogen injection (15 lpm). They have operated the engine on dual fuel mode.
They have diverged the injection pressure from 200 to 240 bar in steps of 20. They found minimum
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) and maximum ηth with lowered emission concentrations at optimum
injection pressure associated to the operation with other blends and injection pressures. Koten et al. [42]
examined the influence of hydrogen on the performance and emissions of four cylinders, a water-cooled
diesel engine. They have added hydrogen with air in the intake manifold, and hydrogen was used
at various proportions (0.20, 0.40, 0.60, and 0.80 lpm). The researchers have reported on engine
performance characteristics at varying loads under a constant 1800 rpm operation. It observed an
increase in the exhaust gas temperature and NOx emissions at the addition of 0.80 lpm hydrogen and
higher loads. With hydrogen addition, emissions levels such as smoke, HC, and CO were decreased
with growing in NOx level. Liew et al. [43] observed an increase in the peak cyl pr. and the peak
HRR when greater hydrogen was combined at high load. They observed a three-stage combustion
process for the diesel–hydrogen operated dual-fuel engine associated with diesel engines two-stage
burning development. Due to fuel diffusion combustion and the premixed hydrogen burning, multiple
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 4 of 27

turbulent flames were developed, leading to amplified peak heat release. No change has been noticed
when greater hydrogen was added at a low load. The use of hydrogen resulted in greater power
to weight ratio associated with diesel-fueled function. However, it resulted in peak power and was
found to be approximately 14% greater. For ensuring satisfactory combustion, they have adopted
inlet air heating for the hydrogen-fueled engine, which in turn resulted in a greater peak in-cylinder
pressure [43]. Exergy analysis has been carried out by [44]. The study revealed that available work
at rated load increased from 29% to 32%. Reduction in irreversibility and lowered intensive entropy
generation during combustion was reported to be the reason. Rakopoulos and Kyritsis [45] analyzed
the second law of thermodynamics concerning hydrogen-fueled engines. They observed differences
in the irreversibility generation during combustion between hydrogen and hydrocarbons. Entropy
generation during the oxidation reaction of the two fuels is accountable for the remarked manner.
They noticed that decreased burning irreversibility when hydrogen content was increased. Increased
second law efficiency has been reported with increased hydrogen. Tarkanand Karagöz [46] studied
diesel–hydrogen burning in a CI engine. They found a reduction in the indicated thermal efficiency
and increased indicated specific fuel consumption when hydrogen energy fraction was increased.
As far as emission concentrations were involved, smoke, CO, and CO2 were decreased with enlarging
hydrogen proportion. At the 16% hydrogen energy fraction, no change in NOx formation has been
reported. Loganathan and Velmurugan [47] modified the conventional diesel engine to operate on gas.
They supplied hydrogen with exhaust gas recirculation through the intake. They injected hydrogen at
an injection pressure of 2 bar with 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 L/min. Combustion characteristics of an engine such
as ignition delay, burning interval, rate of pressure rise (ROPR), heat release rate (HRR), cumulative
heat release rate (CHR), and cyclic pressure fluctuations were reported. They found a decrease in the
peak pressure and HRR with the expanded Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) rate. Variations in cyclic
pressure and the high burning period have been reported with EGR.
Reduction in combustion irreversibility was reflected in Santoso et al. [48], who investigated Brake
Specific Energy Consumption (BSEC), indicated efficiency, and Cylinder Pressure (CP). They observed
that the addition of hydrogen led to a reduction in the peak CP and engine efficiency. The reaction
growth was fluctuating, and the burning ratio of reaction was slower, as demonstrated by the
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) computation [49]. Some investigators have applied a diesel
engine on dual fuel mode utilizing different biodiesel and gas (Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG), CNG,
hydrogen, biogas) combinations. Further, hydrogen-enriched gases like CNG, the low calorific value
like producer gas have been used in dual fuel concepts with diesel, biodiesel injection to improve the
performance and emission characteristics as well.
Producer gas has a minimum calorific value that caused inadequate performance with expanded
HC and CO formations. However, it created a substantial drop in smoke and NOx intensities [18,50].
In this context, researchers combined hydrogen in producer gas and introduced a combination into
the cylinder employing an appropriate blending chamber. Yaliwal et al. [51] examined the impact of
hydrogen in the producer gas-fueled dual-fuel engine. They integrated the hydrogen in the variety from
4–12 L/min and was introduced in the intake manifold. They detected that diminished de-rating with
augmented brake thermal efficiency with lowered emission concentrations. Nevertheless, they realized
an enlarge in NOx level and declined smoke, HC, and CO patterns. Nevertheless, they noticed an
enlarge in the ignition delay with heightened cylinder pressure and HRR. Halewadimath et al. [52]
described that the utilization of hydrogen injection in a producer gas powered diesel engine was
provided an enhancement in the thermal efficiency with diminished emission quantities. In addition,
they have adapted the conventional mechanical fuel injection system into common rail direct injection,
and also substituted HCC into re-entrant CC (RCC). This modification additional expanded the ηth
with substantial declines in emissions except for NOx formation. However, Yasin et al. [53] reported
that lower heating value of hydrogen is higher than diesel fuel, but the decrease in volumetric efficiency
reduced the torque and hence the power produced by the engine.
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 5 of 27

In their study, the CRDI diesel engine with RCC was run on neem oil methyl
ester-hydrogen-producer gas combination and at an injection timing 10◦ BTDC and IP of 800 bar.
They reported that BTE was increased by 3.02% and smoke, HC, and CO were diminished by
22.4%, 12.2%, 10.8%, respectively, while the NOx soared by 18.6% in comparison with the similar
fuel combination with HCC. Additional, expanded cylinder pressure and HRR were remarked.
The literature survey on dual fuel engine concept with biodiesel (METP) and hydrogen utilization is
limited to low pressure injection of the pilot fuels selected. Further, METP was not much investigated
in dual fuel concept with hydrogen dosage. Use of high-pressure injection of viscous fuels of biodiesels
coupled with higher calorific value hydrogen gas is not much investigated. Hence the present work
discusses the combined effect of injection of both liquid and gaseous fuels on the performance of the
modified diesel engine operated in dual fuel mode and the associated feasibility studies.
Direct Injection and Port Injection use computer-controlled electric injectors to spray fuel into the
engine. The difference is where they spray the fuel. Direct injection has the injectors mounted in the
cylinder head and the injectors spray fuel directly into the engine cylinder. It then mixes with the air.
Only air passes through the intake manifold runners and past the intake valves with direct injection.
There are advantages and disadvantages of both systems. The advantages of direct injection is better
fuel economy, less emissions, and better performance. Fuel economy improvements can be as much as
15%, allowing much less fuel to be wasted. It delivers fuel more precisely to increase better combustion
with more power while maintaining better fuel economy and lowering emissions. A 25% emission
drop at cold-start is possible. Direct injection meters the amount of fuel exactly into each cylinder for
optimum performance and it’s sprayed under very high pressure, up to 15,000 PSI on some vehicles,
so the fuel atomizes well and ignites almost instantly. The major drawback of direct injection is carbon
buildup on the backside of the intake valves. This can throw a computer code, and could result with
a ignition failure. The other disadvantage of direct injection is cost. The injector tips are mounted
right into the combustion chamber, so the materials of the injector have to be very good quality. High
pressure is needed to inject fuel directly into the cylinders which means expensive high-pressure
fuel pumps are needed. They are typically mechanically driven from the engine, which adds to the
complexity [54].
The extensive literature review mainly highlights the trial engine tests conducted on customized
single cylinder, four stroke, water cooled and DI diesel engine operated on dual fuel mode with two
varieties of CMFIS injection systems. The liquid fuel, such as METP, has been used as injected liquid
pilot fuel with gaseous hydrogen supplied as manifold injected fuel at optimized engine parameters.
The CMFIS dual-fuel engine was operated under optimum engine settings of 27◦ BTDC (Before Top
Dead Centre), 240 bar injection pressure adopting a 5-hole injector with 0.2 mm orifice. The selection
of an injector with fixed number of holes also depends on its compatibility with combustion chamber.
In the present work, the injector is optimized with modified combustion chamber as well. The engine
adopted re-entrant combustion chamber with dual-fuel operation on biodiesel and gaseous fuel.
The engine parameters were optimized with respect to gaseous fuel flow rates, injection timing,
injection duration and methods of gaseous fuel injection methodology. The use of hydrogen through
injection facility in a biodiesel fueled dual fuel engine has been less investigated and reported.
The presented work compares hydrogen injection and induction methods. The two fuels selected for
investigations are nature based and renewable to make the initiative to be sustainable practice as it
avoids use of fossil fuels. Major modification in the existing engines will require higher operating costs
of the transportation. The present work helps in this direction by suitably adopting renewable energy
technologies using minimum interventions in the existing diesel engine technology. Additionally,
the present work suggests methods to fine tune the existing diesel engines used for the transportation
sector without much burden on the cost of engine operation as well. Overall concept adopted strongly
in line with the sustainable development goals envisaged by United Nation by year 2030 towards
realization of eco-friendly power generation and utilization.
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 6 of 27

2. Materials and Methods

This section describes the fuels used and their properties along with the experimental setup used
in the engine performance investigations.

2.1. Liquid and Gaseous Fuels Properties

In the present investigation, two fuels were utilized viz, conventional fuel, and biodiesel obtained
from Thevetia peruviana (B100) termed as METP. The biodiesel obtained from Thevetia peruviana belongs
to the family of Apocynaceae, which is plentifully accessible in India. This plant is native of Central
and South America, but now regularly cultivated during the steamy and sub-tropical areas. It is a
classic humid shrub or tiny tree that holds yellow or orange-yellow, the flowers, and its fruit is deep
red/black covering a sizeable seed that carries some similarity to a Chinese lucky nut. Figure 1 indicates
the fuels utilized in the CMFIS engine. The properties of fuels applied are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
Additionally, hydrogen (H2 ) gas (purity 99.99%) was obtained from the BHORUKA GASES
PVT.LTD., Bangalore. The hydrogen injection system has a suitable venture and is fitted inside the
intake manifold to supply Hydrogen gas. The auto-ignition temperature of 858 K, flammability limits
(% volume in air) of 4–75, stoichiometric air/fuel ratio on mass basis of 34.3, density at 15 ◦ C and 1 bar
(kg/m3 ) of 0.0838, net heating value (MJ/kg) of 119.93, and flame velocity (cm/s) of 265–325.

Table 1. Specification of tested fuels.

