INTRODUCTION STRUCTURAL

CIVIL ENGINEERING - Derives from Lati word structus, which is “to

pile, build assemble.”
- is one of the most indispensable part of
society. ENGINEER
- is the backbone of civilization, our
- Derives from old French term engine,
infrastructure, the buildings, mansions,
meaning, “skill, cleverness” and also ‘war
factories, freeways, high-speed railways.
machine’
CIVIL ENGINEERING - Derives from Latin word ingenuim, which
means “inborn qualities, talent”
1. Water Resources
2. Construction Structural engineering dates back to 2700 BC when
3. Environmental the Step Pyramid forPharaoh Djoser was built by
4. Geotechnical Imhotep
5. Material
GUSTAVE EIFFEL is the pioneer of the use of iron in
6. Structural
structural engineering
7. Transportation
8. Urban Planning Developed Topics (Structural Analysis): fracture
mechanics, earthquake engineering, composite
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
materials, temperature effects on materials,
- is a field of engineering dealing with analysis dynamics and vibration, fatigue, creep and others.
and design of structures that support or resist
(Structural Failure) The structural design for a building
loads
must ensure that the building is able to stand up
- depends upon a detailed knowledge of loads,
safely, able to function without excessive
physics and materials to understand and
deflections or movements which may cause
predict how structures support and resist self-
fatigue of structural elements, cracking or failure
weight and imposed loads
of fixtures, fittings or partitions, or discomfort for
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING THEORY occupants. It must account for movements and
forces due to temperature, creep, cracking and
- is based upon physical laws and empirical imposed loads
knowledge of the structural performance of
different landscapes and materials If it exceeds HOOKE’s LAW, a structure is called as
failure structure
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS
STRUCTURAL FAILURE MODES
- ensure that their designs satisfy a given
“design intent”, predicted on safety or 1. Stress
serviceability 2. Deflection
- are responsible for making creative and 3. Buckling
efficient use of funds and materials to achieve 4. Creep
these goals 5. Fracture
- is most commonly involved in design of 6. Wear
buildings and nonbuilding structures but also 7. Yielding
plays an essential role in designing machinery
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
where structural integrity of the design item
impacts safety and reliability 1. Columns
2. Beams
WHAT DOES STRUCTURAL ENIGNEERS DO?
3. Plates
1. Seismic design of new bridges, buildings and 4. Arches
dams 5. Shells
2. Retrofit of old buildings and dams to resist 6. Catenaries
earthquakes
STRUCTURAL LOADS
 1. Live (imposed) Loads – transitory/temporary BENEFITS OF BEING A STUCTURAL ENGINEER
loads
1. Satisfaction of getting your work built
2. Dead Loads – permanent; may include weight
2. Watching people use the finished products
of the structure itself
3. Design future landmark structures, or help
LOAD TRANSFER ELEMENTS save the old ones
4. Contributes to the safety of society
1. Axial: cables, shells, arches
2. Flexural: beams, plates RETROFITTING TECHNIQUES
3. Shear: frames, shear walls
SEISMIC RETROFITTING
COMMONSTRUCTURAL MATERIALS
- Improving the probable seismic performance
1. Iron of the building or to otherwise reduce the risk
2. Concrete to an accepted level
3. Aluminum
4. Timber RETROFIT TECHNIQUES
5. Composite - Schemes, approaches to improve the seismic
SPECIALIZATIONS IN STRUCTURAL performance of the structure
ENGINEERING RETROFIT TECHNOLOGIES
1. Building structures - Devices, equipment that improve the seismic
2. Earthquake engineering structures performance of the structure
3. Civil engineering structures
4. Mechanical structures RETROFITING OBJECTIVES

CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES 1. Ductility enhancement

