Genes and Human Behavior

• Have both nervous system and genes

• Behavioral differences may have genetic
component
• A part of brain (lateral frontal cortex) important in
human intelligence
• Positron emission tomography: a technology to
visualize brain cell activity through measuring
the extent of blood flow to particular brain parts
• Differences in human behaviors (like
intelligence, emotions, mood, anxiety levels)
have been linked to genetic variations.
 Evolution and behavioral
development
Garter Snake
In California, coastal and inland
populations of garter snakes differ in
diet.
Coastal garter snakes feed on banana slugs.
Inland populations eat other foods e.g. fish
and frogs.
• Is there a genetic basis to the behavioral
differences in diet preference?
Steve Arnold studied populations to see if
there were genetic differences between
them.

Brought pregnant females into lab and

reared babies in isolation.

Offered slug pieces to snakes.

Inland snakes usually ignored slugs, coastal
snakes usually ate it.
Then tested newborn snakes on response to
odors.

Offered snakes flavored cotton swabs,

counted number of tongue flicks made.
Coastal individuals responded much more
strongly to slug odor.
Arnold carried out heritability studies.

Found little variation within either population.

Preference for slugs within a population

largely fixed.
 Ultimate Explanation
• Inland population don’t have slugs, but are
exposed to leeches.
– Active selection against leech-like /slug consumption.
• Why? Cause leeches will eat a snake from the
inside out!
– There are few leeches in the coastal population,
therefore no active selection against sluggy things.
• What does the fact that some inland snakes will
eat slugs mean to you about the populations?
Crosses between populations produced
individuals with wide variation in response
to slugs.

Suggests differences between populations

have strong genetic component.
 What is evolutionary basis for difference
Advantage to slug eating on coast is
between populations?
obvious.

Rare gene for eating slugs would spread

rapidly.
 Density affects the foraging
behavior of fruit fly larvae
• Larvae reared in lab for many generations
under low density conditions move shorter
distances in the same period of time than
larvae from populations reared under high-
density conditions
(see Figure 3.23)
 Artificial selection and behavioral
evolution
• Testing proposition that behaviors evolve
• Artificial selection experiments
• Particular alleles responsible for phenotypes
• Phenotypes allowed to reproduce…responsible
alleles will become more common in
experimental populations
• While phenotypes linked to less successful
alleles will decrease
• So, evolutionary change can be seen in the
laboratory through artificial selection
experiments
 Nest building behavior in house
mice
• In natural conditions use grasses and
other plant material for nest building
• In lab conditions, happily accept cotton as
a nesting material
• The amount of cotton a mouse collects
can be quantified as the number of grams
it pulls into a nest cage over a 4-day
period
 Artificial selection and
behavioral evolution
• Nest building in mice.
• In starting population mice used 13-18
grams of cotton to line their nests.
• To test whether this variation in building is
caused by genes or environment
• Carol Lynch selected for “high”, “low” and
“control” groups of mice.
• After 15 generations amounts of cotton
used by mice were:
– Controls 15g same as original population.
– High 40g
– Low 5g
– In figure on next slide low, control, and high
values are average for each generation
– Conclusion: experimental populations
evolved
 Other examples of Artificial
Selection
• William Cade has selectively bred crickets
to sing rarely or almost continuously.

• In only two generations of artificial

selection Pulido et al. showed that the
timing of migration in European Blackcaps
could be delayed more than a week.
Behavior is Subject to Selection

• In fact, genetic variation accounts for

about one-third to one-half of the variation
in the onset of migratory activity in
southern German blackcaps
 Artificial Selection
• Artificial selection experiments show that
(i) behavior is subject to selection and (ii)
populations contain sufficient genetic
variability to evolve rapidly.
 Adaptability of behavioral
development
• As we have seen the development of
behavior such as singing can be strongly
influenced by environmental effects.
• It is important for development of behavior
to be resilient to disturbance so that
normal behavior can develop as often as
possible.
• Process of developmental homeostasis
reduces effects of disturbance.
 Adaptability of behavioral
development
• Harlow’s “experiments” with Rhesus
monkeys showed that rhesus monkeys
entirely deprived of contact with mothers
and “reared” by artificial surrogates gained
weight and grew normally but behaviorally
developed abnormally (BIG surprise!) and
were terrified of other monkeys if exposed
to them.
 Adaptability of behavioral
development
• However, monkeys given even 15 minutes
contact a day with other young monkeys
developed essentially normally.
 Adaptability of behavioral
development
• As adults, these monkeys interacted
normally with others unlike those
individuals which had no social contacts
as infants, which were withdrawn or very
aggressive.
Developmental homeostasis in
human embryonic development
• Studies on songbirds show that adult
ability to learn and sing complex songs is
affected by food deprivation during period
of rapid nestling growth.

