Biology Bitches Round 2 lovely <3

1. Meaning of enzyme:
 A protein produced by a living organism that acts as a biological catalyst in a chemical
reaction by reducing activation energy

 A protein molecule (define as biological catalyst) [simpler meaning]

2. A characteristic of Enzyme:
a) A protein molecule
b) Specific a certain substrate
c) Globular protein – water soluble (able to dissolve in water)
d) Remain unchanged after reaction
e) Enzyme can break and bond
f) Nearly all metabolic reaction are enzyme – catalyzed
g) Many enzyme names end in -ase (Amylase and Peptide)

==Note!==
Point D
As a catalyst does not participate in reaction it only enhances the rate of reaction by lowering
down the activation energy which is required to break the old bonds so as to form new bonds
and thus the product is formed and catalyst remains in the medium without any change.
====

3. Understand the structure of the enzyme

a) Apoenzyme
 (protein portion) Inactive if its alone
b) Cofactor
 (non-protein) Activator for the enzyme (apoenzyme)
c) Holoenzyme
 (whole enzyme) Active
d) Active site
 Where enzyme stick / bind

After that if it want to change to product it has to meet a substrate

4. Type of Enzyme:
A) Amylase and carbohydrate enzyme break down starch into sugar (maltose)
Found in saliva, pancreas, intestine)
B) Protease break down protein into amino acids. (in stomach and small intestine)
C) Lipase break down lipids (fats and oil) into fatty acid and glycerol.
(Lipase is produced in the pancreas, mouth, and stomach.)
D) Peptidase break down protein into amino acids
E) Pepsin (stomach) digest proteins  amino acids (works in low pH)
F) Lipase break down fats

Type of enzyme:
1. Intracellular
 used inside of the cells, Function: Catalysed reactions inside the cells
2. Extracellular
 Those secreted out of the cells, Function: To breakdown the nutrients outside of the cells
NOTE TO SELF:
Just put everything here cause why not  ¯\_(ツ)_/¯

5. The effect of pH on enzyme action

 If the pH is in range then the enzyme will work/function (Enzymes function within a
working pH range of about pH 5-9 with neutral pH 7 being the optimum)

If the pH is too low or too high it will become denature (When enzymes denature, they are no
longer active and cannot function)

Some enzymes can work best outside of the optimum pH levels (e.g., pepsin works best in
low pH, amylase works best in high pH, trypsin works best in high pH)
Optimum pH= 6-7pH
pH>7=basic
pH<7= acidic

6. The effect of temperature on enzyme action

 If the temperature is too high, the enzymes becomes denatures. If the temperature is too
low, the enzymes becomes inactive

Each enzyme has a temperature range in which a maximal rate of reaction is achieved. This
maximum is known as the temperature optimum of the enzyme. The optimum temperature
for most enzymes is about 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 degrees Celsius).

7. Work of non-competitive inhibitors

 Inhibitor that don’t enter the active site, but bind another part of enzyme (Allosteric Site)
This will cause the enzyme to change shape, which mean this will alter the active site.

8.

Various factor that will affect the enzyme performance:

a) The pH level
 b) The temperature
c) Inhibitors
d) Enzyme concentration
e) Substrate concentration

9. Activation Energy:
 Is an energy to change the substrate to be a product. (high activation energy is needed).
The activation energy will produce high heat, but enzyme will help to lower it.
- If metabolism used enzyme: low activation energy’s required
- If metabolism doesn’t use enzyme: a higher activation energy required
- Enzyme lowers activation energy (lowers temp.)

10. Structure of membrane cell

Cell membrane is in the cell surface membrane that surround the plasma membrane.

11. Characteristic of proteins in cell membrane:

a) Fluid-mosaic model (transport nutrient in/out of the cell)
Fluid: Pliable/easily moved
 Mosaic: made of many different molecules (lipids, protein, carbs)
b) Made from phospholipids bilayer
Arrange in two bilayer:
-heads: Hydrophilic
-tails: Hydrophobic
c) Selectively permeable
It can control what enter or leave the cell.
d)Have integral proteins (channel protein and carrier protein)
Channel protein: Allow a particular molecular or ion to cross
Carrier protein: Specific molecule or ions and uses energy
e) Cholesterol
A small molecule, lipid related with hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
f) Glycoprotein
Group of complex protein that consist of a bound carbohydrate at the exterior of the
cell surface
g) Glycolipids
Contain lipid molecule attach to the glyosidic bond to a suga

Characteristic of proteins in cell

Many protein act as transport protein, provide hydrophilic channel for ions and polar
molecule. There two type
a) Channel protein
- Water-filled pores as part of their structure
- In special arrangement of amino acids which embeds in the cell membrane
- Providing hydrophilic passageway for water and small polar ions.
b) Carrier Protein
- Proteins that carry substances from one side to another
- Can flip between 2 shapes
== Note ==
The differences:
A channel protein does not bind the molecules it transported.
=========
Classes of protein in cell membrane:
Determine membrane’s specific function
- Peripheral protein
- Loosely bound to the surface of the membrane
- (e.g. identity marker (identifies antigen))
- Integral protein:
- Penetrate lipid bilayer combines w/ lipid bilayer
- Transmembrane protein
(e.g., transport protein; channels, permeases (pumps))

12. Function of carbohydrate in animal cell

 Carbohydrate groups are present only on the outer surface of the plasma membrane
and are attached to proteins, forming glycoproteins, or lipids, forming glycolipids.