Property D100 B100 ASTM Standard

Density (kg/m3 ) 829 892 ASTM D5052
Viscosity at 40 ◦ C
3.52 5.748 —–
(mm2 /s)
Flash point (◦ C) 53 178 ASTM D93
Fire point (◦ C) 59 188 ASTM D93
Calorific value (MJ/kg) 42.19 39.46 ASTM D5865
Cetane number 45–51 46 ASTM D675

Table 2. Properties of hydrogen.

Parameters Values
Chemical composition H2
Auto-ignition temperature (K) 858 K
Minimum Ignition Energy (MJ) 0.02
Flammability limits (% Volume in Air) 4–75
Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Ratio on mass basis 34.3
Density at 15 ◦ C and 1 bar (kg/m3 ) 0.0838
Net Heating value (MJ/kg) 119.93
Flame velocity (cm/s) 265–325
Octane number 130
Energies 2020,
Energies 13, x5663
2020, 13, FOR PEER REVIEW 7 7ofof 27
27

Figure 1.
Figure Alayout
1. A layoutof
ofthe
the test
test rig.
rig.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 8 of 27

2.2. Engine Test Rig with CMFIS

2.2. Engine Test Rig with CMFIS
Tests were performed using single cylinder, CI engine with a cylinder capacity of 660 CC, a
Tests
compression were
ratioperformed using single
of 17.5, generating 5.2 kWcylinder,
at 1500CIrpm, engineand with a cylinder
its layout capacity
is indicated of 6602,CC,
in Figure as
awell
compression ratio of 17.5, generating 5.2 kW at 1500 rpm, and its
as its description demonstrates in Table 3. The engine operates typically at 1500 rpm speed. layout is indicated in FigureThe 2,
as well as its description
compression ratio is adjusteddemonstrates
withoutinimpeding
Table 3. The the engine
engine operates
and burning typically at 1500
chamber rpm speed.
geometry by
The compression ratio is adjusted without impeding the engine and
specifically constructed tilting cylinder block arrangement. The setup encompasses of CI engine burning chamber geometry by
specifically
connected toconstructed
a dynamometer tilting forcylinder
insertingblock arrangement.
and applied The setup
with numerous encompasses
devices of CIpressure
for ignitions engine
connected to a dynamometer
and measurements of crank angle.for inserting and applied
The signals interfaced with numerous
across the enginedevices for ignitions
display pressure
to the computer
and measurements of crank angle. The signals interfaced across the
for P-V and P-θ diagrams. Sensors are utilized for air and fuel flow, temperatures, and load engine display to the computer for
P-V and P-θ diagrams. Sensors are utilized for air and fuel flow,
measurement. The system has a self-contained panel case covering of air case, manometer, temperatures, and load measurement.
The system has
transmitters fora air
self-contained
and fuel flow panel case covering of
measurements, air case,
double fuelmanometer,
tanks utilized transmitters
for dualfor airtest,
fuel and fuel
fuel
flow measurements, double fuel tanks utilized for dual fuel test, fuel
assessing unit, engine indicator, and process marker. Rotameters were comprised of cooling and assessing unit, engine indicator,
and process marker.
calorimeter fluid flow Rotameters were comprised
measurements. The systemof cooling and calorimeter
permits compression fluidratio
flow alterations
measurements. for
The system permits compression ratio alterations for measurement of mechanical
measurement of mechanical efficiency, indicated and brake thermal efficiency, volumetric efficiency, efficiency, indicated
and brake
as well as thermal efficiency,
brake, indicated andvolumetric
frictionalefficiency, as well as
power, Indicated brake,
Mean indicated
Effective and frictional
Pressure (IMEP),power,
Brake
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP), Brake Mean Effective
Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP), heat balance, A/F ratio, and specific fuel consumption. The Pressure (BMEP), heat balance, A/F
ratio, and specific fuel consumption. The introduction injector pressure and
introduction injector pressure and injection timing, as stated by the manufacturer, respectively, is 205 injection timing, as stated
by
barthe
andmanufacturer,
23° BTDC. Torespectively,
evaluate theisimpact 205 barofand 23◦ BTDC.
injection To evaluate
timings, the impact
static timings aboutof19° injection
BTDC timings,
and 27°
static timings about 19 ◦ BTDC and 27 ◦ BTDC are utilized apart from the specified injection timing.
BTDC are utilized apart from the specified injection timing. The comprehensive examination is
The comprehensive examination is performed in such a manner that
performed in such a manner that the performance of the engine worsens appreciably with retarded the performance of the engine
worsens appreciably
timing below 19° BTDC withand retarded
advanced timing
timingbelow
above 19◦27°BTDC
BTDC. and Theadvanced
injectiontiming
timingabove 27◦ BTDC.
was maintained
The injection timing was ◦
constant at 23° BTDC, andmaintained
the compressionconstant at 23
ratio BTDC,
varied from and15 the compression
to 17.5. ratio varied
Figure 1 illustrates thefrom
layout15
to 17.5. Figure
of the testbed. 1 illustrates the layout of the testbed.

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Toroidal
Toroidal re-entrant combustion chamber.
re-entrant combustion chamber.

The governor is used to regulate the3.engine

Table speed.ofThe
Descriptions the engine
test rig. incorporated with the combustion
chamber of hemispherical shape with overhead valves works through pushrods. Engine cooling is
Parameter Values
carried by circulating
Make andcoolant
Model through the water jackets TV1
Kirloskar, on various components of the engine that
require cooling. The pressure
Engine type transducer of piezoelectric nature
Single cylinder, is installed
4-S CI engine with the surface of the
cylinder head to gauge the
Cooling system cylinder pressure. The common
water cooled rail or high-pressure collector is utilized to
protect fuel at Bore
liftedXpressure.
Stroke Up to this, the collector
87.5 mm volume
× 110 mmneeds to keep up the pressure changes
brought by fuelDisplacement Volume by pump and
pulses and conveyed 660fuel-injection
cc cycles. This guarantees that, when the
Compression Ratio 17.5
injector opens, infusion weight stays steady. On the other hand, the aggregator volume ought to be
Combustion
sufficiently massive to suitChamber
this necessity, and theOpen
otherChamber
hand, it(Direct
must be Injection)
sufficiently little to give a fast
Rated Power 5.2 kW
weight increment on motor begin. Figure 2 shows the toroidal reentrant combustion chamber shape.
Rated Speed 1500 rpm
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 9 of 27

At the beginning of the experimentation, a consequence of EGR on the performance of

METP-hydrogen fuelled dual-fuel engine with hydrogen injection using the Manifold method has
been considered. The percentage of EGR was fixed at 20% for this case based on the results obtained on
METP-Hydrogen dual-fuel engine operation, in which hydrogen was inducted earlier, and accordingly,
the percentage of EGR was fixed at 20% for the study.

Table 3. Descriptions of the test rig.

Parameter Values
Make and Model Kirloskar, TV1
Engine type Single cylinder, 4-S CI engine
Cooling system water cooled
Bore X Stroke 87.5 mm × 110 mm
Displacement Volume 660 cc
Compression Ratio 17.5
Combustion Chamber Open Chamber (Direct Injection)
Rated Power 5.2 kW
Rated Speed 1500 rpm
Air measurement manometer
Make MX 201
Type U-type
Range 100-0-100 mm
Eddy current dynamometer
Model AG-10
Type Eddy current
Maximum Engine Power 7.5 kW at 1500–3000 rpm
Flow Flow through dynamometer
Dynamometer arm length 0.180 m
Fuel measuring unit range 0–50 mL

2.3. Manifold Injection System

A pressure regulator with two-stage is fitted on the Hydrogen gas cylinder that supplies hydrogen
at 2 bar. Hydrogen was permitted to flow across a rotameter that is calibrated to provide an identified
flow rate of the metered gas. Flashback arrester, flame arrester, and wet type flame trap were linked
end to end to avoid fire hazards and induct the metered gas into the intake manifold. The hydrogen
quantity rate flow rate was varied from 0.10 to 0.25 kg/h. Hydrogen is extremely inflammable, and thus
a flashback arrester (acts as a non-return valve) was applied. The wet type of flame trap extinguishes
any accidental flame flowing back into the gas supply side. A flame arrester is also utilized in the
investigation. The hydrogen injector utilized has the terms as presented in Table 4. The engine
is conducted with a pilot injection of METP whilst H2 -gas was inserted in the inlet manifold and
port (dual fuel mode). The flow rate of the liquid fuel is controlled spontaneously as the engine is
self-governed. The flow rate of hydrogen gas is modified for the applied load safeguarding smooth
engine function devoid of any knock. The hydrogen gas manifold and port injection system utilize an
applicable ECU. The ECU secures the signal around the TDC arrangement across the infrared sensor to
monitor the hydrogen gas injection timing. The hydrogen gas injector is a solenoid type and employs a
12 V battery for power supply.

Table 4. Descriptions of the hydrogen injector.

Make Quantum Technologies

Operating Voltage 8 V DC~16 V DC
Peak Current level 4.0 A
Holding current level 1.0 A
Max. operating pressure 345 kPa (50 psi)
Working Pressure 103–345 kPa
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 10 of 27

HRR was calculated based on the first law of thermodynamics,

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW γ 1 10 of 27

Qa = [PdV ] + [Vdp] + Qwall
γ−1 γ−1
HRR was calculated based on the first law of thermodynamics,
where, 𝛾 1
𝑄 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝑉𝑑𝑝 𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝛾 1 𝛾 1
Qa —Apparent heat release rate, J
where,
V—Instantaneous volume of the cylinder (m3 )
Qa—Apparent
P—Cylinder heat release
pressure (bar) rate, J
V—Instantaneous volume of the cylinder (m3)
Qwall —Heat transfer to the wall (J)
P—Cylinder pressure (bar)
Qwall—Heat transfer to the wall (J) h i
Qwall = h × A × T g − Tw
𝑄    ℎ   𝐴     𝑇 𝑇  
h—Heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 K
h—Heat transfer
T—Cylinder coefficient ininW/m
gas temperature K 2K
T—Cylinder gas Area
A—Instantaneous temperature
(m2 ) in K
A—Instantaneous Area (m2)
The Figure 3 shows the schematic layout of the test facility adopted for the investigations on dual
The Figure 3 shows the schematic layout of the test facility adopted for the investigations on
fuel mode operation of CI engine with Hydrogen injection. The diagram provides details of various
dual fuel mode operation of CI engine with Hydrogen injection. The diagram provides details of
measurement equipment for engine operation with initial conditions of injection set to TDC, 5◦ ATDC,
various measurement equipment for engine operation with initial conditions of injection set to TDC,
10◦ ATDC, 15◦ ATDC, and injection ON time (i.e., injection duration) of 30, 60, and 90 deg. CA for
5° ATDC, 10° ATDC, 15° ATDC, and injection ON time (i.e., injection duration) of 30, 60, and 90 deg.
Hydrogen under optimized
CA for Hydrogen level. The level.
under optimized hydrogen
The flow rate was
hydrogen flowadopted
rate wasto adopted
be 0.25 kg/h
to beincorporating
0.25 kg/h
optimum
incorporating optimum injection time for hydrogen through a series of investigative trials. Figure 4the
injection time for hydrogen through a series of investigative trials. Figure 4 indicates
dual-fuel engine
indicates test rig engine
the dual-fuel provided testwith hydrogen
rig provided injections.
with hydrogen injections.