• In humans food deprivation of the mother

during pregnancy appears not to have
major effects on the fetus’ intelligence.
 Symmetry and attractiveness
• Many organisms are influenced by how
symmetrical other individuals are when
making mate choices.

• Asymmetries are believed to be caused by

problems in development and symmetry
thus signals an ability to overcome
developmental challenges.
 Symmetry and attractiveness
• There is some evidence that humans
include symmetry in their ratings of an
individuals’ attractiveness, but data are not
conclusive and there is considerable
debate.
• Female brush-legged wolf spiders,
however, are significantly more likely to
mate with males whose foreleg hair tufts
are symmetrical than those who are not.
• Study was carried out using video images
of spiders that were identical apart from
the digitally manipulated foreleg tufts.
• So, symmetrical body is an adaptive
phenotype which increases reproductive
success.
However, in a number of species, two or three disticnt
alternate phenotypes coexist comfortably.
These arise as a result of the environmental differences
among the individuals from a single species
 Polyphenism
• In many species multiple alternative
phenotypes occur in the same species (i.e.
distinctly different body types occur).

• These different phenotypes arise as a

result of environmental effects from a
single genotype. The environmental
influence sends the developing organism
down one or another distinct
developmental pathway.
• By which mechanism?
 Adaptive Value of Developmental
Switch Mechanisms
• Developmental switch mechanisms can produce
polyphenism within same species.
• Figure 3.32
• Different phenotypes can arise when dev sw mech are
activated through in response to critical environmental
cues.
• See the figure for broadly variable phenotype, highly
canalized phenotype, and polyphenism
• Polyphenism may be a) food-induced (in castes of ants
and other social insects b) socially-induced (in territorial
and nonterritorial forms of cichlid fish) and c) predator-
induced (in soldier caste of some aphids which possess
more powerful grasping legs and a larger stabbing
probiscis than nonsoldier forms)
 Developmental flexibility in Tiger
Salamanders
• A representative example of polyphnism is
developmental flexibility in tiger
salamamanders
• Larvae live in ephemeral ponds.

• Most follow “normal” development and eat

small invertebrates.
But some become cannibals (bigger with
larger teeth) and eat smaller salamanders.
Normal form Cannibal
 What factors affect decision to
become a cannibal?
• Ideas?
 What factors affect decision to
become a cannibal?

• Relatedness of cannibal to others in pool.

• Density of salamanders
• Size distribution of salamanders
• A salamander surrounded by lots of non-
kin can benefit by becoming a cannibal.

• By growing faster it can escape from the

pond sooner.

• Developmental flexibility allows

salamander to adjust its development if
conditions are suitable, but not otherwise.
 Behavioral flexibility
• Many animals choose among different
behavioral phenotypes depending on
environmental circumstances.

• For example, in many fish males adopt different

roles depending on their size and status. Large
males defend territories but smaller satellite
males act as sneakers darting in and releasing
sperm whenever the dominant male mates with
a female.
 Behavioral flexibility in
Haplochromis burtoni
• In cichlid fish Haplochromis burtoni.
territorial males are brightly colored and
satellite males are dull.

• Behavior is related to brain structure.

Behavioral flexibility expensive.

Should only evolve when benefit

outweighs cost.
Satellite
male

Territorial
male
 Behavioral flexibility in
Haplochromis burtoni

• GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)

neurons in hypothalamus are 6-8 times
larger in territorial males than in satellites.

• GnRH neurons stimulate testes

development and aggressive behavior.
 Behavioral flexibility in
Haplochromis burtoni
• Interestingly, GnRH size is variable.