2. Stiffness enhancement
1. Bridges 3. Strength enhancement
2. Dams – provide water and electricity
3. Roads STRENGTHENING METHODS
4. Railways
1. Effectiveness of structural walls and bracings
5. Pipelines
2. Column jacketing
6. Power stations
3. Beam jacketing
7. Tunnels – bore through mountains to make
routes shorter CLASSIFYING SEISMIC RETROFITTING
8. Bridges – span large valleys and rivers TECHNIQUES
Principals of structural engineering are applied to 1. Local intervention – member-level retrofit
variety of mechanical (moveable) structures is 2. Global intervention – structure-level retrofit;
referred to as STRUCTURAL MECHANICAL in case of systems with high flexibility; when
ENGINEERING no uninterrupted transverse load path is
available
EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING STRUCTURES are
those engineered to withstand various types of LOCAL INTERVENTION TECHNIQUES &
hazardous earthquake exposures at the sites of their TECHNOLOGIES
particular location
1. Crack Injection
LEARNING FORM EARTHQUAKES o injection of adhesive material into fine
cracks
1. Understand what happened in the past
o economical and versatile
earthquakes
o removes slightly cracks and restores
2. Understand how materials, members and
structures respond flexural strength and stiffness
3. Incorporate knowledge into computer analysis o cracks up to 6mm wide
to stimulate earthquake demands
 o larger cracks up to 20mm are Concentric Braced Frame(CBF)
repaired with cement grout – the line of action of the force
2. Jacketing in the member passes through
o Used for confinement the centroid of the member
o Reduces bond degradation of steel Eccentric Braced Frame (EBF)
reinforcement – combine the stiffness of
o Limits concrete damage moment frames in the elastic
o Increases energy absorption capacity range and ductility of braced
a. Steel jacketing frames using eccentric
o Encasement of column with steel pipes connections
Knee Braced Frame (KBF) –
o Non-shrink grout is placed at the gap
uses diagonal lateral stiffness
between the existing column and the steel
and anchor brace for ductility
pipe
2. Seismic Gaps
o Increased strength, stiffness, and ductility
3. Mass Reduction
o Steel cages and steel plates can be used
4. Damping System
as an alternative to a complete steel jacket a. Viscous damper
b. RC jacketing b. Friction damper
o Advantage: lateral load capacity is c. Yielding damper
uniformly distributed throughout the 5. Base Isolation
structure
o Challenge: bond between existing member
and the new jacket
o May be considered a global intervention
if longitudinal reinforcement of the
jacket passes through holes drilled in
the slab and new concrete is placed in the
beam-column joint
o Effect: increased strength, stiffness and
ductility
o Minimum working space: 15 cm in each
side, in each direction
c. FRP jacketing
o Easier to apply compared to steel and RC
jacket
o No space reduction nor architectural
impact
o Does not increase member stiffness
o Inhibits spalling of concrete cover and
prevents reinforcement bars from
compression buckling
o Immune to corrosion