Membrane carbohydrates perform two main functions:

- Participate in cell recognition (related to immune system)
- Adhesion (allow cell to stick to each other) either cell-cell signaling or cell-
pathogen interactions, and they have a structural role as a physical barrier.
- They can also distinguish from one or another.

13. Characteristics of the molecule that can pass through the cell membrane
a) Small sizes molecule
b) nonpolar molecule (doesn’t have charge) (at least balance like in chem.)
c) Hydrophobic
example: Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
d) small polar such as water and ethanol can also cross over but takes up more time.

14. Function of fat cell in animal cell

Fatty acid constitutes the foundation cell membranes, provides metabolic energy,
affects functions of membrane-bound enzymes/receptors, conducts signalling
cascades, and helps in learning-related memory cognition in mammals, including
humans.
Fatty acid are chemically define as carboxyl group. (COOH)

Biologically, fatty acids are esterified with glycerol, phosphoglycerol, and cholesterol
and are referred to as triacylglycerol, phospholipids, and cholesterol esters.

Cholesterol:
- A small molecule, lipid related.
- Modifies fluidity
- High temp-> stiffen membrane
- Low temp-> prevents membrane from freezing (the fat will prevent it from-
freezing & the fat will break the cholesterol)

15. Characteristic of integral protein

- Also called intrinsic protein
- Penetrate lipid bilayer (usually across the whole membrane)
- Transmembrane protein
- Act as transport, two type of transport protein:
a) Channel
b) Carrier
- Most residues with hydrophobic chains that interact with the fatty acyl
group

16. The same as number 12

17. Molecules that are not embedded in the lipid bilayer
- Peripheral Protein (loosely bound to the surface)
- Carbohydrates
- Hydrophobic molecule

18. The impact on the cell membrane when the temperature is low
- At low temperature it will stiffen the membrane
- Fatty acid tails move less and become more rigid
- Decrease overall fluidity
- Decreasing in the permeability and may restrict important molecule (e.g oxygen)
- Prevent cell growth (by preventing in increasing the size)
- Liquid cell could also freeze and kill the cell

19. Diffusion
The net movement of particle from a higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration
Example: Using a perfume (inside bottle to the outside)

20. Impact of water concentration on plant cells

a) Plasmolysis
The protoplast shrinks away from the cell wall
Outside < Inside (water concentration)
Can make the cell pop because it’s to dry

b) Flaccid
Plant tissue has become soft and less rigid than normal.
Cytoplasm within the cell has shrunk and contracted away from the cell
Outside = Inside (water concentration)

c) Turgid
Cells or tissue that are swollen from the water uptake
Outside > Inside (water concentration)
This made the vacuole bigger and also the cell
Cell can pop because too much water

21. Endocytosis
Bulk transport materials into the cell
Usually stored in vacuole
- Phagocytosis “cell eating”- intake solids
- Pinocytosis “cell drinking”- intake small droplets of liquid
(both are non-specific to a molecule)

22. Structure of the cell membrane that play the role for active transport
 Integral protein:
- Channel protein and Carrier protein) (number 11 for explanation)

23. Facilitated diffusion

Some particle are hard too large to pass through the phospholipids bilayer, they
need a certain protein molecule
This require energy (ATP)

24 & 25. Active transport on cell membrane

There are time where cells need to transport substance in or out of the cell against
the concentration gradient.

Because of that there is a specific carrier protein to pump a substance across the
membrane.

This require energy in the form of ATP

A process which dissolved molecules/ ion move across membrane from lower to
higher concentration
Carrier protein:
- Selectively interact w/ specific molecules/ ion to cross the membrane
- Change the shape of molecules/ ions that pass through
The Process of Active Transport:
- In order to occur the particle must bind to a specific site in the carrier protein
- On the inside ATP also bind to the carrier protein
- The ATP is then hydrolysed to ADP and Pi which causes protein to change shape
- Carrier protein is now open and the particle is release
- Then the carrier protein return to the original shape
- This will continue to cycle

26. Application of osmosis in human cell

a) Hypertonic:
Solution with higher salt concentration outside of the cell
Outside = Water > Salt
Inside = Water < Salt

b) Hypotonic
Solution with higher water concentration outside of the cell
Outside = Water > Salt
Inside = Water < Salt

c) Isotonic
Equal concentration of water or salt on either side
Water == Salt

27. Relationship between DNA, genes, and chromosomes

 - genes are segments of DNA that contain specific proteins (genetic information)
- chromosomes are structures within cells that contain a person’s genes

28. Homologous chromosome

Are two pieces of DNA within a diploid organism which carry the same genes, one
from each parental source.
- same gene code
- a pair of identical chromatids

29. Karyotype
Is the process by which photographs of chromosomes are taken in order to
determine the chromosome complement of an individual, including the number of
chromosomes and any abnormalities.