Figure3.3.Schematic
Figure Schematicline
line diagram
diagram for dual
dual fuel
fuelmode
modewith
withhydrogen
hydrogeninjection.
injection.
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 11 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 27

Figure 4. Photographic
Photographic view of dual fuel engine test rig provided with hydrogen injection.

3. Results and
3. Results and Discussion
Discussion
The
The salient
salientresults
resultsobtained
obtained through
throughthe extensive experimental
the extensive observations
experimental have beenhave
observations discussed
been
with respect to consequences of various start of injection (SOI) and injection duration
discussed with respect to consequences of various start of injection (SOI) and injection duration (ID) (ID) for hydrogen
operation
for hydrogen under manifold
operation injection.
under Facilities
manifold were Facilities
injection. established for established
were Hydrogen injection into the
for Hydrogen engine
injection
inlet manifold as well as the port. For this, a low pressure (5 bar) solenoid hydrogen
into the engine inlet manifold as well as the port. For this, a low pressure (5 bar) solenoid hydrogen nozzle was
utilized
nozzle was to inject hydrogen
utilized to injectinto the inletinto
hydrogen manifold and
the inlet port using
manifold andan electronic
port using ancontrol unit control
electronic (ECU).
Further experiments were performed on a dual-fuel engine with a pilot injection
unit (ECU). Further experiments were performed on a dual-fuel engine with a pilot injection of METP of METP at optimized
injection
at optimizedtiming of 27◦timing
injection BTDC,of240 27°bar IP, CR
BTDC, 24017.5, andCR
bar IP, an17.5,
engineandspeed of 1500
an engine pm.ofFor
speed 1500hydrogen
pm. For
SOI were kept at TDC, 5 ◦ , 10◦ , and 15◦ ATDC in both the versions of a manifold and port injection.
hydrogen SOI were kept at TDC, 5°, 10°, and 15° ATDC in both the versions of a manifold and port
The SOI beyond ◦ ATDC resulted in engine knocking, and hence the results are not presented
injection. The SOI15beyond 15° ATDC resulted in engine knocking, and hence the results are not
for ◦ CA in steps of
presented for this case. Hydrogen duration
this case. Hydrogen injection injection (ON time)(ON
duration wastime)
selected
was from as 30
selected to 90
from as 30 to 90 °CA in
30 ◦ CA. The°CA.
characteristics (i.e., performance, emission,emission,
and burning) of the dual-fuel engine has been
steps of 30 The characteristics (i.e., performance, and burning) of the dual-fuel engine
investigated when fuelled with Hydrogen-Diesel/METP combination.
has been investigated when fuelled with Hydrogen-Diesel/METP combination. The hydrogen flow The hydrogen flow rate was
maintained at 0.25 kg/h,
rate was maintained andkg/h,
at 0.25 METP was
and applied
METP wasasapplied
pilot injected
as pilotfuel.
injected fuel.
3.1. Impact of EGR on the Implementation of METP-Hydrogen-Powered Dual-Fuel Engine with
3.1. Impact of EGR on the Implementation of METP-Hydrogen-Powered Dual-Fuel Engine with Hydrogen
Hydrogen Introduction
Introduction
The effect of EGR on the ηth for Diesel/METP-hydrogen dual-fuel function is shown in Figure 5.
The effect of EGR on the ηth for Diesel/METP-hydrogen dual-fuel function is shown in Figure 5.
It is evident from Figure 5 that the BTE reduces with increasing EGR rates. This could be ascribed to
It is evident from Figure 5 that the BTE reduces with increasing EGR rates. This could be ascribed to
the fact that the mixture was diluted when burnt gas was mixed; hence it results in increased HC and
the fact that the mixture was diluted when burnt gas was mixed; hence it results in increased HC and
CO emission levels. Additionally, drastic changes in the specific heat of a charge during compression
CO emission levels. Additionally, drastic changes in the specific heat of a charge during compression
and expansion are responsible for the results observed. The presence of EGR in the charge decreases
and expansion are responsible for the results observed. The presence of EGR in the charge decreases
inlet charge temperature resulting in decreased BTE. All factors mentioned and along with the thermal
inlet charge temperature resulting in decreased BTE. All factors mentioned and along with the
effect of EGR, significantly vary the combustion characteristics. Further, when part of the exhaust
thermal effect of EGR, significantly vary the combustion characteristics. Further, when part of the
gas was admitted to the engine through the intake manifold, it replaces the equal amount of intake
exhaust gas was admitted to the engine through the intake manifold, it replaces the equal amount of
air. This leads to decreased air-fuel ration and chemical kinetics and affects the dual-fuel engine
intake air. This leads to decreased air-fuel ration and chemical kinetics and affects the dual-fuel
combustion negatively. Further these results into decreased BTE due to reduced volumetric efficiency.
engine combustion negatively. Further these results into decreased BTE due to reduced volumetric
efficiency.
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 12 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 27

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Effect
Effect of
of Exhaust
Exhaust Gas
Gas Recirculation
Recirculation (EGR)
(EGR) on
on the
the Brake
Brake Thermal
Thermal Efficiency
Efficiency (BTE)
(BTE) with
with
induction method.

For the
thesame
sameEGR EGR rates, decreased
rates, decreasedBTEBTEwas wasobtained for METP-Hydrogen
obtained for METP-Hydrogen compared to diesel–
compared to
hydrogen. For theFor
diesel–hydrogen. similar injected
the similar fuel fuel
injected during
during dual fuel
dual fuelprocess
processhydrogen
hydrogeninjection,
injection, improved
improved
performance has been observed.
observed. This may be due to the higher flame velocity velocity ofof H22. In
In this
this hydrogen
hydrogen
injection
injection method
method usingusing EGR,
EGR, decreased
decreased BTE BTE has
has been
been noticed
noticed thatthat is
is caused
caused byby the
the effect of inactive
radicals present in tire out exhaust gas. Further, Further, itit decreases
decreases the the combustion
combustion process by the increased increased
temperature of charge in the the combustion
combustion chamber,
chamber, leading to reduced reduced volumetric
volumetric efficiency.
efficiency. The EGR
effect on the smoke opacity for diesel/METP-Hydrogen injection is presented in Figure 6. Increased
smoke opacity has been noticed with the addition of EGR in the injection of hydrogen. The The utilization
utilization
of EGR in a dual
dual fuel
fuel engine
enginedoes doesnotnotoutcome
outcomeany anyimprovements
improvementsinin smoke
smoke emission.
emission. TheThe presence
presence of
of exhaust
exhaust gasgas significantly
significantly decreases
decreases air proportionately,
air proportionately, leading
leading to a reduction
to a reduction in theinoxidation
the oxidation
rates.
rates.
However,However,
hydrogen hydrogen
use in theuse combustion
in the combustion
along with alongEGR with EGR marginally
marginally decreasesdecreases smoke
smoke emission.
emission.
This may be This may be attributed
attributed to increased to increased ignition
ignition centers centers
caused by caused
the higherby the higher
flame flame
velocity ofvelocity
hydrogen.of
hydrogen. A lower percentage
A lower percentage of exhaust gas of exhaust
(5% andgas 10%)(5% and 10%)
changes the changes the smoke
smoke emission emissioncompared
marginally marginally to
compared
the operationto with
the operation
higher EGR with higher
rates (15% EGR rates Hydrogen
and 20%). (15% and domination
20%). Hydrogen duringdomination
lower EGR during rates is
lower
better EGR rates is
compared tobetter
highercompared
EGR ratestocaused
higher by EGRtherates caused
higher flame byvelocity.
the higherWhenflamethevelocity.
percentage When of
the
EGRpercentage
was increased,of EGR was toincreased,
leading an increase leading
in the tosmokean increase
opacity, in the to
owing smoke opacity,inowing
a reduction to a
the air-fuel
reduction in the air-fuel
ratio. Hydrogen injectionratio.
leadsHydrogen injection
to better soot oxidationleadsdueto better
to the soot oxidation
utilization due to the
of available air.utilization
However,
of availableeffect
a negative air. However,
on the smoke a negative effectEGR
levels with on thehassmoke levels with EGR has been observed.
been observed.
The effect of EGR on HC and CO levels for diesel/METP-hydrogen injection is demonstrated in
Figures 7 and 8. The presence of HC and CO in the exhaust indicates the quality of burning. A high
proportion of such emissions clearly shows the incomplete combustion of fuel. The addition of exhaust
gas further lowers the air-fuel ratio leading to dilute and reduce the strength of the mixture caused by
the decrease of oxygen concentration. This results in decreased combustion temperature and resulting
in higher HC and CO concentrations in the exhaust. The higher amount of HC and CO is due to
retarded oxidation rates, and hence HC and CO formation is more dominant at light loads in dual-fuel
operation. Use of a lower percentage of exhaust gas (5% and 10%) mixing results into marginal changes
in the HC and CO concentrations compared with higher EGR rates (15% and 20%). At higher EGR
rates, the air-fuel ratio changes drastically, leading to incomplete combustion. However, the use of
hydrogen injection with EGR leads to greater utilization of air at the time of fuel combustion. This can
at least lower the both HC and CO emissions due to better utilization of air and higher flame velocity
of hydrogen. Further increased ignition delay during dual fuel operation may also be compensated by
hydrogen presence.