GLOBAL INTERVENTION TECHNIQUES AND

TECHNOLOGIES
1. Addition of new elements
a. Columns
b. Wing walls
c. Shear walls
d. Steel bracing
e. Steel bracing systems
HIGHWAY
- A main road that connects cities, towns, etc
- Any public or private road or other public way
on land
- Is to provide a facility that allows movement of
vehicles
FACTORS INFLUENCING HIGHWAY DESIGN
1. Functional Classification
2. Design hourly traffic volume and vehicle mix
3. Design speed
4. Design vehicle
5. Cross section of the highway
6. Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades
7. Topography of the area that the highway
traverses
8. Level of service
9. Available funds
10. Safety
11. Social and environmental factors
HIGHWAY FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
1. Rural roads
2. Urban roads
(URBAN AND RURAL) CATEGORIZED AS THE FF:
1. Principal Arterials – are major highways of
regional and statewide significance intended
to serve large amounts of traffic traveling
relatively long distances at higher speeds
2. Minor Arterials – interconnect with an
augment the principal arterial system.
Distribute traffic to smaller geographic areas
providing service between and within
communities
3. Major Collectors
4. Minor Collectors
5. Local Roads and Streets
ARTERIALS function to provide through movement
of traffic
COLLECTORS function of supplying a combination
through movement and access to property
LOCAL STREETS function of providing access to
property
URBAN ROADS comprise highway facilities within
urban areas as designated by responsible state and
local officials to include communities with a population
of at least 5000 people
URBAN PRINCIPAL ARTERIAL SYSTEM is the
system of highways serves the major activity centers
of the urban area and consists mainly of the highest-
traffic-volume corridors. Also serves trips that bypass
the central business districts (CBDs) of urbanized
areas
URBAN MINOR ARTERIAL SYSTEM this system
serves trips of moderate length and places more
emphasis in land access than the primary arterial
system
URBAN COLLECTOR STREET SYSTEM is to
collect traffic from local streets in residential areas or
in CDs and convey it to the arterial system.
URBAN LOCAL STREET SYSTEM consists of all
other streets within the urban area that are not
included in the three systems described earlier. To
provide access to abutting land and to the collector
streets
RURAL COLLECTOR SYSTEM carry traffic primarily
within individual countries, and trip distances are
usually shorter than those on the arterial roads.
Subdivided into major collector roads and minor
collector roads
RURAL MAJOR COLLECTOR SYSTEM carry traffic
primarily to and from country seats and large cities
that are not directly served by the arterial system. The
system also carries the main intracountry traffic
RURAL LOCAL ROAD SYSTEM consists of all roads
within the rural area not classified within the other
systems. These roads serve trips of relatively short
distances and connect adjacent lands with the
collector roads
Selection of the appropriate set of geometric
design standards is the first step in the design of
any highway. This is essential because no single set
of geometric standards can be used for all highways
DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME (DHV) is the projected
hourly volume that is used for design. This volume is
usually taken as a percentage of the expected ADT
on the highway
DESIGN SPEED is defined as a selected speed to
determine the various geometric features of the
roadway
TOPOGRAPHY IS CLASSIFIED INTO 3 GROUPS:
1. Level Terrain – flat; horizontal and vertical
distances are long
 2. Rolling Terrain – has natural slopes PHYSIOLOGICAL – Measurable and usually
3. Mountainous Terrain – has sudden changes quantifiable
in ground elevation
PSYCHOLOGICAL – Much more difficult to measure
and quantify
OLDER DRIVERS have special needs that should be
considered in highway design and traffic control.
The DRIVING TASK depends on drivers receiving
and using information correctly. The information
DESIGN VEHICLE is selected to represent all received by drivers as they travel is compared with
vehicles on the highway. Its weight, dimensions, and the information they already possess. Decisions are
operating characteristics are used to establish the then made by drivers based on the information
design standards of the highway available to them and appropriate control actions are
taken.
GUIDELINES WHEN SELECTING A DESIGN
VEHICLE Driving encompasses a number of discrete and
interrelated activities. When grouped by performance,
1. When parking lots are the main traffic the components of the driving task fall into three
generators, the passenger car may be used levels: control, guidance, and navigation.
2. For design of intersections at local streets and
park roads, a single-unit truck may be used
3. At intersections of state highways and city
streets that serve buses with relatively few
large trucks, a city transit bus may be used.
4. At intersections of highways and low-volume
county highways or township/local roads with
less than 400 ADT, either an 84-passenger
large school bus 40 ft long or a 65-passenger
conventional bus 36 ft long may be used.
5. At intersections of freeway ramp terminals and
arterial crossroads, and at intersections of
state highways and industrialized streets that
carry high volumes of traffic, the minimum size
of the design vehicle should be WB-20.
SPEED AND DESIGN
- Speed reduces the visual field, restricts
peripheral vision, and limits the time available
for drivers to receive and process information SENSING