• If male loses territory his neurons shrink

and he becomes dull colored.

• If territory opens up, male enlarges neurons,

switches to aggressive territorial mode
• See figure 3.34
 Behavioral flexibility in
Haplochromis burtoni
• Unpredictable social environment favors
flexibility in Haplochromis.

• Neuronal flexibility allows males to adopt

best strategy for conditions.
 Adaptive Value of Learning
• Learning is an adaptive modification of behavior based
on experience
• Its also a polyphenism because it too confers a highly
focused behavioral flexibility that requires developmental
modifications in the nervous system.
• Selection favors learning when benefit outweighs the
cost
• Learning major element in behavioral
flexibility. Ability to make use of experience in adjusting
behavior can be selectively very advantageous.
Learning in Australian Thynnine
wasps
• Males search for females based on pheromones
they produce.

• Orchids possess flowers with a female decoy

petals that attract males using a similar scent.

• Orchid mimics female wasps appearance too.

When male lands and attempts to mate he gets
a surprise and orchid gets a pollinator (pollen
sacs stick to male’s back)
 Male tries to mate with “female wasp”
on orchid, instead acquires a pollen sac.

Female wasp Fake wasp

Pollinia
(poolen
sac) on
wasp’s back
Wasps don’t learn to avoid orchids in
general.

But, do learn to avoid orchids they have

visited before.
Learning in Australian Thynnine
wasps
• What do wasps learn?

• Orchid’s location or orchid’s scent?

• Speculation: If wasps could learn scent

differences how plants benefit from having
wasps revisit them?
 Costs and benefits of learning
• For learning and flexible behavior to
spread by natural selection, benefits must
exceed costs.

• Benefits are the ability to exploit the

environment more effectively.

• What are the costs?

 Costs and benefits of learning
• Costs: Major cost is additional energy
required to make/maintain neuronal
tissue.
Example of cost:

West coast marsh wrens sing more songs

(100) than east coast marsh wrens (40).
Song system in brain weighs 25% more
in west coast birds.
 Costs of large brain in humans
• In humans: Brain 2% of body weight.

• But requires 15% of body’s oxygen and

20% of energy.

• Other costs to large brains in humans?

 Costs of large brain in humans
• Difficulty in giving birth.
Behavioral flexibility expensive.

Should only evolve when benefit

outweighs cost.
Clark’s Nutcracker seed-storing specialist.
Much better at remembering where
Something is located than other crows.
Not better at remembering colors, a non-
spatial task. Memory skills determined
by bird’s needs.
 Intraspecific variability in
learning
• Behavioral flexibility does not only differ
between species.

• In species where males and females

experience different selection pressures,
differences in learning ability occur.
 Spatial learning in voles
• Male meadow voles are polygynous.
Their home ranges are 4X larger than
those of females.

• Prairie voles are monogamous. Males

and females have same size home ranges
 Spatial learning in voles
• Spatial learning abilities of voles was
tested in mazes.

• Male meadow voles made significantly

fewer mistakes than female meadow
voles, but there was no difference
between the sexes in the performance of
male and female prairie voles.
 Spatial learning in voles
• Male meadow voles have a large
hippocampus than females and this area
in the brain processes spatial information.

• However, the enlarged hippocampus only

develops during the breeding season.
 Spatial learning in cowbirds
• Female cowbirds parasitize other birds
nests. They need to be able to remember
nest locations and monitor them over time.
Female cowbirds have a larger
hippocampus than males. No difference
between sexes in related, but non-
parasitic grackles and red-winged
blackbirds.
 Operant conditioning
• Spatial learning not only behavior that has
clearly been shaped by selection.

• In operant conditioning (or trial and error

learning) an animal learns to associate an
action with its consequences.

• E.g. a rat pushes a lever and gets a food

pellet.
 Operant conditioning
• Usually a behavior and its consequences
must be closely linked in time for
conditioning to occur.

• However, in rats tasting novel foods

nausea that occurs several hours after
eating a food will be associated with that
food, which in future will be avoided.
Another example of operant conditioning is
that predators learn to recognize noxious
prey after tasting them.

How does warning

coloration benefit
animal that is tasted
if it is killed?
Does operant conditioning occur in
humans?