Analysis of Pacing Strategy Selection in Elite

400-m Freestyle Swimming

ALEXIS R. MAUGER1,2, JOSHUA NEULOH2, and PAUL C. CASTLE2
1
Endurance Research Group, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Kent, Chatham, Kent, England, UNITED
KINGDOM; and 2Institute for Sport and Physical Activity Research, Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of
Bedfordshire, Bedford, England, UNITED KINGDOM

ABSTRACT
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MAUGER, A. R., J. NEULOH, and P. C. CASTLE. Analysis of Pacing Strategy Selection in Elite 400-m Freestyle Swimming. Med. Sci.
Sports Exerc., Vol. 44, No. 11, pp. 2205–2212, 2012. Introduction: Pacing strategy selection can exert a significant influence on per-
formance in events where time to completion is the measure of success. However, few studies exist examining pacing in elite sport,
with even less examining pacing in swimming. Purpose: The objective of this study is to identify which type of pacing profiles are
most prominently used in elite 400-m freestyle swimming. Methods: Two hundred sixty-four swims from elite national and
international competitions were analyzed in high-frequency pacing capture for mean speed (every 6% of the race). Each swim was
subsequently categorized into one of six different pacing strategies through a computer algorithm and then performance analyzed in
relation to completion time to the current world record, sex, and swimming suit used. Results: Fast-start-even and parabolic pacing
profiles were the most frequently used, irrespective of sex or swimming suit worn (120 and 89 swims, respectively). Although
these strategies yielded closer performance times to the world record (96.08% T 2.12% and 96.04% T 2.2%, respectively) than other
strategies, this difference was nonsignificant (F2,228 = 1.00, P 9 0.05). Conclusions: This is the first study using a large sample
size in elite freestyle swimming to demonstrate that a fast-start-even and parabolic pacing strategy are most frequently used in
elite competition. The performance benefits that these strategies may yield should be considered by coaches and athletes, with
possible integration of pacing training before competition. Key Words: SWIMMING VELOCITY, WATER, ELITE SPORT,
POLYURETHANE SWIMSUIT

I
n sporting events where the sole aim of the athlete is
to cover a set distance in the fastest possible time, it
is generally accepted (2,3,17,18) that the adoption of a
suitable pacing strategy is an important determinant of
success. A pacing strategy can be defined as the manipu-
lation of power output (PO) over an exercise bout, so as
to balance energy expenditure and speed in a way that will
allow completion of the activity to the best of the individ-
uals’ capacity (17). Therefore, pacing is inextricably linked
to the individuals’ ‘‘intelligent’’ regulation of the rate of
fatigue development over the exercise.
Abbiss and Laursen (2) have previously described and
defined six different pacing strategies common in sport
performance, and different pacing profiles may be more or
less beneficial depending on the sport, event, or distance.
Address for correspondence: Alexis Mauger, PhD, School of Sport and
Exercise Sciences, University of Kent, Medway Campus, Chatham, Kent
ME4 4AG, England, United Kingdom; E-mail: L.Mauger@kent.ac.uk.
Submitted for publication August 2011.
Accepted for publication May 2012.
0195-9131/12/4411-2205/0
MEDICINE & SCIENCE IN SPORTS & EXERCISEÒ
Copyright Ó 2012 by the American College of Sports Medicine
DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182604b84
However, under stable conditions, it has been suggested
that a constant PO (even pacing) is optimal for prolonged
(92 min) events such as running, cycling, rowing, and
skiing (2). Indeed, more successful athletes have been
shown to use a more even pacing strategy (22,32). The
theory of the benefits of even pacing is primarily based
on critical power models (12) and mathematical laws of
motion (9) that state that even minor fluctuations in speed
can result in greater energy cost. Despite this, the incidence
of both parabolic and positive pacing strategies is also
high in prolonged exercise (2).
