GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING
Symbols and Notation
• e= void ratio
• n= porosity
• Dr= relative density
• G= specific gravity of solids (usually in the range 2.67 ±0.05)
• GI= group index
• LI= liquidity index
• LL= liquid limit
• MC= moisture content
• PI= plasticity index
• PL= plastic limit
• S= degree of saturation
• V= volume of soil mass
• Va= volume of air
• Vs= volume of solids
• Vw= volume of water
• W= total weight of soil
• Ws= weight of solids
• Ww= weight of water
• Ydry= dry unit weight
• Ym= unit weight of soil mass
• Ys= unit weight of solids
• Ysat= saturated unit weight
• Yw= unit weight of water
 DENSITY AND UNIT WEIGHT OF WATER
• Density of water, ρw = 1000 kg/mᶾ
ρw = 1 kg/liter = 1 gram/cc
• Unit weight of water, Yw = 9.80 kN/mᶾ
BASIC FORMULAS
• Unit weight of substance, Ys= Gyw Eq. 1.1
• Weight of water, Ww= YwVw Eq. 1.2
• Weight of the substance, Ws= YsVs= GYwVs Eq. 1.3
• Specific Gravity of Substance, Gsubs/Yw Eq. 1.4
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
Va AIR Wa =0
Vv Vw WATER Ww
V W
Vs SOLIDS Ws

Phase Diagram of Soil

The following relationships can be made from the phase diagram :
Total weight of soil, W= Ww+Ws Eq. 1.5
Volume of voids, Vv = Va+Vw Eq. 1.6
Total Volume, V = Vs + Vv Eq. 1.7
 VOID RATIO, e

Void ratio is the ratio between the volumes of the voids to the volume
of soil mass. It is usually expressed in percent.

Vv
e = Eq. 1.8
Vs

Note : 0 < e < ∞

 POROSITY, n
Vv
n = Eq. 1.9
V
Note: 0 < n < 1
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN e AND n
e n
n= and e = Eq. 1.10
1+e 1–n
 WATER CONTENT OR MOISTURE CONTENT, MC OR w
The ratio of the weight of water to the weight of the solid particles.
Ww
MC or w = x 100% Eq. 1.11
Ws
Note: 0<MC<∞
DEGREE OF SATURATION, S
Vw
S= x 100% Eq. 1.12
Vv
Degree of Saturation varies from S =0 for completely dry soil and
S=100% for totally saturated soil.
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN G,MC, S AND e
G x MC = S x e Eq. 1.13
UNIT WEIGHT(OR BULK UNIT WEIGHT) OF SOIL MASS, Ym
W
Ym= Eq. 1.14
V
G +Se
Ym = Yw Eq. 1.15
1+e
G +GMC
Ym = Yw Eq. 1.16
1+e
 DRY UNIT WEIGHT, Yd
For dry soils, S = 0 and MC = 0
Ws G
Yd = = Yw Eq. 1.17
V 1+ e
W
Ws = Eq. 1.18
1 + MC
Ym
Yd = Eq. 1.19
1 + MC
 SATURATED UNIT WEIGHT, Ysat
For Saturated soils, S=1, Vv = Vw
G+e
Ysat = Yw Eq. 1.20
1+e
SUBMERGED OR BOUYANT UNIT WEIGHT, Yb OR Y’
Yb or Y’ =Ysat –Yw Eq. 1.21
G -1
Yb or Y’ = Yw Eq. 1.22
1+ e
 CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
Critical hydraulic Gradient is the hydraulic gradient that brings a soil mass(essentially, coarse-grained soils) to
static liquefaction( quick condition).