Figure 6. Influence of EGR on the smoke opacity with induction method.

hydrogen. A lower percentage of exhaust gas (5% and 10%) changes the smoke emission marginally
compared to the operation with higher EGR rates (15% and 20%). Hydrogen domination during
lower EGR rates is better compared to higher EGR rates caused by the higher flame velocity. When
the percentage of EGR was increased, leading to an increase in the smoke opacity, owing to a
reduction
Energies 2020,in13,the air-fuel ratio. Hydrogen injection leads to better soot oxidation due to the utilization
5663 13 of 27
of available air. However, a negative effect on the smoke levels with EGR has been observed.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 27

The effect of EGR on HC and CO levels for diesel/METP-hydrogen injection is demonstrated in

The effect of EGR on HC and CO levels for diesel/METP-hydrogen injection is demonstrated in
Figures 7 and 8. The presence of HC and CO in the exhaust indicates the quality of burning. A high
Figures 7 and 8. The presence of HC and CO in the exhaust indicates the quality of burning. A high
proportion of such emissions clearly shows the incomplete combustion of fuel. The addition of
proportion of such emissions clearly shows the incomplete combustion of fuel. The addition of
exhaust gas further lowers the air-fuel ratio leading to dilute and reduce the strength of the mixture
exhaust gas further lowers the air-fuel ratio leading to dilute and reduce the strength of the mixture
caused by the decrease of oxygen concentration. This results in decreased combustion temperature
caused by the decrease of oxygen concentration. This results in decreased combustion temperature
and resulting in higher HC and CO concentrations in the exhaust. The higher amount of HC and CO
and resulting in higher HC and CO concentrations in the exhaust. The higher amount of HC and CO
is due to retarded oxidation rates, and hence HC and CO formation is more dominant at light loads
is due to retarded oxidation rates, and hence HC and CO formation is more dominant at light loads
in dual-fuel operation. Use of a lower percentage of exhaust gas (5% and 10%) mixing results into
in dual-fuel operation. Use of a lower percentage of exhaust gas (5% and 10%) mixing results into
marginal changes in the HC and CO concentrations compared with higher EGR rates (15% and 20%).
marginal changes in the HC and CO concentrations compared with higher EGR rates (15% and 20%).
At higher EGR rates, the air-fuel ratio changes drastically, leading to incomplete combustion.
At higher EGR rates, the air-fuel ratio changes drastically, leading to incomplete combustion.
However, the use of hydrogen injection with EGR leads to greater utilization of air at the time of fuel
However, the use of hydrogen injection with EGR leads to greater utilization of air at the time of fuel
combustion. This can at least lower the both HC and CO emissions due to better utilization of air and
combustion. This can at least lower the both HC and CO emissions due to better utilization of air and
higher flame velocity of hydrogen. Further increased ignition delay during dual fuel operation may
higher flame velocity of hydrogen. Further increased ignition delay during dual fuel operation may
also be compensated by hydrogen presence.
also be compensated by hydrogen presence.
Figure
Figure 6. Influence
Influence of
of EGR
EGR on
on the
the smoke
smoke opacity
opacity with
with induction
induction method.

CMFIS: Diesel-Hydrogen
70 CMFIS:1500 rpm, pilot fuel, IT: 27obTDC,
Speed: Diesel-Hydrogen
METP-Hydrogen
70 Speed: 1500 240
IOP:205(D), rpm,bar
pilot 27obTDC,
fuel, IT:CR:17.5,
(METP), METP-Hydrogen
IOP:205(D),
TRCC, 240 bar
Hydrogen (METP),
flow rate: 0.25CR:17.5,
kg/h
TRCC, Hydrogen flow rate: 0.25 kg/h
60
(ppm)

60
Hydrocarbon
Hydrocarbon (ppm)

50
50

40
40

30
30

0 5 10 15 20
0 5 Percentage
10of EGR 15 20
Percentage of EGR
Figure 7. Influence of EGR on the HC with the induction method.
Figure
Figure 7. Influence of
7. Influence of EGR
EGR on
on the
the HC
HC with
with the
the induction
induction method.
method.
0.25
0.25 CMFIS: Diesel-Hydrogen
CMFIS:1500 rpm, pilot fuel, IT: 27obTDC, Diesel-Hydrogen
METP-Hydrogen
Speed:
METP-Hydrogen
Speed: 1500 240
IOP:205(D), rpm,bar
pilot 27obTDC,
fuel, IT:CR:17.5,
(METP),
0.20 IOP:205(D), 240 bar (METP), CR:17.5,
0.20 TRCC, Hydrogen flow rate: 0.25 kg/h
Vol.)

TRCC, Hydrogen flow rate: 0.25 kg/h

Vol.)
(%(%

0.15
monoxide

0.15
monoxide

0.10
0.10
Carbon
Carbon

0.05
0.05

0.00
0.00 0 5 10 15 20
0 5 Percentage
10of EGR 15 20
Percentage of EGR
Figure 8.
Figure Influence of
8. Influence of EGR
EGR on
on CO
CO with
with injection
injection method.
method.
Figure 8. Influence of EGR on CO with injection method.
Figure 9 represents the consequence of EGR on the nitrogen oxide (NOx) formation for METP-
Figure 9 represents the consequence of EGR on the nitrogen oxide (NOx) formation for METP-
hydrogen operation. The hydrogen injection method with EGR induction may lead to a deficiency in
hydrogen operation. The hydrogen injection method with EGR induction may lead to a deficiency in
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 14 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 27

Figureconcentration
oxygen 9 representsduring
the consequence
combustion of EGR to
leading onlower
the nitrogen
combustionoxide (NOx) formation
temperature. for a
This causes
METP-hydrogen operation. The hydrogen injection method with EGR induction
decrease in NOx levels in the exhaust. In dual fuel strategy with high EGR rates (15–20%), NOx levelsmay lead to a
deficiency in oxygen
were reduced concentration
compared to lowerduring combustion
EGR rates (5–10%).leading
For thetodual-fuel
lower combustion
operation temperature.
with hydrogen
This
injection and at lower EGR rates, comparatively increased NOx levels werewith
causes a decrease in NOx levels in the exhaust. In dual fuel strategy high EGR
observed rates to
compared
(15–20%), NOx levels were reduced compared to lower EGR rates (5–10%). For the dual-fuel
lower load. At low loads, little quantity of pilot is used, leading to lower the flame speed. This may operation
with hydrogen
result injection and
in incomplete at lower EGR
combustion; hencerates, comparatively
lower NOX levelsincreased NOx levels
were observed wereexhaust
in the observed gas.
compared to lower load. At low loads, little quantity of pilot is used, leading to
Additionally, low combustion temperature caused by the diminished adiabatic flame temperaturelower the flame speed. is
This may resultfor
accountable in incomplete combustion;
this propensity. hence for
Nonetheless, lower
15% NO X levels
EGR rateswere
and observed
beyond 15% in the exhaust
EGR, NOx gas.
levels
Additionally, low combustion temperature caused by the diminished
were reduced caused by the increased mixture dilution and oxygen deficiency. adiabatic flame temperature is
accountable for this propensity. Nonetheless, for 15% EGR rates and beyond 15% EGR, NOx levels
were reduced caused by the increased mixture dilution and oxygen deficiency.

2400 CMFIS: Diesel-Hydrogen

Speed: 1500 rpm, pilot fuel, IT: 27obTDC, METP-Hydrogen
2200
IOP:205(D), 240 bar (METP), CR:17.5,
2000 TRCC, Hydrogen flow rate: 0.25 kg/h
Nitrogen oxide (ppm)

1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20
Percentage of EGR

Figure 9. Influence of EGR on the NOX with induction method.

3.2. Impact of Hydrogen Start Figure 9. Influence

of Injection and of
itsEGR on theInterval
Injection NOX with induction
with method.
a Fixed 20% EGR on the Performance
of METP-Hydrogen Fueled Dual-Fuel Engine with Hydrogen Using the Manifold Injection Method
3.2. Impact of Hydrogen Start of Injection and its Injection Interval with a Fixed 20% EGR on the
In this section,
Performance the impact of hydrogen
of METP-Hydrogen starts ofEngine
Fueled Dual-Fuel injection,
withand its injection
Hydrogen Usingduration was optimized
the Manifold Injection
forMethod
dual fuel engine procedure employing diesel/METP as injected fuels. Experimental investigations
have been carried out to achieve comparative measures in conditions of performance and emissions.
In of
The effect this section, injection
hydrogen the impact of hydrogen
timing and injection starts of injection,
duration on brake and its injection
thermal duration
efficiency (BTE) of was
optimized for dual fuel engine procedure employing diesel/METP as injected
dual-fuel engine powered with diesel/METP-hydrogen using CMFIS facilities is presented in Figure 10 fuels. Experimental
forinvestigations have been carried
80% load, respectively. Further,out to achieve
hydrogen wascomparative measuresat
injected (manifold) in varied
conditions of performance
injection timings
and injection duration for 80% load. BTE for METP-hydrogen operation is observed tobrake
and emissions. The effect of hydrogen injection timing and injection duration on thermal
be smaller
efficiency
contrasted to (BTE) of dual-fuel
diesel–hydrogen engine powered
operation. Hydrogen with diesel/METP-hydrogen
properties being common, injectedusing CMFIS facilities
pilot fuel assets is
presented in Figure 10 for 80% load, respectively. Further, hydrogen was injected
compete for a significant responsibility on the observed varied trends. Lower Cv and higher viscosity (manifold) at varied
injection timings and injection duration for 80% load. BTE for METP-hydrogen
of METP caused lowered the engine performance when compared to diesel–hydrogen operation. With operation is observed
thetomanifold
be smaller contrasted
injection, to diesel–hydrogen
enhanced combustion occursoperation.
due to Hydrogen
improvedproperties
air-hydrogen being common,
mixing that injected
takes
pilot fuel assets compete for a significant responsibility on the observed varied
place before the mixture enters the engine cylinder. Further, the electronic injection of hydrogen trends. Lower Cvin
and
higher viscosity of METP caused lowered the engine performance when
the manifold offers the greatest benefit towards precise control of the amount of Hydrogen entering compared to diesel–
hydrogen
into the intake operation. With the
of the engine. manifoldmanifold
However, injection, injection
enhancedofcombustion
hydrogen leadsoccurstodue to improved
better mixing ofair-
hydrogen with air caused by the more time available for hydrogen to mix with air leadingFurther,
hydrogen mixing that takes place before the mixture enters the engine cylinder. to betterthe
electronic injection
combustion. However, of gas
hydrogen
injectorinplays
the manifold
a major offers
role inthe greatest
injection benefit
and towards precise
is responsible control of
for improved
engine performance. Additionally, hydrogen has the highest flame velocity leading to increased of
the amount of Hydrogen entering into the intake of the engine. However, manifold injection
hydrogen
burning of theleads to better
complete fuelmixing of hydrogen
combination. with air
Outcomes causedthat
exhibited by the more time available
METP-Hydrogen for hydrogen
dual-fuel engine
to mix with air leading to better combustion. However, gas injector plays a major role in injection and
is responsible for improved engine performance. Additionally, hydrogen has the highest flame
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 15 of 27
velocity leading to increased burning of the complete fuel combination. Outcomes exhibited that
METP-Hydrogen dual-fuel engine procedure with manifold injection was found to be smooth for
procedure with manifold
selected injection timingsinjection
when variedwas found
from TDCto betosmooth for selected
15° ATDC. As theinjection
SOI wastimings whenTDC
varied from varied
to
from TDC to 15 ◦ ATDC. As the SOI was varied from TDC to 10◦ ATDC, the performance was improved,
10° ATDC, the performance was improved, and beyond 15° ATDC, a drop in BTE was observed for
and
dualbeyond 15◦ ATDC,
fuel engine a drop
operation. An inincrease
BTE wasin observed
BTE might for dual fuel engine
be ascribed operation. Aninincrease
to enhancement in BTE
the hydrogen
might be ascribed to enhancement in the hydrogen mixing rate with air, and
mixing rate with air, and subsequently, improved combustion is followed by significant combustion subsequently, improved
combustion is followed
rates associated with higher by significant combustion
flame velocities rates and
of hydrogen associated
could be with higher flame
responsible velocities
for the presentedof
hydrogen ◦
results. Atand
15° could
ATDC, bethe
responsible
maximum forflame
the presented results. At
speed achievable 15 ATDC,
during the maximum
stoichiometric flame speed
combustion may
achievable during stoichiometric combustion may be reduced as at 10 ◦ ATDC, an appreciable amount
be reduced as at 10° ATDC, an appreciable amount of METP air mixture is already prepared during
of
theMETP
delayair mixture
period andiscombusts
already prepared
the mixture during the delay
rapidly, givingperiod
higher and combusts
rates the mixture
of in-cylinder rapidly,
pressures in
giving higher rates of in-cylinder pressures in the engine cylinder [42]. At 15 ◦ ATDC, decreased BTE
the engine cylinder [42]. At 15° ATDC, decreased BTE could be due to some of the hydrogen injected
could be duein
not burning to the
some of thecylinder
engine hydrogen and injected not burning
persisting into the in the engine
exhaust cylinderthe
and leaving andengine
persisting into
unburnt
the
dueexhaust and auto-ignition
to its higher leaving the engine unburntFor
temperature. dueanytogiven
its higher auto-ignition
SOI for temperature.
hydrogen injection durationForofany
60
given SOI for hydrogen injection duration of 60 ◦ CA caused higher BTE and could be anticipated to
°CA caused higher BTE and could be anticipated to additional period available for the uniform
additional
combination period available
of hydrogen for air.
with the This
uniform combination
further of hydrogen
leads to better burning with taking air. Thisinside
place further
theleads to
engine
better burning
cylinder. taking
Finally, place inside
it is concluded the
that theengine
burningcylinder. Finally,
was noticed to itbeissmoother
concluded thatinjection
with the burning
timingwas
of
noticed to be smoother with injection timing of 10 ◦ ATDC and injection duration of 60 ◦ CA, and these
10° ATDC and injection duration of 60 °CA, and these were optimized for hydrogen manifold
were optimized
injection for the for hydrogen
dual-fuel manifold injection for the dual-fuel engine.
engine.