Although the effect of different pacing strategies on
performance has received considerable attention in many
sports, including cycling (3,6), running (21,31), speed
skating (14), and rowing (13), little attention has been paid
APPLIED SCIENCES
to pacing strategy selection and swimming. Optimal pacing
in swimming is made highly relevant due to the increased
resistive forces brought about by the water. As swimming
velocity increases, frontal water resistance increases dis-
proportionately (4); therefore, any fluctuations in velocity
could create higher relative energy costs (10,25). Because
of the higher resistive forces in swimming (than that in
other sports) that change disproportionately as a result of
changes in velocity, pacing may be all the more important
because less frequent changes in velocity may reduce the
energy cost of overcoming drag. Indeed, ‘‘variable’’ pacing

2205

Copyright © 2012 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 has previously been shown to be ineffective in swimming
(27), and instead, a more even pacing strategy (3) with an
initial fast start (5,7) may be more appropriate. De Koning
et al. (8) support this concept, stating that PO lost to the
environment (that may be minimized in swimming by re-
ducing changes in velocity) is a key factor in determining
the pacing pattern in a given race. Despite the apparent
importance of pacing selection to performance in swim-
ming, further complexities such as the effect of competitors
and race tactics may cause athletes to deviate from what
may be more biomechanically, mathematically, and phys-
iologically optimal.
There are higher resistive forces (e.g., drag) in swim-
ming than that in many other sports (10), which may allow
for a greater significance of pacing on performance out-
come. Therefore, anything that helps reduce these forces
may also effect pacing strategy selection. Indeed, swim-
ming performance is partly determined by the body drag
of the swimmer, which is composed of friction, pressure,
and wave-making resistance (20). Because friction and pres-
sure resistance are highly related to the flow conditions and
body characteristics, anything that may serve to reduce these
will also reduce drag and the energy lost to the environment
for a given velocity. Different swimsuit designs and mate-
rials, such as whole torso suits and polyurethane high tech
suits (PhtS), have been shown to reduce drag, increase
buoyancy, and improve performance by as much as 10%
(19,24). Therefore, it may also be expected that the reduced
metabolic cost for a given exercise intensity that such suits
provide may also influence pacing by making any changes
in velocity less costly in terms of energy lost to overcoming
increased drag.
Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investi-
gate the prominence of different pacing strategies in elite
swimming competitions and their relationship with per-
formance outcome. To achieve this, 264 swims from na-
tional and international elite competitions were analyzed
for pacing strategy, completion time, sex, and type of
swimming suit worn. It was hypothesized that there would
be no interaction between pacing strategy selection and
race performance.
METHODS
Subjects. After ethical approval from the Institutional
APPLIED SCIENCES
Ethics Committee (University of Bedfordshire), race anal-
ysis reports for two hundred sixty-four 400-m freestyle
swims (male = 147, female = 117) of swimmers competing
in the finals at British and Australian Championships,
International Invitational Meets, European Championships,
World Championships, and Commonwealth and Olympic
Games in the period 2003–2010 were obtained from British
Swimming. All races were swum in long-course (50-m)
pools. All British Swimming race analysis reports included
the completion time, the split times, and the ratio of completion
time to the current world record (at the time of the event). The
2206 Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine
Copyright © 2012 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
information retrospectively obtained from the race analysis
reports was subsequently collated and analyzed by the
investigators. Information on the swimmers’ swimming suit
design (PhtS or non–high tech suit (NhtS)) was retrospec-
tively added by the investigators by corresponding the race
analysis report date and the swimmer to the competition.
Measurements. British Swimming race analysis re-
ports provided mean velocity (mIsj1) for each swimmer
over 16 sections (pacing sectors) of the 400-m race. Pacing
sectors were identified by dividing lengths into two seg-
ments, excluding the first 15 m at the start and the last
5 m and the first 10 m in each length, because of the turn.