- a collection of an individual’s chromosomes

- a photo of an individual’s chromosome (chromosome photograph)

30. Number of chromosome in human

- there are a total of 46 chromosomes in a human
- 23 pairs
Written as 44A+__ or 22A+__
AA= pairs
A= individual
31. The human chromosome formula
 - In one cell there is 46 chromosome (23 from XX and 23 from XY)
- Diploid (2n)

32. Sex Chromosome type

Female 44A+XX/22AA+XX
Male 44A+XY/22AA+XY

33. Histones
Are highly basic proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei that pack and order
the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes.

Histones help condense DNA in the nucleus into chromatid

Histones + DNA = nucleosome>chromatin (many nucleosome)>chromatin fibre(many

nucleosome)= chromosome.

34. Nucleosome
- A nucleosome is the basic structural unit of DNA packaging in eukaryotes.
- The structure of a nucleosome consists of a segment of DNA wound around
eight histone proteins and resembles thread wrapped around a spool.
- A fundamental subunit of chromatin

Histones + DNA = nucleosome chromatin (many nucleosome)

35. Chromosome structure

Chromosome is a thread like

structure made up of DNA

From DNA(ties w/ histones)=nucleosome many nucleosome(chromatin)chromatin

fibre(many nucleosome)= chromosome.
1 chromosome
2 sister chromatids
attached by centromere
the tips have telomers
36. Purpose of the mitosis in cells
 - Is to make more diploid cells
- Mitosis is the reason we can grow, heal wound, and replace damage cells

37. S phase
Synthesis phase or s phase, in here we are taking cell and take the DNA, we want to
open it up and make a replication bubble.

In the replication bubble, we want to be able to Synthesize a new DNA

2n  4n

Usually this take up 6 hours

From G1 to S phase there will be a check point G1/S checkpoint (to check the DNA)

- Replication of chromosomes (DNA is duplicated)

- 2 strands (sister Chromatids) joined by centromere

38. Condition of the cell in G1 phase

During G1, the cell reviews the cellular environment and the cell size to ensure that
the conditions are appropriate to support DNA replication.

Increase in size/ shape (cell growth)

39. Process of the mitosis

PMAT
1. Prophase
- Chromosome visible
- Centriole migrates to the poles (in animal only)
- Nuclear membrane disappear (not apparent)
- Spindle forms
2. Metaphase
- Chromosome line up on the equator of the cell
- Spindles attach to the centromeres
- Nuclear envelope is getting dissolve (Need to separate the 2 chromosome)
- Forming centrioles (MTOC)
3. Anaphase
- Sister chromatid is separated
- Centromeres are divided
- Sister chromatid move to opposite poles
- The MTOC and chromosome are connected by microtubules (spindle)
4. Telophase
- Chromosome uncoil (now chromatin)
- Nuclear membrane reform
- Spindle disappear
- In every side there should be equal amount of chromosome, ribosome, organelles
- Chromatid will start to loosen
- After that cytoplasm will be distributed equally as well.

40. Process of mitosis through picture

 Just look at
number 39 for
more detail

41. Same thing at the top ^^

42. Colchicine impact on mitotic process

Colchicine is an alkaloid derived from the autumn crocus (Colchicum Autumnale). It
inhibits mitosis by inhibiting microtubule polymerization.

- A hormone really injected to fruits (causes the fruits to be bigger)

- Blocks the formation of spindle (threads during cell division)
- Cause polyploidy:
a)A condition where a cell of an organism have more than 2 paired sets of
chromosomes (happens during anaphase)- up to 3n-4n
b) Uneven distribution of chromosomes causing bigger fruits to be produced.

43. Characteristic of cancer cell

- Large number of dividing cell
- Large, variable shaped nuclei
- Small cytoplasmic volume
relative to nuclei
- Variation in cell size and shape
- Loss of normal specialized cell
features
- Disorganized arrangement of
cells
- Poorly define tumour boundary
44. Totipotency in cell
- Stem cell can divide and produce any type of body cell
- the type of stem cell that could be found in early stages of an embryos.

45. Multipotential
- Stem cell are found in mature mammals
- can divide to form a limited number of different cell type.