Figure 10. BTE for manifold injection of hydrogen in CMFIS based dual fuel engine.

This section is highlighted the various emission levels of the dual-fuel engine provided with
CMFIS
CMFIS facilities
facilitiesand
andoperated
operatedon METP-hydrogen
on METP-hydrogen with ECU
withcontrolled manifoldmanifold
ECU controlled injection of hydrogen.
injection of
The variation
hydrogen. Theofvariation
smoke emissions
of smokefor various hydrogen
emissions for various injection
hydrogentiming and injection
injection interval
timing and with
injection
CMIS
intervalforwith
diesel/RuOMR-hydrogen-powered
CMIS for diesel/RuOMR-hydrogen-powered dual-fuel engine at 80%engine
dual-fuel load isatpresented
80% load in Figure 11.
is presented
Further,
in Figurehydrogen was hydrogen
11. Further, injected (manifold) at varied
was injected injection
(manifold) timingsinjection
at varied and injection duration
timings for 80%
and injection
load. For similar
duration for 80%working
load. Forsituations, higher smoke
similar working concentrations
situations, were concentrations
higher smoke remarked for METP-Hydrogen
were remarked
in
forcomparison
METP-Hydrogen to conventional oil-hydrogen
in comparison operation.oil-hydrogen
to conventional This might beoperation.
ascribed to differences
This might beinascribed
injected
pilot fuel properties
to differences such as
in injected higher
pilot fuel viscosity
propertiesand lower
such volatility
as higher of the METP
viscosity [55]. volatility
and lower As the SOI ofwas
the
varied fromAs TDC ◦ ATDC smoke opacity decreased. The higher BTE at these SOIs could be
METP [55]. the to
SOI10was varied from TDC to 10° ATDC smoke opacity decreased. The higher BTE
responsible
at these SOIsforcould
the results obtained.forHydrogen
be responsible the resultsinjection
obtained. 10◦ ATDC injection
at Hydrogen with CMFIS facility
at 10° ATDC results
with
in higher
CMFIS peak pressure
facility results inand burning
higher peaktemperatures
pressure andprevailing inside the combustion
burning temperatures prevailingchamber
inside theat
the injection moment. Beyond 15 ◦ ATDC, smoke opacity is increased, probably due to incomplete
combustion chamber at the injection moment. Beyond 15° ATDC, smoke opacity is increased,
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 16 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 27

probably duearising
combustion to incomplete combustion
from improper arising from
air-hydrogen improper
mixing. For all air-hydrogen
SOIs injectionmixing.
duration Forofall ◦ CA
60 SOIs
injectionlowered
showed duration of 60 opacity.
smoke °CA showed lowered
Decreasing smoke opacity.
or increasing Decreasing
the injection or increasing
duration concerningthe ◦
60 injection
CA has
duration
not muchconcerning
effect on the60smoke
°CA has not much
opacity effectInjection
reduction. on the smoke
durationopacity
with 60 ◦
reduction. Injection
CA resulted duration
in a sufficient
with availability
time 60 °CA resulted in a sufficient
for uniform mixing of time availability
both hydrogenfor anduniform mixing
air [22,23]. of both hydrogen
It is concluded and air
that Hydrogen
SOI 10◦ItATDC
[22,23]. is concluded that Hydrogen
and injection durationSOI 10°◦ CA
of 60 ATDCled and injectionmixing
to uniform duration of 60 °CA led
of hydrogen withto air.
uniform
This
mixinglead
could of hydrogen with air. This
to better oxidation could
of the fuel lead to better
mixture, oxidation
leading of the
to better fuel mixture,
cracking leading
of the fuel to better
combinations
cracking
used [42].ofInthe fuel combinations
addition, Hydrogen has used
no [42].
carbon,In addition,
and henceHydrogen
this factorhas no carbon,
might and hence this
also be accountable for
factor
the might also
remarked be accountable for the remarked manner.
manner.

11.Smoke
Figure 11. Smokeopacity
opacity
forfor manifold
manifold injection
injection of hydrogen
of hydrogen in conventional
in conventional mechanical
mechanical fuel
fuel injections
injections (CMFIS) based dual-fuel
(CMFIS) based dual-fuel engine. engine.

Figure 12 shows the emissions of HC of a dual-fuel dual-fuel engine

engine fueled with diesel/METP-hydrogen
operation in inwhich
whichdiesel and
diesel METP
and METPwere injected
were usingusing
injected both CMFIS. Further,
both CMFIS. Hydrogen
Further, was injected
Hydrogen was
(manifold) at varied at
injected (manifold) injection
variedtimings
injectionandtimings
injection duration
and injectionfor duration
80% load.for Findings demonstrated
80% load. Findings
that hydrogen injection
demonstrated with diesel
that hydrogen resulted
injection withindiesel
lowerresulted
HC intensity
in lowerassociated with METP-Hydrogen
HC intensity associated with
operation.
METP-Hydrogen This might be assigned
operation. to the be
This might poor burningtocharacteristics
assigned the poor burning of METP compared of
characteristics to METP
diesel.
Different injection timings and injection durations with CMFIS facility resulted
compared to diesel. Different injection timings and injection durations with CMFIS facility resulted in different HC levels.
As the SOI of hydrogen was ◦
in different HC levels. As thevaried
SOI offrom TDC to
hydrogen was10 varied
ATDC, HC TDC
from emission
to 10°was decreased.
ATDC, The higher
HC emission was
BTE and reduced
decreased. wallBTE
The higher wetting at these wall
and reduced SOIswetting
could be at responsible
these SOIs couldfor the
be results obtained.
responsible for theBeyond
results
15 ◦ ATDC, HC emission is increased, probably due to incomplete combustion arising from improper
obtained. Beyond 15° ATDC, HC emission is increased, probably due to incomplete combustion
air-hydrogen mixing. For all SOIs, the injection ◦ CA showed lower HC. Decreasing
arising from improper air-hydrogen mixing. Forduration
all SOIs, of the60injection duration of 60 °CA showed
or increasing the injection duration concerning ◦
lower HC. Decreasing or increasing the injection60duration
CA hasconcerning
not much effect
60 °CAonhas
the not
HCmuch
reduction
effect[51].
on
For all SOIs, the injection ◦ ◦
the HC reduction [51]. Forduration
all SOIs,ofthe 60injection
CA showed lower
duration ofHC. Further,
60 °CA at 60lower
showed CA HC.
injection duration,
Further, at 60
the
°CAhydrogen
injection gets sufficient
duration, thetime to mix with
hydrogen gets air leadingtime
sufficient to a more
to mixhomogeneous mixture.
with air leading to This
a morecan
lead to better combustion of the fuel combinations used [26,32,45]. Therefore,
homogeneous mixture. This can lead to better combustion of the fuel combinations used [26,32,45]. it is concluded that for
10 ◦ ATDC hydrogen injection and ◦
Therefore, it is concluded that for6010°CA duration
ATDC with CMFIS
hydrogen wasand
injection found to be duration
60 °CA optimum.with Advancing
CMFIS
or
was retarding
found to thebehydrogen
optimum. injection
Advancingregarding 10◦ ATDC
or retarding thecaused
hydrogena higher HC level,
injection and this
regarding 10°might
ATDC be
attributed to non-uniform air-hydrogen mixtures with reduced chemical
caused a higher HC level, and this might be attributed to non-uniform air-hydrogen mixtures with kinetics observed during the
ignition
reduced delay
chemical period.
kinetics observed during the ignition delay period.
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 17 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 27