The final 5 m of the race was included. The breakdown
of the 16 pacing sectors is depicted in Figure 1. Average
swimming velocity for each of these sectors was calculated
on the basis of change in position (distance) and elapsed
time (time), measured from the head of the swimmer
through video analysis. For the video analysis, a video
camera was placed at the 25-m mark on the poolside and
used to film the swimmer of interest. All video recordings
were completed by British Swimming and mean velocities
logged by a skilled scientist. All the raw data obtained from
the British Swimming race analysis reports were subse-
quently collated and analyzed by the current authors. Be-
cause of the fixed position of the camera, some level of
angle distortion would be expected, and this may have
created a small level of error in the speed, distance, and
time equations used to calculate velocity for each pacing
sector. This level of distortion would be greatest furthest
from the camera (i.e., the far lane and at the ends of the
pool) but minimal where the angle of the pacing sector
and camera were perpendicular. Where the distortion
was greatest, it is estimated that the largest angle of dis-
tortion would have been G24-, creating a distance error of
G0.485 m and a possible timing error of G0.29 s (0.12% of
finishing time, based on a mean race velocity of 1.65 mIsj1).
FIGURE 1—Pacing sectors in a long-course (50-m) pool used to
establish changes in velocity for the pacing analysis. Pacing sector 1 is
between 15 and 25 m of race distance, pacing sector 2 is between 25 and
40 m of race distance, and so on. Swimmers’ distance completed was
recorded from the head.
http://www.acsm-msse.org
However, because differences in finishing time were be-
tween 1 and 3 s, and pacing sectors were allocated by
differences of 91% of finishing time, 0.12% (G0.29 s) re-
presents a small level of error, and differences found between
strategies are still likely meaningful.
Data analysis. The classification of pacing strategy
for each race profile was determined through an algorithm,
built by the current investigators, using OpenOffice 3.2.1
Calc (Oracle Corp., Redwood Shores, Redwood City, CA).
Although the constructed algorithm requires validation, its
use still represents an objective means of classifying pacing
strategies to preset criteria determined by investigators and
based on previous research (2). Before running the race
profile through the algorithm, an average race velocity was
calculated so that the velocity in each pacing sector could
be expressed in relation to overall race velocity (normalized
mean velocity). For example, if an average race velocity
was 1.65 mIsj1, a velocity of 1.62 mIsj1 for a particular
pacing sector would be 98% of average race velocity. This
approach to expressing pacing strategy as the difference
between current velocity and overall mean velocity is well
accepted (2). The algorithm allocated a level of conformity
for the normalized mean velocity in each pacing sector
of each swim, against the predominant pacing strategies
previously identified in the literature (2). These key pacing
strategies were modeled into 16 normalized mean velocity
sectors so that they corresponded with the pacing data ob-
tained from the race analysis reports used in the current
study. Therefore, each pacing sector in each modeled strat-
egy had a normalized mean velocity range that the observed
swims could ‘‘fit’’ into. These modeled strategies and range
of normalized mean velocity for each pacing sector are dis-
played in Figure 2. For example, a normalized mean velocity
of 98% for pacing sector 3 would allocate one conformity
point for an even pacing strategy. The algorithm worked
through all 16 pacing sectors, allocating a conformity point
each time a pacing sector in a swim ‘‘matched’’ a modeled
pacing sector. The pacing strategy that was allocated the
most conformity points (up to a maximum of 16) resulted in
the swim profile being classified with that pacing strategy
(e.g., even pacing strategy). In some instances, a pacing
sector from a swim may match the same sector from more
than one modeled strategy. However, as a conformity point
for each sector was obtained, each complete swim received
more or less conformity points for a particular modeled
strategy. For example, although the normalized mean ve-
locity of a swim may match the initial pacing sectors for the
modeled parabolic, fast-start-even and positive pacing strat-
egies (and therefore, each modeled strategy would acquire
a conformity point for these sectors), one strategy would

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FIGURE 2—From the six pacing schemas identified by Abbiss and Laursen (2) (parabolic (A), fast-start-even (B), positive (C), negative (D), even (E),
and variable (F)) only three were frequently used by the elite swimmers (A–C). Each strategy was modeled by expressing velocity as a percentage of
race mean velocity (normalized mean velocity) (12). Normalized mean velocity was modeled according to each pacing strategy defined by Abbiss and
Laursen (2) for each of the 16 pacing sectors, with a range above and below the mean, expressed in the figure by error bars. Pacing sectors from each
observed swim were compared against the modeled pacing profile sectors depicted in this figure via an algorithm. The modeled strategy that had the
highest conformity (i.e., the most sectors that fit within the error bars) to the observed swim would then be labeled as such. Variable pacing strategies
were identified visually (F) irrespective of sex; 89 swims were classified as parabolic, 120 as fast-start-even, 31 as positive, 4 as negative, 0 as even, and
20 as variable.