DRIVER PERFORMANCE AND HUMAN Feeling: forces on the vehicle

FACTORS
DRIVER is a person who drives a vehicle
When drivers use a highway designed to be
compatible with their capabilities and limitations,
their performance is aided.
When a design is incompatible with the capabilities
of drivers, the chance for driver errors increase, and
crashes or inefficient operation may result.
Seeing: critically important means of acquiring
information. (Ability to see fine details, depth
perception, peripheral vision, ‘night’ vision, glare
recovery)
Hearing: important for drivers, cyclists and
pedestrians
Smelling: detecting emergencies e.g. overheated
engine, burning brakes, fire
PERCEPTION TIME is the delay between visibility
and determining there is a potential hazard
Thus, the Total Reaction Time (PIEV) involves
analytical and decision-making as well as actual
control response (e.g put foot on brake)
Perception-reaction time (PIEV) is often assumed to
be 2.5 seconds
- At 100 kph a vehicle travels about 70 metres in that
time
PERCEPTION-REACTION TIME FACTORS
1. Physical Condition:
 Fatigue
 Drugs or Alcohol
 Medical Condition
 Visually Acuity
 Ability to see (lighting conditions,
presence of fog, snow, etc)
 Complexity of situation (more complex
= more time)
 Complexity of necessary response
 Expected versus unexpected situation
(traffic light turning red vs dog darting
into road)
THE DRIVING TASK
1. Control – simple steering; speed control
2. Guidance – road following; path following
3. Navigation – trip planning; route following
THE DESIGN SPEED
DESIGN SPEED is defined as a selected speed to
determine the various geometric features of the
roadway
DESIGN SPEED depends on the functional
classification of the highway, the topography of the
area in which the highway is located, and the land
use of the adjacent area. For highway design,
topography is generally classified into three groups:
level, rolling, and mountainous terrain.
AASHTO, the speed determined for design and
correlation of the physical feature of the highway the
influence vehicles operation. It is the "maximum
speed" over a specified section of the highway when
the weather and traffic conditions are so favorable
that the design feature of the highway govern.
A pertinent consideration in selecting design speeds
is the average trip length. The longer the trip, the
greater is the driver’s desire to use higher speeds.
Therefore, as the average trip length served by a
facility increases, higher functional classes of roads
with higher design speeds are more appropriate.
CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS
1. Travel Lanes
2. Shoulders
3. Medians
MARGINAL ELEMENTS
1. Median and roadside barriers
2. Curbs
3. Gutters
4. Guard rails
5. Sidewalks
6. Side slopes
WIDTH OF TRAVEL LANES usually vary from 9 to
12 ft.
SHOULDERS is always contiguous with the traveled
lane so as to provide an area along the highway for
vehicles to stop when necessary. Shoulder surfaces
range in width from 2 ft on minor roads to 12 ft on
major arterials. Shoulders are also used to laterally
support the pavement structure. The shoulder width
is known as either graded or usable, depending on
the section of the shoulder being considered.
The GRADED SHOULDER WIDTH is the whole
width of the shoulder measured from the edge of the
traveled pavement to the intersection of the shoulder
slope and the plane of the side slope.\
The USABLE SHOULDER WIDTH is that part of the
graded shoulder that can be used to accommodate
parked vehicles. The usable width is the same as the
graded width when the side slope is equal to or flatter
than 4:1 (horizontal:vertical), as the shoulder break is
usually rounded to a width between 4 ft and 6 ft,
thereby increasing the usable width.
All shoulders should be flush with the edge of the
traveled lane and sloped to facilitate drainage of
surface water on the traveled lanes. Recommended
slopes are 2 to 6 percent for bituminous and
concrete-surfaced shoulders, and 4 to 6 percent
for gravel or crushed-rock shoulders. Rumble
strips may be used on paved shoulders along
arterials as a safety measure to warn motorists that
they are leaving the traffic lane.
MEDIANS is the section of a divided highway that
separates the lanes in opposing directions. The width
of a median is the distance between the edges of the
inside lanes, including the median shoulders. The
functions of a median include:
• Providing a recovery area for out-of-control
vehicles
• Separating opposing traffic
• Providing stopping areas during emergencies
• Providing storage areas for left-turning and U-
turning vehicles
• Providing refuge for pedestrians
• Reducing the effect of headlight glare
• Providing temporary lanes and cross-overs
during maintenance operations
RAISED MEDIANS are frequently used in urban
arterial streets because they facilitate the control of
left-turn traffic at intersections by using part of the
median width for left-turn-only lanes.
FLUSH MEDIANS are commonly used on urban
arterials. They can also be used on freeways, but with
a median barrier. To facilitate drainage of surface
water, the flush median should be crowned
DEPRESSED MEDIANS are generally used on
freeways and are more effective in draining surface
water. A side slope of 6:1 is suggested for
depressed medians, although a slope of 4:1 may be
adequate.
A MEDIAN BARRIER is defined as a longitudinal
system used to prevent an errant vehicle from
crossing the portion of a divided highway separating
the traveled ways for traffic in opposite directions.
ROADSIDE BARRIERS, on the other hand, protect
vehicles from obstacles or slopes on the roadside.
CURBS are raised structures made of either Portland
cement concrete or bituminous concrete (rolled
asphalt curbs) that are used mainly on urban
highways to delineate pavement edges and
pedestrian walkways.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Provision of SUFFICIENT DRAINAGE is an important
factor in the location and geometric design of
highways.
DRAINAGE FACILITIES on any highway or street
should adequately provide for the flow of water away
from the surface of the pavement to properly
designed channels.
INADEQUATE DRAINAGE will eventually result in
serious damage to the highway structure.
About 25 percent of highway construction cost are
spent for erosion control and drainage structures,
such as culverts, bridges, channels, and ditches.
TWO SOURCES OF WATER
1. Surface water – surface drainage; occurs as
rain or snow
2. Ground Water – subsurface drainage; which
flows in underground streams
SURFACE DRAINAGE encompasses all means by
which surface water is removed from the pavement
and right of way of the highway or street.
1. Transverse Slopes - to facilitate the removal
of surface water from the pavement surface in
the shortest possible time.
2. Longitudinal Slopes - A minimum gradient in
the longitudinal direction of the highway is
required to obtain adequate slope in the
longitudinal channels, particularly at cut
sections.
3. Longitudinal Channels (ditches) - are
constructed along the sides of the highway to
collect the surface water that runs off from the
pavement surface, subsurface drains, and
other areas of the highway right of way.