0.12 CMFIS:
Speed: 1500 rpm, pilot fuel IT: 27obTDC, IOP:205(D), 240 bar (METP), Diesel - Hydrogen
CR:17.5, TRCC, Hydrogen flow rate: 0.1 kg/h, EGR: 20% METP-Hydrogen
0.092
0.10
0.088

0.088
0.09

0.086
0.084

0.084

0.084

0.084
0.082

0.082

0.078

0.078

0.078

0.08
0.076

0.076

0.074

0.074
0.08

0.07

0.07

0.07
0.064
0.062
HC emission (g/kWh)

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00
60˚ CA (13.2 mS)

90˚ CA (19.8 mS)

60˚ CA (13.2 mS)

90˚ CA (19.8 mS)

60˚ CA (13.2 mS)

90˚ CA (19.8 mS)

60˚ CA (13.2 mS)

90˚ CA (19.8 mS)

30˚ CA (6.6 mS)

30˚ CA (6.6 mS)

30˚ CA (6.6 mS)

30˚ CA (6.6 mS)

TDC 5˚ aTDC (1.1 mS) 10˚ aTDC (2.2 mS) 15˚ aTDC (3.3 mS)

Start of injection and injection duration of Hydrogen (Manifold injection)

Figure 12. Hydrocarbon (HC) for manifold injection of hydrogen in CMFIS based dual-fuel engine.
Figure 12. Hydrocarbon (HC) for manifold injection of hydrogen in CMFIS based dual-fuel engine.
Figure 13 indicates the emissions of CO of a dual-fuel engine fueled with diesel/METP- hydrogen
Figure 13 indicates the emissions of CO of a dual-fuel engine fueled with diesel/METP- hydrogen
operation in which diesel and METP were injected using both CMFIS. Further, hydrogen was injected
operation in which diesel and METP were injected using both CMFIS. Further, hydrogen was injected
(manifold) at varied injection timings and injection duration for 80% load. Biodiesel operation
(manifold) at varied injection timings and injection duration for 80% load. Biodiesel operation with
with hydrogen injection has higher CO emission levels over a given range of operating conditions
hydrogen injection has higher CO emission levels over a given range of operating conditions
contrasted to petroleum oil-hydrogen operation. It might be ascribed to their higher viscosity and
contrasted to petroleum oil-hydrogen operation. It might be ascribed to their higher viscosity and
lower volatility [51]. This is primarily attributed to the decrease burning rates associated with biodiesel
lower volatility [51]. This is primarily attributed to the decrease burning rates associated with
triggered by heightened area of quenching interior combustion chamber with Hydrogen injection.
biodiesel triggered by heightened area of quenching interior combustion chamber with Hydrogen
The lower BTE obtained with HB-hydrogen might be accountable for the risen CO level contrasted to
injection. The lower BTE obtained with HB-hydrogen might be accountable for the risen CO level
petroleum oil-hydrogen injection. It is observed that hydrogen manifold injection produces lesser CO
contrasted to petroleum oil-hydrogen injection. It is observed that hydrogen manifold injection
emission levels. As the SOI was varied from TDC to 10◦ ATDC, emissions of CO decreased. The higher
produces lesser CO emission levels. As the SOI was varied from TDC to 10° ATDC, emissions of CO
BTE at these SOIs might be accountable for the results obtained. Beyond 15◦ ATDC CO increased
decreased. The higher BTE at these SOIs might be accountable for the results obtained. Beyond 15°
probably due to incomplete combustion arising from improper air-hydrogen mixing. For all SOIs,
ATDC CO increased probably due to incomplete combustion arising from improper air-hydrogen
the injection duration of 60 ◦ CA showed lower CO. Decreasing or increasing the injection duration
mixing. For all SOIs, the injection duration of 60 °CA showed lower CO. Decreasing or increasing the
with respect to 60 ◦ CA has not much effect on the smoke opacity reduction. Further, at 60 ◦ CA injection
injection duration with respect to 60 °CA has not much effect on the smoke opacity reduction. Further,
duration, the hydrogen gets sufficient time to mix with air leading to a more homogeneous mixture.
at 60 °CA injection duration, the hydrogen gets sufficient time to mix with air leading to a more
This further assists in the augmented burning of the fuel combinations used caused by their better
homogeneous mixture. This further assists in the augmented burning of the fuel combinations used
oxidation [38]. Hence, CO levels were decreased for the combination of 10◦ ATDC injection timing
caused by their better oxidation [38]. Hence, CO levels were decreased for the combination of 10°
and 60 ◦ CA injection duration. Dual fuel procedure with a manifold injection when the engine was
ATDC injection timing and 60 °CA injection duration. Dual fuel procedure with a manifold injection
conducted with hydrogen injection timing of 10◦ BTDC and injection interval of 60 ◦ CA triggers into
when the engine was conducted with hydrogen injection timing of 10° BTDC and injection interval
lower CO quantities. Reduction in oxidation rate instigated by the substitute of air by hydrogen and
of 60 °CA triggers into lower CO quantities. Reduction in oxidation rate instigated by the substitute
dropped burning temperature may be accountable for the noticed tendencies. Further it is observed
of air by hydrogen and dropped burning temperature may be accountable for the noticed tendencies.
that at all SOI with port injection of hydrogen and injection durations lead to reduced air intake and
Further it is observed that at all SOI with port injection of hydrogen and injection durations lead to
air-hydrogen mixing. Pilot fuel injection of METP with CMFIS system in dual fuel engine may decrease
reduced air intake and air-hydrogen mixing. Pilot fuel injection of METP with CMFIS system in dual
the atomization leading to increased CO amounts.
fuel engine may decrease the atomization leading to increased CO amounts.
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 18 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 27

0.21
CMFIS:
0.20 Speed: 1500 rpm, pilot fuel IT: 27obTDC, IOP:205(D), 240 bar (METP),
CR:17.5, TRCC, Hydrogen flow rate: 0.1 kg/h, EGR: 20% Diesel - Hydrogen
0.19
METP-Hydrogen

0.176
0.18

0.17

0.164
0.163
0.17

0.156
0.151
0.16

0.148
0.15
0.15
CO emission (% vol.)

0.14

0.14
0.14

0.13
0.13

0.12
0.12
0.11

0.11

0.11

0.11
0.11
0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1
0.10
0.09

0.09

0.09
0.09

0.08
0.08

0.07

0.06
60˚ CA (13.2 mS)

90˚ CA (19.8 mS)

60˚ CA (13.2 mS)

90˚ CA (19.8 mS)

60˚ CA (13.2 mS)

90˚ CA (19.8 mS)

60˚ CA (13.2 mS)

90˚ CA (19.8 mS)

30˚ CA (6.6 mS)

30˚ CA (6.6 mS)

30˚ CA (6.6 mS)

30˚ CA (6.6 mS)

TDC 5˚ aTDC (1.1 mS) 10˚ aTDC (2.2 mS) 15˚ aTDC (3.3 mS)

Start of injection and injection duration of Hydrogen (Manifold injection)

Figure Carbon
13. Carbon
Figure 13. Monoxide
Monoxide (CO)
(CO) for manifold
for manifold injection
injection of Hydrogen
of Hydrogen in based
in CMFIS CMFISa dual-fuel
based a
dual-fuel
engine. engine.

Figure
Figure 14 14 illustrates
illustrates thethe emissions
emissions of of NOx
NOx emissions
emissions of of aa dual-fuel
dual-fuel engineengine fuelled
fuelled with with
diesel/METP-hydrogen
diesel/METP-hydrogen operation in which diesel and METP were injected using both CMFIS.
operation in which diesel and METP were injected using both CMFIS.
Further,
Further, hydrogen
hydrogen was was injected
injected(manifold)
(manifold)atatvaried varied injection
injection timings
timings andand injection
injection duration
duration for 80%for
80%
load.load. NOX concentrations
NOx concentrations grow whengrowthe when
burningthe burning
occurs inoccurs in theofpresence
the presence oxygen and of oxygen
at higher and at
peak
higher peak combustion temperatures and boosted residence time. For
combustion temperatures and boosted residence time. For all the operating parameters used, higherall the operating parameters
used, higher NOX concentrations
NOX concentrations were detected were fordetected for diesel–hydrogen
diesel–hydrogen dual fuel dual fuel operation
operation compared compared
to METP- to
METP-hydrogen, a dual-fuel operation. Higher premixed combustion
hydrogen, a dual-fuel operation. Higher premixed combustion phase associated with diesel phase associated with diesel
compared
comparedto toMETP
METPwith with hydrogen
hydrogeninjection
injection(manifold)
(manifold)beingbeingcommon
commonis is mainly
mainly responsible
responsiblefor for these
these
trends
trends of results. Higher temperature prevailing inside the combustion chamber instigated by the
of results. Higher temperature prevailing inside the combustion chamber instigated by the
utilization
utilizationofof hydrogen
hydrogen leadsleads
to higher NOX forNO
to higher both liquid pilot fuels injected [32,38,45]. Investigations
X for both liquid pilot fuels injected [32,38,45].
on dual fuel operation
Investigations on dualwith fuel CMIS facilities
operation withusing
CMISafacilities
manifoldusinginjection of hydrogen
a manifold at injection
injection of hydrogen timing at
of 10◦ ATDC and injection duration of 60 ◦ CA causes into higher NOx concentrations. As the SOI
injection timing of 10° ATDC and injection duration of 60 °CA causes into higher NOx concentrations.
has differed
As the from
SOI has TDC tofrom
differed 10◦ ATDC,
TDC toNOx enlarged.
10° ATDC, NOx Improved
enlarged.engine
Improvedperformance with higher with
engine performance BTE
at these BTE
SOIs atcould be SOIs
accountable for accountable
the findings achieved. ◦
Beyondachieved.
15 ATDC, emissions
higher these could be for the findings Beyond 15° of NOx
ATDC,
reduced,
emissions of NOx reduced, possibly attributed to incomplete burning arising from improperwith
possibly attributed to incomplete burning arising from improper air-hydrogen mixing air-
decreased in-cylinder ◦ CA showed higher
hydrogen mixing withtemperatures. For all SOIs,
decreased in-cylinder the injection
temperatures. duration
For all SOIs, theof 60injection duration of 60
NOx, and thishigher
°CA showed could NOx,
be due to this
and a higher
couldpremixed
be due tocombustion phase as
a higher premixed more fuel phase
combustion burns asduring
more thisfuel
phase. Decreasing or increasing the injection duration concerning 60 ◦ CA has not much effect on
burns during this phase. Decreasing or increasing the injection duration concerning 60 °CA has not
the
muchNOx increase.
effect on theHence higher NOx
NOx increase. Hence levels wereNOx
higher exhausted whenexhausted
levels were the combustionwhen the is taking place at
combustion is
increased combustion temperatures in the flame zone. Injection of hydrogen
taking place at increased combustion temperatures in the flame zone. Injection of hydrogen increases increases the combustion
temperature
the combustion attributed to its higher
temperature burning
attributed speed
to its facilitating
higher burningenhanced flame propagation
speed facilitating enhancedduring flame
the burning process [47]. Further, ◦
at 60 [47].
CAFurther,
injectionatduration, the hydrogen gets
propagation during the burning process 60 °CA injection duration, thesufficient
hydrogentime gets
to mix with air, leading to a more homogeneous mixture. This can cause
sufficient time to mix with air, leading to a more homogeneous mixture. This can cause better burning better burning of the fuel
combinations utilized by enhanced
of the fuel combinations utilized oxidation
by enhanced of theoxidation
fuel combinations.
of the fuel Hence, it is concluded
combinations. Hence,thatitthe is
NOx concentrations were enhanced at 10◦ ATDC injection timing and 60 ◦ CA injection duration.
concluded that the NOx concentrations were enhanced at 10° ATDC injection timing and 60 °CA
injection duration.
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 19 of 27
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 27