PACING ANALYSIS OF ELITE FREESTYLE SWIMMING Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercised 2207

Copyright © 2012 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 TABLE 1. Number of swims conforming to each pacing profile from all selected competitions.
Positive Fast-Start-Even Parabolic Negativea Variablea
Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
NhtS 15 11 48 49 39 21 1 2 11 3
PhtS 4 1 10 13 14 15 1 0 4 2
a
Not included in statistical analysis.

ultimately acquire more matched sectors (and thus confor-
mity points) overall. The algorithm allowed the investigators
to input the swimmer’s velocity for each sector, and the
algorithm would calculate normalized velocity and allocate
conformity points for each pacing sector. In the case of two
pacing strategies being allocated the same total number
of conformity points (e.g., 10 conformity points each), the
normalized velocity range for each pacing sector of these
schemas was narrowed in steps of 0.2% and the algorithm
applied again until one schema had more conformity points.
Variable pacing strategies were identified visually, because
these types of profile could take many forms that could not
all be modeled and classified by an algorithm.
Statistical analysis. Descriptive data are presented
as mean T SD. All analyses were conducted using SPSS
version 16.0 (Chicago, IL), and significance was accepted
when P G 0.05. Data were analyzed using a three-way
ANOVA (pacing strategy  sex  swimming suit) in an
unrelated design.
RESULTS
Distribution of pacing strategies. Table 1 shows
the incidence of different pacing strategy selection for
swims analyzed in this study. Fast-start-even and parabolic
pacing profiles were used the most, with parabolic pro-
files preferred by a greater extent by males. Irrespective
APPLIED SCIENCES
of sex or the swimming suit worn, positive, negative, and
variable pacing strategies were infrequently used. On no
occasion was a variable pacing strategy used. Of the
264 swims analyzed, no swimmers selected an even pacing
strategy, and the 24 negative (n = 4) and variable (n = 20)
profiles were excluded from the subsequent statistical anal-
ysis because of insufficient sample size.
Main effect of pacing strategy, sex, and swim-
ming suit. Swimmers selecting a fast-start-even pacing
strategy produced performances that were an average
of 96.08% T 2.12% (95% confidence interval (CI) =
95.86%–96.81%) of the world record time (%WR) (equat-
ing to a mean time of approximately 3:48.4 T 4.66 s), with
swimmers selecting parabolic pacing strategies produc-
ing similar performances (96.04% T 2.2%) (95% CI =
95.87%–96.79%) (equating to a mean time of approximately
3:48.7 T 4.84 s). Positive strategies (95.4% T 2.19%)
(95% CI = 95.12%–97.52%) were generally further from
the world record (equating to a mean time of approximately
3:50.12 T 4.82 s) than both fast-start-even and parabolic
pacing strategies (Fig. 3). Although this difference was
insignificant (F2,228 = 1.00, P 9 0.05), the absolute time dif-
ference of this percentage difference between fast-start-even
and positive pacing equated to approximately 1.7 s. Although
negative and variable strategies were removed from the sta-
tistical analysis because of the small number of samples, ne-
gative pacing produced performances that were generally a

FIGURE 3—Performance outcome for pacing strategy, sex, and swimsuit type. Performance outcome is expressed as performance time as a per-
centage of the world record time at the time of competition. *Denotes significant difference (P G 0.05).