4. Curbs and Gutter - can be used to control
drainage in addition to other functions, which
include preventing the encroachment of
vehicles on adjacent areas and delineating
pavement edges.
INTERSECTION DESIGN
INTERSECTION is the place or point where two or
more things come together; especially the place
where two or more streets meet or cross each other
Each roadway extending from the intersection is
referred to as a leg
The intersection of two roadways has four legs.
When one roadway ends at the intersection with
another roadway, a three-leg intersection, or T
intersection, is formed.
THREE GENERAL TYPES OF INTERSECTIONS
1. At-grade – where two or more roadways
cross in the same plane,
2. Grade-separated – where one roadway is
bridged over or tunneled under the other
roadway but no turning movements are
allowed, and
3. Interchanges – a special type of grade-
separated intersection where turning
movements are accommodated by ramps
connecting the two roadway.
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS should be designed to
promote the safe movement of traffic on all legs with
a minimal amount of delay to drivers using the
intersection.
The AMOUNT OF DELAY A DRIVER
EXPERIENCES is the measure of effectiveness for
signalized intersections as used in capacity analysis.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DESIGNING AN
INTERSECTIONS
• Traffic Volumes on all legs, including separate
counts for turning vehicles
• Sight Distance
• Traffic control devices
• Horizontal Alignment
• Vertical Alignment
• Radius Returns
• Drainage Design
• Islands
• Left Turn lanes
• Right Turn Lanes
• Additional through lanes
• Recovery areas
• Pedestrians
• Bicycles
• Lighting
• Development
TRAFFIC VOLUMES
Vehicle types are divided into two groups.
1. The first group includes passenger cars and
type A commercial vehicles (pickup trucks
and light delivery trucks not using dual tires).
2. The second group includes type B
commercial vehicles (tractor, semitrailer,
truck-trailer combinations) and type C
commercial vehicles (buses, dual-tired
trucks with single or tandem rear axles).
TRAFFIC CONTROL
There are four basic types of traffic control at at-
grade intersections:
1. Cautionary, or nonstop, control - is used
only in special circumstances, such as at an
entrance terminal on a freeway.
2. Stop control for minor traffic - for the minor
roadway is one of the most common
treatments found in practice. In these cases,
the traffic volumes on the minor roadway are
light enough that a signal is not required. The
major roadway apparently has volumes low
enough to allow gaps for the minor road traffic
to enter or cross the intersection.
3. Four-way stop control - is effective in
situations where the roadways have nearly
equal traffic volumes but not great enough
volume to justify installing a signal.
4. Signal control - is used for intersections
where volumes are large enough to preclude
using one of the other types.
SIGHT DISTANCE is an important consideration
when designing an at-grade intersection.
RADIUS RETURNS AT INTERSECTIONS
• Radii of 15 to 25 ft (4.6 to 7.6 m) are adequate
for passenger vehicles and may be provided
at minor cross streets where there are few
trucks or at major intersections where there
are parking lanes.
• Radii of 25 ft (7.6 m) or more should be
provided at minor intersections on new or
reconstruction projects where space permits.
• Radii of 30 ft (9.1 m) or more should be used
where feasible at major cross street
intersections.
• Radii of 40 ft (12.2 m) or more, three-centered
compound curves, or simple curves with
tapers to fit truck pat
ISLANDS AT INTERSECTIONS may be used as:
• Separation of conflicts
• Control of angle of conflict
• Reduction in excessive pavement areas
• Favoring a predominant movement
• Pedestrian protection
• Protection and storage of vehicles
• Location of traffic control devices
LEFT TURN LANES (2 Conditions)
1. when left turn design volumes exceed 20
percent of total directional approach design
volumes, and
2. when left turn design volumes exceed 100
vehicles per hour in peak periods.
In developing turn lanes, several types of tapers
may be involved:
Approach taper. An approach taper directs through
traffic to the right.
Departure taper. The departure taper directs through
traffic to the left. Its length should not be less than
that calculated using the approach taper equations.
Diverging taper. The diverging taper is the taper
used at the beginning of the turn lane. The
recommended length of a diverging taper is 50 ft (15
m).
It is recommended that left turn lanes be at least
100 ft (30 m) long, and the maximum length be no
more than 600 ft (183 m). The width of a left turn
lane should desirably be the same as the normal lane
widths for the facility. A minimum width of 11 ft (3.4
m) may be used in moderate- and high-speed areas,
while 10 ft (3.0 m) may be provided in low-speed
areas. Additional width should be provided whenever
the lane is adjacent to a curbed median as discussed
previously under “Position of Curb.”
Position of Curb. Curbs are normally used at the
edge of pavement on urban streets where the design
speed is 40 mi/h (64 km/h) or less. Curbs at the edge
of pavement have an effect on the lateral placement
of moving vehicles. Drivers tend to shy away from
them. Therefore, all curbs should be offset at least 1
ft (0.3 m) and preferably 2 ft (0.6 m) from the edge of
the traffic lane. Where curb and gutter are used, the
standard gutter width is 2 ft (0.6 m).
DOUBLE LEFT TURN LANES should be considered
at any signalized intersection with left turn demands
of 300 vehicles per hour or more. The actual need
should be determined by performing a signalized
intersection capacity analysis. Fully protected signal
phasing is required for double left turns.
FREEWAY INTERCHANGES
FREEWAY (Australia, South Africa, US, Canada)
MOTORWAY (UK, Pakistan, Ireland, New Zealand,
Australia)
EXPRESSWAY (Canada, US, Asian countries)
A CONTROLLED-ACCESS HIGHWAY is a type of
highway which has been designed for high-speed
vehicular traffic, with all traffic flow ingress- and
egress-regulated.
INTERCHANGE is defined as a system of
interconnecting roadways in conjunction with one or
more grade separations that provides for the
movement of traffic between two or more roadways or
highways on different levels.
2 BASIC TYPES OF INTERCHANGES
1. Service interchanges exist between a
freeway or controlled access facility (typically
highspeed, high-traffic roadways) and a lower-
class roadway such as an arterial or collector
(lower speed roadways).
2.
 3. System Interchanges exist between two or 3. DIRECTIONAL INTERCHANGE - often
more freeways or controlled access facilities. requires less right of way than a cloverleaf
design. The primary disadvantage is
DIAMOND TYPE is the simplest and low-cost form of
increased cost because
interchange
of the need for multiple-
CLOVERLEAF TYPE is the most common level structures.
interchange for freeway and arterial intersection Directional interchanges
are often warranted in
FUNCTIONS OF INTERCHANGES certain urban areas
1. To provide separation between two or more where traffic volumes
traffic arteries are high.

