Федеральное агентство по образованию.

Государственное образовательное учреждение

высшего профессионального образования
«МОСКОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ЛИНГВИСТИЧЕСКИЙ
УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»

Е.А. Чикина

США: ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ И ПОЛИТИЧЕСКОЕ

УСТРОЙСТВО
УЧЕБНОЕ ПОСОБИЕ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ 4ГО КУРСА
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

Москва, 2011
 CONTENTS:

Chapter I. ......................................................................................................................................... 3
The American Constitution. ................................................................... 3

Chapter II. ...................................................................................................................................... 10

The legislative branch. ......................................................................... 10

The Senate. ........................................................................................ 12

The House of Representatives. ......................................................... 13

How a bill becomes a law ................................................................. 14

The Legislative Process. ................................................................... 14

Additional text.Interest Groups and Lobbyists. ................................... 18

Chapter III. .................................................................................................................................... 20

The Executive Branch. ......................................................................... 20

The President’s Cabinet. ................................................................... 22

Additional text...................................................................................... 24

Chapter IV. .................................................................................................................................... 26

Presidential elections in the USA ........................................................ 26

Additional text...................................................................................... 29
 Chapter I.
The American Constitution.

The United States of America is a federal union of 50 states. The state structure of
the USA and the form of its government are based on the Constitution.

In the 150 years before the thirteen American colonies broke away in a war of
independence against England, three distinct types of colonies developed: crown
colonies, proprietary colonies, and charter colonies.

The crown colonies were under the control of the king. He appointed the governor,
the most important official. The governor, in turn, appointed a governor’s council,
which functioned partly as a group of advisers to him, partly as a supreme court,
and partly as one house in the state legislature. The other house in the legislature,
commonly called the House of Representatives, was elected by the voters who
were white men aged twenty-one or more, who held property and professed a
religion.

The proprietary colonies were similar in organization to the crown colonies, except
that the proprietor, or owner, took the place of the king. This arrangement existed
in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. Generally the proprietor showed a more
kindly feeling toward their people than the king did toward the people on the
crown colonies.

The charter colonies were quite different. Here a group of people were given a
charter by the King to establish a new colony. Connecticut and Rhode Island were
the only charter colonies to survive as such. Massachusetts originally had been a
charter colony, but its charter was seized by the king and revoked. In the charter
colonies the governor was chosen either by the legislature or elected by the people.
Both houses of the legislature were elected by the people. But what is most
interesting is the fact that the charter establishing the form of government was
written by the colonists. The king gave them this privilege in order to get them to
migrate to the new world and establish colonies there. Thus in the charter colonies
the colonists themselves determined what form of government they were to have. It
was quite logical that they should provide a form in which they, and not the king,
controlled the officials who were governing them. The people in the other colonies
looked upon the charter colonists with envious eyes

After the American colonies had won their independence from England, they had a
great deal of trouble in forming a workable central government. Several of the
colonies claimed vast territories stretching "to the western sea,' and these claims
were resisted by other colonies, chiefly by Maryland. At any rate, after the War of
Independence, each former colony became a sovereign state, fully in control of its
own affairs. The newly independent states were not eager to give up powers to a
central government. Accordingly a loose confederation (14) was formed in 1781,
and this government, which operated principally by committees, lasted until 1789.

In the mean time, the leaders in the states recognized the weakness of the
government and determined to replace it by a stronger central structure.

These men assembled in Philadelphia in May, 1787. With the exception of the
statesman Thomas Jefferson and one or two others who were also absent, they
were the leaders of the American states. All were determined to work for the
common good, not for personal glory. What they accomplished was to devise a
new form of central government, although they borrowed freely from political
thinkers in Europe such as Rousseau, Montesquieu, John Locke, and others. In this
new form, the central government rests its authority directly on the people, not
upon the existing state governments, as had been the case under the confederation.
This parallel system is called "federalism," and it is worthy of note that it has
persisted in the United States to the present day.

Framing the government took all summer. There were bitter debates, and on at
least two occasions, the Constitutional Convention came close to breaking up. The
interests of economic classes were pitted against each other; the interests of small
and large colonies were antagonistic; the interests of colonies that had many Negro
slaves were opposed to those of colonies with few slaves. There were arguments
over the control of exports and imports and the amount of authority a federal
government should have over the basic rights of individuals. It is a wonder that
there was any final agreement about these matters. But the convention continued,
and by September the government had been hammered out.

The powers of government were divided into three branches: the legislative, to
make policy through passing laws; the executive, to enforce such laws; and the
judicial to interpret and apply them. Into this Constitution was written a
complicated system of checks to keep one branch of the government from getting
so powerful that it could overrule the others. For example, the president has the
right to veto the laws of Congress, but these laws can be passed anyway by a two-
thirds majority after his veto. Congress has the sole authority to appropriate money
for government uses. The Senate has the authority to approve appointments made
by the President. Each branch was given power to check the operations of the
others, so that no one branch could become too powerful.

Another problem was maintaining a proper balance between the powers of the
central government and those of the governments of the individual states. The
founding-fathers were aware of the danger that might exist in such a vast country if
lawmakers from different parts of the United States had to legislate in matters of
regional concern. This problem was solved by awarding to the central government
only certain limited, or enumerated, powers. The remaining powers of government,
to which the term "residual powers" is ordinarily applied, were reserved to the state
governments.

The new national government, in its Constitution, laws, and treaties, was made the
"supreme law of the land." This provision established the national government on a
superior legal plane to the state governments. It does not mean that the national
government has power over the states; it simply means that if there is a question of
conflict of power, the power belongs to the national government, not to the state.