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TABLE 2. Performance outcome for each pacing strategy displayed as percentage of the current world record time.
Positive
Male Female
NhtS 94.23 T 1.69 96.78 T 2.13
PhtS 95.00 T 0.77 99.28 T 0.00
high %WR (98.02% T 0.57%), as did variable pacing (96.6% T
1.75%).
There was a significant main effect for sex (F1,228 = 11.1,
P G 0.01), with females achieving significantly closer per-
formances (96.59% T 2.07%) (95% CI = 96.33%–97.87%)
to the female world record (equating to a mean time of ap-
proximately 4:08.12 T 4.97 s) than male swimmers to the
male world record (95.45% T 2.1%) (95% CI = 95.10%–
96.10%) (equating to a mean time of approximately 3:50.01 T
4.62 s).
A significant main effect for the type of swimsuit (PhtS
and NhtS) was also observed (F1,228 = 6.59, P G 0.05).
Swimmers using a PhtS achieved significantly and con-
sistently closer performances (96.74% T 2.16%) (95%
CI = 96.10%–97.76%) to the world record (equating to a
mean time of approximately 3:47.12 T 4.75 s) than those
who used a NhtS (95.73% T 2.01%) (95% CI = 95.39%–
96.09%) (equating to a mean time of approximately 3:49.39 T
4.42 s). Mean performances, dependent on relation to pacing
strategy, sex, and swimsuit, are shown in Table 2.
Interaction effects for pacing strategy  sex 
swimming suit. Although no significant interaction effect
was observed between pacing strategy and sex (F2,228 =
2.72, P 9 0.05), there appeared to be a greater sex difference
in %WR when swimmers paced positive than when they
paced fast-start-even or parabolic (Fig. 4).
No interaction effect for pacing strategy and swimsuit
(F2,228 = 0.18, P 9 0.05) or sex and swimsuit (F1,228 = 0.01,
P 9 0.05) were observed.
DISCUSSION
This study was designed to establish the prominence of
different pacing strategies in elite 400-m freestyle swim-
ming and their relationship with performance outcome by
retrospectively analyzing swims from recent elite national
and international meets. The primary finding of the study
was that although fast-start-even and parabolic pacing pro-
files were clearly favored by competitors, no single pacing
strategy appeared to exert a significant influence on per-
formance time. Despite this, pacing strategies in elite
swimming that use a fast start appear to be selected with
significantly more frequency than slow or even starts. Be-
cause all the swimmers analyzed in this study were elite
athletes, this would suggest that elite athletes may naturally
select the most effective pacing strategy. To the authors’
knowledge, this is the first large-scale, field-based study
on elite freestyle swimmers where velocity has been
PACING ANALYSIS OF ELITE FREESTYLE SWIMMING
Copyright © 2012 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Fast-Start-Even Parabolic
Male Female Male Female
95.34 T 2.12 96.46 T 1.96 95.28 T 1.95 96.47 T 2.00
96.51 T 2.07 97.03 T 2.12 97.00 T 2.21 96.72 T 2.41
obtained in high frequency (every 6% of total race dis-
tance). Therefore, this study acknowledges the recommen-
dations by Foster et al. (10), who state that split times should
be measured every 5%–10% of the race when investigating
pacing and performance.
Although the effect of pacing strategy selection on per-
formance outcome was found to be nonsignificant, the
mean difference between competitors pacing positive and
fast-start-even or parabolic was approximately 0.7% WR,
equating in absolute terms to approximately 1.7 s. Where
the difference between medal winners at international-level
400-m freestyle races is frequently G1 s, the functional per-
formance difference observed in the current study could be
meaningful. Furthermore, the observation that positive pa-
cing resulted in worse performances supports previous
literature (2,22,32), and thus, the lack of statistical signifi-
cance of this effect may solely be a factor of a small num-
ber of samples (31 positive vs. 120 fast-start-even) in this
pacing group. It may also be that because of the inefficient
nature of this pacing strategy, elite athletes make a tactical
decision not to select it, which would explain the low in-
cidence of this pacing profile in elite competition. However,
on examination of the range of performance times across
the three most prominent strategies, it becomes clear that,
despite different means, ranges overlap. Therefore, it may be
that selection of one of these three strategies does not pose
a significant hindrance in elite 400-m swimming perfor-
mance. The finding that the majority of swimmers adopted
a fast-start-even or parabolic pacing strategy (as opposed
APPLIED SCIENCES
FIGURE 4—Interaction effect for pacing strategy and sex for perfor-
mance outcome. Although not significant, there was a trend toward
greater sex differences when pacing positive.