Yb G-1
icr = = Eq. 1.23
Yw 1+e

OTHER FORMULAS
These formulas may not be memorized. These can be derived from the previous formulas.
e
Volume of voids , Vv = V Eq. 1.24
1+e
V
Volume of solids , Vs = Eq. 1.25
1+e
Cont. other formulas.
Se
Volume of Water, Vw = V Eq. 1.26
1+e
Se
Weight of Water, Ww = Vγѡ Eq. 1.27
1+e
1
Weight of Solids, Ws = VGmγѡ Eq. 1.28
1+e
• Cont. other formulas.
G + Se
Weight of Soil, W = V γw Eq. 1.29
1+e
γm
Dry unit weight, γd = Eq. 1.30
1 + MC
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOME MINERALS

Mineral Specific Gravity

Gypsum volcanic ash 2.32
Orthoclase 2.56
Kaolinite 2.61
Quartz 2.67
Calcite 2.72
Dolomite 2.87
Magnetite 5.17
 RELATIVE DENSITY OF GRANULAR SOILS
The relative density, Dr, expresses the state of compactness of the
natural granular soil.
emax - e
Dr = x 100% Eq. 1.31
emax – emin
1/γmin – 1/γd

or Dr = Eq. 1.32
1/γmin – 1/γmax
Cont. relative density of Granular Soil
Where:
emax = void ratio of the soil in loosest state
emin = void ratio of the soil in densest state
e= void ratio of the soil deposit (in –situ state)
γd max = dry unit weight in densest state
γd min = dry unit weight in loosest state
γd = dry unit weight (in – situ state)
 DESIGNATION OF GRANULAR SOIL

Designation Dr (%)

Very loose 0 - 15

Loose 15 - 35

Medium dense 35 - 70

Dense 70 - 85

Very dense 85 - 100

 CONSISTENCY
Consistency is the term used to describe the degree of firmness (e.g.,
soft, medium, firm, or hard) of a soil.
The consistency of a cohesive soil is greatly affected by the water
content of the soil.
A gradual increase of the water content may transform a dry soil from
solid state to a semi solid state, to a plastic state, and after further
moisture increase, into a liquid state.
The water content at the corresponding junction points of these states
are known as the shrinkage limit, the plastic limit, and the liquid limit,
respectively.
Cont. consistency.
Figure:
LIQUID STATE

LIQUID LIMIT,LL

PLASTIC STATE
WATER CONTENT
INCREASE PLASTIC LIMIT, PL

SEMISOLID STATE

SHRINKAGE LIMIT,
SOLID STATE
 SOIL INDICES
INDEX DEFINITION CORRELATION
Plasticity PI = LL - PL Strength, compressibility,
compactibility,……
Liquidity LL = MC-PL/PI Compressibility and stress
Shrinkage SI = PL - SL Shrinkage potential
Activity of Clay Ac = PI/µ Swell potential, and so forth
Where µ = percent of soil finer than 0.002 mm (clay size )

Activity Classification
Ac < 0.7 Inactive clay
0.7 < Ac < 1.2 Normal clay
Ac > 1.2 Active clay
 DESCRIPTION OF SOIL BASED ON LIQUIDITY INDEX

LI < 0 Semisolid state-high strength, brittle(sudden) fracture is expected

0 < LI < 1 Plastic state-intermediate strength, soil deforms like a plastic material

LI > 1 Liquid state-low strength, soil deforms like a viscous fluid

DESCRIPTION OF SOIL BASED ON PLASTICITY INDEX

PI DESCRIPTION

0 Non plastic

1-5 Slightly plastic

5-10 Low plasticity

10-20 Medium plasticity

20-40 High plasticity

> 40 Very high plasticity

 FALL CONE METHOD TO DETERMINE LIQUID AND PLASTIC LIMIT

• Fall cone test (cone penetration test) offers more accurate method
of determining both the liquid limit and the plastic limit.
• In this test, a cone with the apex angle of 30° and total mass of 80
grams is suspended above, but just in contact with, the soil
sample.
• The cone is permitted to fall freely for a period of 5 seconds.
• The water content corresponding to a cone penetration of 20 cm.
defines the liquid limit
• cont. fall cone method,
• The liquid limit is difficult to achieve in just a single test.
• In this regard, four or more tests at different moisture content is
required.
• The results are plotted as water content ( ordinate, arithmetic scale)
versos penetration ( abscissa, logarithmic scale) and the best-fit
straight line ( liquid state line) linking the data points is drawn.
• The liquid limit is read from the plot as the water content on the
liquid state line corresponding to a penetration of 20 mm.
• The plastic limit is found by repeating the test with a cone of similar
geometry, but with a mass of (M2) 240 grams.
• The liquid state line for this cone will be below the liquid state line for
the 80-gram cone (M1) and parallel to it.
Fall cone apparatus