2. To facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from 4. THREE-LEVEL ROUNDABOUT

entry to the other or between local roadway INTERCHANGE - just outside Leeds,
and the freeway England, is perhaps most famous for how
poorly it works, causing
OBJECTIONS TO THE CLOVERLEAF DESIGN
standstills during rush
INTERCHANGE
hour. The interchange
1. It requires large area of land was built in the 1970s,
and has been unable to
2. At higher design speed, more time is sustain traffic loads that
consumed just to traverse the longer loops. pass through the area.
3. Vehicles leaving the curve loop in one
quadrant has to weave those entering the
adjacent loop from the through roadway. 5. THREE-LEVEL CLOVERSTACK

INTERCHANGE (TYPES)
1. DIAMOND INTERCHANGE - involves four
ramps, exiting and
entering the highway.
These designs are 6. TWO-LEVEL CLOVERSTACK
very economical
because, compared
to other options, they
require less land and
materials.
7. DIVIDED VOLLEYBALL
2. CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGE - eliminates
the need for traffic
signals and keeps
motorists moving.
However, weaving is a
problem that may 8. ¾ VOLLEY
lead to a breakdown
in traffic operation
and more accidents.
9. FULL-DIAMOND 16. DIVERGING WINDMILL

17. FULL Y
10. INTERSECTION WITH U-TURNS

11. HALF-CLOVER
18. TRUMPET

12. T-BONE 19. T-INTERCHANGE

13. TURBINE-STACK HYBRID 20. TWO-LEVEL ROUNDABAOUT

14. TWO-LEVEL TURBINE

15. WINDMILL