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercised 2209
 to variable or even strategies), and that these performances
were consistently closer to the world record (although not
significant), seems to suggest that these strategies are a fac-
tor in optimal performance in 400-m freestyle swimming
and that they are sub/consciously ‘‘chosen’’ by experienced
competitors. However, it could also be the case that more
talented swimmers naturally select these strategies, which
would also explain the better performances when using these
profiles. Given that parabolic and fast-start-even strategies
are very similar, apart from the final section, it may be that
their form of work-rate distribution yields positive physio-
logical or biomechanical advantages. In support of this,
Bishop et al. (5) have previously shown that fast-start-even
pacing produces better performances than even pacing and
attributed this to initial breakdown of PCr and an increase in
O2 without a further accumulation of O2 deficit. This finding
is supported by Jones et al. (15), who found that an initial
higher PO led to increased oxidative contribution to energy
turnover, thereby improving exercise tolerance and sparing
some anaerobic work capacity for later in the exercise.
Sandals et al. (23) have further shown that positive pacing
leads to a significantly greater %VO2max during a race.
Therefore, it may be that in events of similar short-medium
duration, regardless of sport, particular forms of pacing
produce the physiological benefits alluded to. Indeed, de
Koning et al. (7) have shown that an initial high PO fol-
lowed by a constant PO is the optimal strategy for 4000-m
cycling performance. Because a 4000-m cycling time trial
lasts approximately 4:20 min (i.e., similar in duration to the
400-m freestyle swim), this provides further support for the
findings of this study. However, it should be noted that
very high initial POs are required in cycling to overcome
inertia. Because this requirement is largely escaped in swim-
ming (because of the dive), the higher initial work rate in
swimming would also be reflected by a proportional higher
speed (whereas in cycling, a high PO would be observed,
but a lower speed than the mean race velocity). In contrast,
however, Foster et al. (11) stated that an even pacing strat-
egy is optimal for cycling performances lasting 2–3 min,
because even minimal changes in velocity during the start-
ing sections can have negative consequences on overall
race performance. Given the increased resistive forces in
swimming, this recommendation appears relevant; however,
Foster et al. (11) did not observe any changes in O2 uptake
kinetics, B[La] accumulation, or O2 deficit, which may
APPLIED SCIENCES
be attributed to relatively lower fast start PO differences.
Therefore, it may be that a short-duration, high-PO fast start
to overcome initial resistive forces, followed by minimal
changes in work rate, may provide both biomechanical and
physiological benefits for events of this duration. The main
difference between the fast-start-even and parabolic pacing
strategy is the presence/absence of the sudden increase in
work rate in the final section of the race. This phenomenon
has been termed the end spurt or end sprint and has previ-
ously been suggested as evidence for a protective mecha-
nism of central control (21,31). The presence of this end
2210 Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine
Copyright © 2012 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
sprint in 89 of the 264 swims suggests that these swim-
mers maintained some level of physiological reserve that
they were able to use when the race end point was more
proximal. This may represent a reserve capacity that can
only be accessed when premature fatigue is unlikely and
peripheral fatigue signaling can be overridden, a change in
race tactics as a result of a competitor’s pacing strategy or
an error in the previous sections of the swim, which caused
a lower than optimal work rate (and a subsequent ability to
increase it). A curious observation in the relative success
of the different strategies was that variable and negative
pacing (despite only being selected by a very small number
of swimmers) actually produced the fastest swim times
(96.6% T 1.75% WR and 98.02% T 0.57% WR, respec-
tively). Both of these strategies would increase the relative
time spent accelerating and, with the increased resistive
forces experienced in swimming, would usually be con-
sidered energetically inefficient (4,9,10,25). There may be
several explanations for this particular observation: 1) the
fastest swimmers selected the most inefficient strategy and
therefore offset the pacing disadvantage. 2) Variable and
negative pacing elicited some kind of tactical advantage.