CMFIS:
16
Speed: 1500 rpm, pilot fuel IT: 27obTDC, IOP:205(D), 240 bar (METP),
Diesel - Hydrogen
CR:17.5, TRCC, Hydrogen flow rate: 0.1 kg/h, EGR: 20%
METP-Hydrogen
14

12.409

12.59
12.9

12.26
12.21

12.14

12.4
12.01

11.87

11.81
11.75
11.74

11.74

11.73
11.47

11.47

11.41
11.25

11.12

11.12
12 11.06

10.59
10.27
NOx emissions (g/kWh)

10
7.67

0
60˚ CA (13.2 mS)

90˚ CA (19.8 mS)

60˚ CA (13.2 mS)

90˚ CA (19.8 mS)

60˚ CA (13.2 mS)

90˚ CA (19.8 mS)

60˚ CA (13.2 mS)

90˚ CA (19.8 mS)

30˚ CA (6.6 mS)

30˚ CA (6.6 mS)

30˚ CA (6.6 mS)

30˚ CA (6.6 mS)

TDC 5˚ aTDC (1.1 mS) 10˚ aTDC (2.2 mS) 15˚ aTDC (3.3 mS)

Start of injection and injection duration of Hydrogen (Manifold injection)

Figure 14.
Figure NOx for
14. NOx for manifold
manifold injection
injection of
of hydrogen
hydrogen in
in CMFIS
CMFIS based
based aa dual-fuel
dual-fuel engine.
engine.

This section
This sectionhighlights
highlightsthethe
various burning
various factors
burning such as
factors ID, CD,
such peak
as ID, pressure,
CD, peak HRR associated
pressure, HRR
with METP-hydrogen operated dual-fuel engine with ECU controlled
associated with METP-hydrogen operated dual-fuel engine with ECU controlled hydrogen hydrogen using both manifold
using
and port
both injection
manifold and methods. Injection
port injection of hydrogen
methods. playsof
Injection a significant
hydrogen role
playsin athesignificant
combustion behavior
role in the
as compared to when the same was inducted [47]. Figure 15 shows the ignition
combustion behavior as compared to when the same was inducted [47]. Figure 15 shows the ignition delay of a modified
dual-fuel
delay of aengine fueled
modified with diesel/METP-hydrogen
dual-fuel operation in which diesel
engine fueled with diesel/METP-hydrogen and METP
operation in were
whichinjected
diesel
using both CMFIS. Further, hydrogen was injected (manifold) at varied injection
and METP were injected using both CMFIS. Further, hydrogen was injected (manifold) at varied timings and injection
duration timings
injection for 80 andand100% load.duration
injection Hydrogen forinjection is common,
80 and 100% and for the
load. Hydrogen same SOI
injection and injection
is common, and
duration for the dual-fuel engine operation durations, higher viscosity and lower cetane
for the same SOI and injection duration for the dual-fuel engine operation durations, higher viscosity number of the
METP resulted in number
increased ◦ ATDC and
and lower cetane ofignition
the METP delay compared
resulted to diesel.
in increased At an optimized
ignition delay compared SOI ofto
10diesel. At an
◦
60 CA, theSOI injection duration
optimized of 10° ATDC andwas found
60 °CA, thefor all the duration
injection cases considered.
was found Results showed
for all the casesthat beyond
considered.
10 ◦ ATDC injection timing and for varied injection duration, lowered peak pressures with heightened
Results showed that beyond 10° ATDC injection timing and for varied injection duration, lowered
ignition
peak delay has
pressures beenheightened
with observed. Further,
ignition atdelay
otherhas
operating conditions,Further,
been observed. the mixing of air-hydrogen
at other operating
becomes challenging and requires higher chemical delay.
conditions, the mixing of air-hydrogen becomes challenging and requires higher chemical delay.
Figure 16 demonstrates the combustion duration of a modified dual-fuel engine fueled with
diesel/METP-hydrogen operation in which diesel and METP were injected using both CMFIS facilities.
Further, Hydrogen was injected (manifold) at varied injection timings and injection duration for
80% and 100% load. For all the operating conditions tested, higher combustion durations were
obtained for METP-hydrogen engine operation when in comparison to diesel–hydrogen operation. It
might be anticipated to the lower peak pressures observed during the premixed combustion phase
associated with reduced HRR [20,31]. Higher viscosity and lower calorific value of the METP, along
with incomplete mixing of fuel combination is also responsible for increased combustion duration [32].
At optimized SOI of 10◦ ATDC and 60 ◦ CA injection duration with CMFIS facility, combustion duration
decreased compared to other tested parameters used. This is due to improved air-hydrogen mixing
caused by the enhanced chemical kinetics leading to an increase in the combustion temperature.
However, for manifold controlled injection of Hydrogen with CMFIS operation, lowered combustion
durations occurred, and this could be due to improved air-fuel mixing obtained in the former method.
However, beyond 10◦ ATDC injection timing and for varied injection duration, lowered peak pressures
with increasing combustion duration has been observed. Reduced premixed combustion lead to higher
combustion duration [32]. Further, at other operating conditions, the mixing of air-hydrogen becomes
difficult and requires higher chemical delay. It is concluded that SOI of 10◦ ATDC and duration of

Figure 15. Ignition delay for manifold injection of hydrogen in CMFIS based dual-fuel engine.
delay of a modified dual-fuel engine fueled with diesel/METP-hydrogen operation in which diesel
and METP were injected using both CMFIS. Further, hydrogen was injected (manifold) at varied
injection timings and injection duration for 80 and 100% load. Hydrogen injection is common, and
for the same SOI and injection duration for the dual-fuel engine operation durations, higher viscosity
and lower
Energies 2020,cetane
13, 5663number of the METP resulted in increased ignition delay compared to diesel.20 Atofan
27
optimized SOI of 10° ATDC and 60 °CA, the injection duration was found for all the cases considered.
Results showed that beyond 10° ATDC injection timing and for varied injection duration, lowered
60 ◦ CA
peak
Energies and13,with
pressures
2020, CMFIS
with
x FOR PEER and manifold
heightened
REVIEW gas injection
ignition delay hasfacility
beenresulted in a Further,
observed. reductionatinother
the combustion
operating
20 of 27
durations compared to other SOI and injection durations tested.
conditions, the mixing of air-hydrogen becomes challenging and requires higher chemical delay.
Figure 16 demonstrates the combustion duration of a modified dual-fuel engine fueled with
diesel/METP-hydrogen operation in which diesel and METP were injected using both CMFIS
facilities. Further, Hydrogen was injected (manifold) at varied injection timings and injection
duration for 80% and 100% load. For all the operating conditions tested, higher combustion durations
were obtained for METP-hydrogen engine operation when in comparison to diesel–hydrogen
operation. It might be anticipated to the lower peak pressures observed during the premixed
combustion phase associated with reduced HRR [20,31]. Higher viscosity and lower calorific value
of the METP, along with incomplete mixing of fuel combination is also responsible for increased
combustion duration [32]. At optimized SOI of 10° ATDC and 60 °CA injection duration with CMFIS
facility, combustion duration decreased compared to other tested parameters used. This is due to
improved air-hydrogen mixing caused by the enhanced chemical kinetics leading to an increase in
the combustion temperature. However, for manifold controlled injection of Hydrogen with CMFIS
operation, lowered combustion durations occurred, and this could be due to improved air-fuel
mixing obtained in the former method. However, beyond 10° ATDC injection timing and for varied
injection duration, lowered peak pressures with increasing combustion duration has been observed.
Reduced premixed combustion lead to higher combustion duration [32]. Further, at other operating
conditions, the mixing of air-hydrogen becomes difficult and requires higher chemical delay. It is
concluded that SOI of 10° ATDC and duration of 60 °CA and with CMFIS and manifold gas injection
facility resulted
Figure 15.in a reduction
Ignition
Ignition delay
inmanifold
delay for
the combustion
for manifold injection durations
injection of
of hydrogen
compared to other SOI and injection
hydrogen in CMFIS based dual-fuel engine.
durations tested.

Figure
Figure 16.
16. Combustion
Combustion duration
duration for
for manifold
manifold injection
injection of
of hydrogen
hydrogen in
in CMFIS
CMFIS based
based dual-fuel
dual-fuel engine.
engine.