3) Pacing strategy selection offers little energetic, physio-
logical, or biomechanical advantage in swimming races of
this distance. Ultimately, it is likely that an elite swimmer
selects a pacing strategy that they are most comfortable
with for that particular race, which may vary from day to
day and is likely dependent on race tactics and the other
competitors (27).
It is curious that relatively few competitors used an even
pacing strategy, given the attention and recognition this type
of pacing has received in previous literature (2,22,32).
However, differences in laboratory-based (3,7) and field-
based (13) study, modality of exercise (9,13,14,31), exer-
cise duration (18,31), effect of competition (13), fixed (15)
or self-paced (17) exercise, conceptual paradigm (physi-
ology, biomechanics, and psychology) (6,7,15), and course
topography/environmental conditions (3,6) are likely behind
observed differences in literature regarding pacing. These
differences are difficult to reconcile, and because it will
often depend on the research question and the sport, it is
important to recognize that different pacing patterns may
be more or less beneficial depending on each of the factors
given (8). However, one important analysis feature that is
often overlooked, but can have significant importance in
understanding pacing, is the frequency of data acquisition
(10). Studies (13,31) often use low-frequency work-rate data
points that are too insensitive to identify spontaneous
changes in pacing behavior, which have been suggested
to be vitally important (16,30) to performance. This lack
of sensitivity also results in a reduced number of potential
pacing profiles that can be defined and thus cause confusion
between what strategy is actually used. For example, in
contrast to the current study, Tucker et al. (31) found that
26 different world records in 800-m track running were
achieved by adopting a positive pacing strategy. However,
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the work rates were only taken every 50% of the race, except
in 12 races where split times were taken every 25%. This
low resolution would result in any fast start being masked
and potentially cause confusion with fast-start-even pacing,
which may explain the differences between the studies.
Indeed, using a higher frequency when analyzing 5000-m
performance, Tucker et al. (31) found that the greatest
number of world records was achieved when athletes ran a
parabolic pacing profile. This highlights the need for re-
searchers to capture work-rate data points in high frequen-
cies, if possible, between every 5%–10% of the total distance,
as suggested by Foster et al. (10) and as performed in the
current study.
Although the significant effect for sex may be initially
surprising, given the standardization of the data to current
sex-specific world records at the time of the event and
its contradiction to previous data that were normalized in
a similar manner (13), it is highly likely that the observed
sex difference is due to a greater number of females com-
peting at similar levels to the world record. Whereas be-
tween 2003 and 2010, the female world record changed six
times, the male world record only changed once, which
indicates the apparent sex difference was likely influenced
by an individual higher world record performance of a single
male, compared with a larger and more competitive group of
females. Although a standardization of data is always re-
quired to investigate sex differences, because of differences
in physiological characteristics among male and female
swimmers effecting performance outcome, there is a need
for a more reliable normalization method, which is not
effected by individual performances. Females appeared to
select a fast-start-even pacing strategy more frequently than
males (53% vs. 39% of swims, respectively), although the
performance difference between sex for this strategy was
minimal (1.04% WR) and nonsignificant. However, the sex
performance difference between positive pacing (despite
similar selection frequency, females = 10% and males =
13% of swims, respectively) was more pronounced (2.59%
WR), and this difference approached significance (P = 0.68).
Therefore, it may be that elite female swimmers more suc-
cessfully used positive pacing, and although this strategy
was not selected most frequently by females, it did seem to
produce (although not significantly so) the fastest mean
performances in this group (Fig. 4). Given that it should be
expected that elite athletes would naturally select the ‘‘fast-
est’’ pacing strategy, it would be more logical that positive
pacing in females would be selected more frequently.
Speculatively, it may be that this kind of pacing is physiologi-
cally and tactically more optimal (5,15,23,26), but the greater
level of discomfort this may in turn produce (as a result of
greater metabolite accumulation) may make it a greater risk
and thus result in fewer swimmers selecting it (or completing it
effectively).
The finding in the current study that the use of a PhtS
resulted in a significant improvement in performance out-
come is in agreement with previous studies. According to
PACING ANALYSIS OF ELITE FREESTYLE SWIMMING
Copyright © 2012 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Tomikawa and Nomura (28), the PhtS enhances buoyancy
and reduces water resistance, which subsequently improves
performance time. As with the previously discussed sex
difference, it is likely that the improved performances when
using the PhtS (despite the normalization method) is due
to comparative differences between the use of the PhtS
and NhtS against the same world record time. Compari-
sons between competitions when the PhtS were banned and
Olympic Games and World Championships where per-
formers would usually be ‘‘peaking’’ and produce better per-
formances were done. Because PhtS increase propulsion
efficiency (29) and decreases water resistance (28), it may
have been expected that changes in velocity during a swim
may be less detrimental to overall efficiency, and therefore,
the negative effects of variable pacing may be less appar-
ent. However, no such pacing strategy and suit interaction
were observed, and therefore, it appears as though the use
of a PhtS improves performance without changing pacing.
It is important to note that this study has provided a ret-
rospective analysis of pacing profiles in elite swimming.
No intervention was performed, and no physiological or
psychological data were collected; therefore, mechanisms
underpinning the observed effects remain speculative. On
the basis of previous laboratory-based research, it is likely
that improved O2 kinetics (5,15), sparing of anaerobic work
capacity (15), and reductions in oxygen deficit (5), in com-
bination with various biomechanical factors (4), are re-
sponsible for certain pacing strategies being more frequently
selected by elite performers than others. However, these
explanations do not take into account how an athlete may
intelligently regulate their pace over the course of a race.
Indeed, a reduced oxygen deficit is a likely consequence of
a fast start (5) rather than its cause. The low incidence of
positive pacing, and prevalence of an end sprint, is sugges-
tive of a system of central control, which allows access to
a physiological reserve once race end point is close enough
to minimize risk of premature fatigue or physical harm as
a result of increasing work rate (17,18,21,31). Indeed, the
observation that a range of pacing strategies were used in
these elite competitions, despite the fixed conditions and
high experience levels, suggests that pacing is more than a
case of simply swimming as fast as possible. Whether this
is dependent on race tactics, central regulation, or individ-
ual preference for strategy remains to be elucidated. De-
spite the lack of mechanistic explanation of this article,
APPLIED SCIENCES
this is one of a small number of studies that provides an in-
sight into pacing behavior in elite competition and, to the
authors’ knowledge, the only such large-scale study in elite
freestyle swimming.
It should be noted that the fixed camera position used
in the current study limits the level of accuracy for the
calculation of velocity for each pacing sector. Although
the level of error is likely G0.12% and that this is less
than the observed difference in pacing and performance,
it is recommended that future research uses a camera
setup where multiple cameras, or a moving camera, allows
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercised 2211
 a perpendicular view of the swimmer crossing each
pacing sector.
In conclusion, this study demonstrates that fast-start-even
and parabolic pacing strategies are used more frequently
in elite 400-m swimming freestyle competitions. Because
of their higher incidence of use by elite performers, these
particular strategies may yield better performances than other
strategies, such as negative, even, or variable pacing, which
are commonly reported in other sports. The athlete preference
for fast-start-even and parabolic pacing occurs regardless of
sex or swimming suit design, and functional difference
between these strategies during competition appears to be
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