Figure 17 indicates the peak pressure variation for modified dual-fuel engine fuelled with
diesel/METP-hydrogen operationinin
diesel/METP-hydrogen operation which
which diesel
diesel and and
METP METP were injected
were injected using
using both bothfacilities.
CMFIS CMFIS
facilities. Additionally, hydrogen was injected (manifold) at varied injection timings
Additionally, hydrogen was injected (manifold) at varied injection timings and injection duration for and injection
duration
80% load.for 80%showed
METP load. METP
lower showed lower peak
peak pressures due topressures
lowered BTEdueassociated
to lowered BTE
with associated
lowered with
premixed
lowered
HRR with premixed
both gas HRR with both
and liquid gas and
injection liquidPeak
facilities. injection facilities.
pressures werePeak pressures
higher for pilot were higher for
fuel injection of
pilot
METP fuel injection
with of METP
CRDI system aswith CRDI
higher fuelsystem as higher
injection fuel
pressure injection
may enhancepressure may
the fuel enhance
mixing ratesthe fuel
due to
mixing
optimized rates due
fuel to optimized
droplet sizes. Atfuel droplet
injection timing 10◦injection
sizes.ofAt ATDC and timing of 10°duration
injection ATDC of and ◦ CA for
60injection
duration of 60 °CA for hydrogen in both versions of the manifold and port injection, higher peak
pressures were found for both diesel–hydrogen and METP-hydrogen dual-fuel operation compared
to other test conditions. At these conditions, the flame speed of hydrogen burning in the air being
higher, the energy required to initiate the combustion with hydrogen is less. A combination of
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 21 of 27

hydrogen in both versions of the manifold and port injection, higher peak pressures were found for
both diesel–hydrogen and METP-hydrogen dual-fuel operation compared to other test conditions.
At these conditions, the flame speed of hydrogen burning in the air being higher, the energy required
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 27
to initiate the combustion with hydrogen is less. A combination of hydrogen and air are combustible
over an exceptionally
hydrogen and air are varied assortmentover
combustible of flammability restrictions
an exceptionally at ordinary
varied temperatures
assortment and can
of flammability
continue from
restrictions 4% to 74%
at ordinary by volume of
temperatures hydrogen
and in air.from 4% to 74% by volume of hydrogen in air.
can continue

Figure 17. Peak

Peak pressure
pressure for
for manifold
manifold injection of hydrogen in CMFIS based dual-fuel engine.

The ignition delay is the time lag between the start of injection and the start of ignition. The start
of injection was obtained based on the static injection timing. ID ID isis measured
measured from cylinder pressure
versus crank angle diagrams. ItIt is is measured
measured from from thethe start
start of
of injection
injection to the start of combustion
(where thethepressure
pressure curve
curvedeviates).
deviates).Combustion
Combustion duration was measured
duration from the start
was measured fromofthe combustion
start of
to 90% of the cumulative heat release rate. In cylinder-pressure was
combustion to 90% of the cumulative heat release rate. In cylinder-pressure was measured with a measured with a piezoelectric
transducer. Peak
piezoelectric pressurePeak
transducer. referspressure
to the maximum
refers to cylinder
the maximum pressure observed
cylinder in the cycle.
pressure observed in the
cycle.Figure 18 present the variation of injection timing and injection duration on the HRR of the
modified
Figure dual-fuel engine
18 present thefueled
variationwithof diesel/METP-hydrogen
injection timing and combination in which
injection duration ondiesel
the HRRand METP
of the
were injected
modified using both
dual-fuel engineCMFISfueledfacilities
with at 80% load. Moreover, hydrogen
diesel/METP-hydrogen combinationwas injected
in which(manifold)
diesel and at
varied injection
METP were injectedtimings and injection
using both CMFIS duration for 80atand
facilities 80% 100%load.load. METP showed
Moreover, hydrogen lower
was HRRs due
injected
to lowered BTE
(manifold) associated
at varied withtimings
injection reducedand premixed combustion
injection durationphase for 80with
andboth
100% gas and METP
load. liquid injection
showed
facilities.
lower HRRs HRRsduewere higher for
to lowered BTEpilot fuel injection
associated of METPpremixed
with reduced with CDRI system as phase
combustion higherwith
fuel both
injection
gas
pressure may enhance the fuel mixing rates due to optimized fuel droplet
and liquid injection facilities. HRRs were higher for pilot fuel injection of METP with CDRI system sizes [56]. Lower HRR
forhigher
as METP-hydrogen
fuel injection obtained
pressure couldmaybeenhance
due to the thefact
fuelthat the hydrogen
mixing rates dueinjection during
to optimized thedroplet
fuel intake
process
sizes lowers
[56]. Lower theHRR
in-cylinder temperatures. This
for METP-hydrogen couldcould
obtained resultbe in due
retarded
to the primary
fact thatfuelthecombustion.
hydrogen
In addition,
injection the lower
during calorific
the intake processvalue of METP
lowers in both versions
the in-cylinder of CMFIS
temperatures. injection
This facilities
could result relative
in retarded
to diesel fuel
primary fuel combustion.
is associated In with reduced
addition, thepremixed combustion
lower calorific value with hydrogen
of METP in bothfuel injection
versions of may
CMFIS be
accountable
injection for the relative
facilities diminished HRR when
to diesel fuel is contrasted
associated to diesel function. premixed
with reduced At an injection timing ofwith
combustion 10◦
hydrogen
ATDC and fuel injection
injection mayofbe
duration 60 ◦accountable
CA for hydrogen for the diminished
in both CMFIS ofHRR wheninjection,
manifold contrasted to diesel
higher HRRs
function.
were found At for
an injection timing of 10° ATDC
both diesel–hydrogen and injection duration
and METP-hydrogen dual-fuel of operation
60 °CA forcompared
hydrogento inother
both
CMFIS of manifold
tested conditions. At injection, higher the
these conditions, HRRs were
flame speedfound for both burning
of Hydrogen diesel–hydrogen
in the air and METP-
is increased,
hydrogen dual-fuel
while the energy operation
required compared
to initiate to other
the burning withtested conditions.
hydrogen is reduced.At these
However,conditions,
at othertheSOIs flame
and
speed of Hydrogen
injection durations, the burning in the air
combustion of is increased,
hydrogen ledwhile the energy
to reduced required
pressure to initiate the
and temperature burning
instigated
with hydrogen is reduced. However, at other SOIs and injection durations, the combustion of
hydrogen led to reduced pressure and temperature instigated by the diminished blending rates of
air-hydrogen mixtures. Hence with CMFIS facility, at SOI of 10° ATDC and injection duration of 60
°CA, higher HRR has been noticed.
Energies 2020, 13, 5663 22 of 27

by the diminished blending rates of air-hydrogen mixtures. Hence with CMFIS facility, at SOI of 10◦
ATDC
Energies and
2020, injection duration
13, x FOR PEER of 60 ◦ CA, higher HRR has been noticed.
REVIEW 22 of 27

Figure 18.
18. Heat
HeatRelease
ReleaseRate
Rate (HRR)
(HRR) forfor manifold
manifold injection
injection of hydrogen
of hydrogen in CMFIS
in CMFIS based dual-fuel
based dual-fuel engine.
engine.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In the current study, the engine operated smoothly at a fixed speed of 1500 rpm with very minimal
vibration
In theand noise level.
current study,Subsequent
the engineconclusions were derived
operated smoothly from investigations
at a fixed speed of 1500undertaken:
rpm with very
minimal vibration and noise level. Subsequent conclusions were derived from investigations
1. Optimized SOI of 10◦ ATDC and 60 ◦ CA duration provides an enhancement in dual-fuel
undertaken:
engine performance with METP and hydrogen fuel mixtures in manifold injection method with
CMFIS system.
1. Optimized SOI of 10° ATDC and 60 °CA duration provides an enhancement in dual-fuel engine
2. performance withof
Precise injection METP and fuels
gaseous hydrogen fuel
in the mixtures
manifold in manifold
injection alonginjection method
with CMFIS with CMFIS
amenities can
system.
additionally provide further improvement in power characteristics and emission stability.
2. Precise
3. Manifoldinjection
injectionofprovides
gaseousuniform
fuels inmixing
the manifold injectionand
of air-hydrogen along withaugments
thereby CMFIS amenities can
the dual-fuel
additionally providein
engine performance further improvement
conditions in power
of augmented BTE,characteristics and emission
diminished smoke, HC and stability.
CO emissions.
3. Manifold
However injection
the studyprovides uniform
noticed boost mixing
in the of air-hydrogen
magnitude and thereby augments the dual-
of NOx emissions.
4. fuel engine method
The CMFIS performance in conditions
integrated of augmented
with manifold injection ofBTE, diminished
gaseous fuel cansmoke, HC and CO
lead to considerable
emissions. However the study
improvement in engine performance. noticed boost in the magnitude of NOx emissions.
4. The CMFIS method integrated with manifold injection of gaseous fuel can lead to considerable
The reported study
improvement can beperformance.
in engine further extended to incorporate investigations on regulation of hydrogen
flowrate, alternate fuel blends and varying load conditions. Also, there is further scope on the study of
effectThe reported study
of nanoparticle can be further
fuel additives ternaryextended
fuel blendsto [57–62].
incorporate investigations on regulation of
hydrogen flowrate, alternate fuel blends and varying load conditions. Also, there is further scope on
the study
Author of effect of nanoparticle
Contributions: fuel additives
M.M. (Mahantesh Marikatti),ternary fuel blendsmethodology,
conceptualization, [57–62]. investigation; N.R.B.,
V.S.Y. and Y.B., supervision, project administration, draft and resources; M.E.M.S., interpretation of results,
conceptualization and reviewing;
Author Contributions: F.P.G.M., Marikatti),
M.M. (Mahantesh formal analyses, reviewing; M.M.
conceptualization, (MA Mujtaba),
methodology, formal analyses,
investigation; N.R.B.,
review and editing; H.F. and B.N., review and editing, validation; T.Y.K., writing methodology; A.A. and A.I.E.-S.,
V.S.Y. and Y.H.B., supervision, project administration, draft and resources; M.E.M.S., interpretation
review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. of results,
conceptualization and reviewing; F.P.G.M., formal analyses, reviewing; M.M. (MA Mujtaba), formal analyses,
Funding:
review and This research
editing; H.F.received noreview
and B.N., external
andfunding.
editing, validation; T.Y.K., writing methodology; A.A. and A.I.E.-
Conflicts
S., reviewof editing.The
Interest:
and Allauthors
authorsdeclare no conflict
have read of interest.
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Energies 2020, 13, 5663 23 of 27

Nomenclature
ASTM American Society of Testing and Materials
ATDC After top dead center
SFC Specific Fuel Consumption
BSFC Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
BSEC Brake Specific Energy Consumption
CC Combustion chamber
◦ CA Crank angle (degrees)
CO Carbon monoxide
UHC Unburned Hydrocarbons
CP Cylinder pressure
CNG Compressed Natural Gas
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
CRDI Common Rail Direct Injection
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
ECU Electronic control unit
H2 Hydrogen
HRR Heat release rate
IP Injection pressure
METP Methyl Ester Thevetia peruviana
PP Peak Pressure
TCC Toroidal CC
BTE Brake Thermal Efficiency
BP Brake Power
TDC Top dead center
BTDC Before top dead center
CD Combustion duration
CI Compression ignition
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CR Compression ratio
CMFIS Conventional Mechanical Fuel Injection System
BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure
IMEP Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
EGR Exhaust gas recirculation
HCC Hemispherical CC
HCNG hydrogenated compressed natural gas
ID Ignition delay
IT Injection timing
NOX Oxides of nitrogen
TRCC Toroidal re-entrant CC
UBHC Unburnt hydrocarbon

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