One of the conditions exacted by several of the states in ratifying the new
Constitution was that there be added to it a number of amendments with the
purpose of safeguarding the rights of individuals. Accordingly, ten amendments
were proposed and ratified within two years of the beginning of the operation of
the new government. The amendments collectively are termed the "Bill of Rights."
They contain a list of the liberties that the founding fathers believed no government
could take away from any person. The more important liberties guaranteed in the
Bill of Rights are freedom of religion, freedom of speech freedom of the press,
freedom to assemble peaceably, freedom to bear arms, freedom against
unreasonable search and seizure, freedom from excessive fines, or cruel and
unusual punishment, and the right to a speedy, public trial by jury in cases of
alleged violation of criminal laws. The amendments contain, of course, other
freedoms too.

The Constitution of the United States of America went into effect in the spring of
1789. This same Constitution, with only sixteen amendments added after the Bill
of Rights, remains the basic law of the United States today. The government of the
United States is the oldest on the face of the earth, unbroken in its continuity since
1789.

The Constitution is brief. Its language is clear and straightforward. Although in

recent years some of its provisions have been subject to differing interpretations,
and amendments have been made, only a few of its provisions have become
obsolete as the nature of the society it governs changes.
Ex.1. Using the table speak about the division of powers in the USA.

DIVISION OF POWERS
POWERS OF THE CONCURRENT POWERS RESERVED TO STATE
NATIONAL POWERS GOVERNMENTS
GOVERNMENT
To regulate foreign To collect taxes To regulate trade within
trade and commerce To borrow money state
between states To establish and To establish local
To borrow and coin maintain governments
money courts To conduct elections
To conduct foreign To make and To determine voter
relations with other enforce laws qualifications
nations To provide for the To establish and support
To establish post health public schools
offices and welfare of the To incorporate business
and roads people firms
To raise and support To license professional
armed workers
forces To ratify amendments
To declare war and To keep all the "reserved
make peace powers" not granted to the
To govern territories national government nor
and prohibited to the states
admit new states
To pass naturalization
laws and regulate
immigration
To make all laws
"necessary and
proper" to carry out its
powers
Ex.2 Using the diagram above describe the mechanism of checks and
balances. Give your examples.

Ex.3 Find English equivalents in the text:

1) королевские колонии
2) частные колонии
3) лицензионные (хартийные) колонии
4) государственное законодательство
5) исповедовать религию
6) противиться требованиям
7) работать на общее благо
8) выработать новую форму (новый тип) правительства
9) разделять полномочия на три ветви
 10) система сдержек (и противовесов)
11) выделять деньги (на)
12) Отцы-основатели
13) Остаточные полномочия
14) Поправки к конституции
15) Вступать в силу
16) Нарушение закона
17) Устаревшее положение

Ex.4 Answer the questions:

1) What were the three distinct types of colonies before the war of
independence against England?
2) What problems did the American colonies face after winning their
independence from England?
3) On what principles was the new central government based?
4) How were the powers of government divided? How did the system of checks
work?
5) What were the relations between the national government and the state
government?
6) What are the amendments? What do they guarantee?
7) When did the American constitution come into force? Has it changed ever
since?
 Chapter II.
The legislative branch.

The legislative power is vested by the Constitution on a Congress, composed of

two chambers (Houses) – the Senate and the House of representatives. The senate
represents the states and the House represents the population.

The Senate is commonly referred to as the “upper”, the House of Representatives

as the “lower” chamber, the former being the less numerous and higher in tank of
the two.

The business of Congress is to make laws; the US Constitution also gives Congress
the power to propose amendments to the Constitution.

Congress is empowered:

1. to raise money by means of taxes or borrowing

2. coin money
 3. make rules for trade with foreign countries and between states
4. set up post offices and federal courts below the US Supreme Court
5. organize the Armed Forces
6. declare war

The US congress can control much that related to foreign police. Foreign policy is
largely an executive responsibility, but the Congress also plays an important role in
foreign police by appropriating funds and conducting investigations. The role of
the US Congress inside the country is even more important. The Us Congress is
the governmental body that determines taxation.

Currently, there are 435 members in the House of Representatives and 100
Senators. All of them are elected by direct popular vote in each of the country’s 50
states.

The number of Representatives each state sends to the House depends upon the
number of districts in each state. Each district chooses one representative. The
number of districts in each state is determined by population. The most heavily
populated states have more districts and, therefore, more representatives than the
sparsely populated ones.

In the Senate each state has two senators regardless of population. The senatorial
term is six years. Every two years one third of the Senate stands for election.

A Congressman is a member of either the Senate or the House of representatives.

However, a member of the Senate is usually referred to as a Senator and a member
of the House of Representatives as a Congressman.

There are no specifically defined duties for a member of Congress. He/she is

required to be present when Congress in session, unless he is excused to perform
official business elsewhere or because of illness. But in fact, until the Congressmen
are called to cast their votes for or against a bill, most of them seldom appear on
the floor.
Once elected to Congress members are neither responsible nor accountable to their
constituents and cannot be recalled or removed if they fail to live up to their
electoral pledges.

In each House of Congress there is a majority leader and a minority leader. This
Congressman leads in party debates, brings forward party programs and policies.
His advocacy of or opposition to proposed legislation indicates the party
preferences.

The floor leaders are assisted in their activities by special party officers called
“whips”. The whips keep track of all important legislation and see that all members
of their party are present when important measures are to be voted upon.

A Congress starts on January, 3 of each odd-numbered year and continues for two
years. Congress usually adjourns in the early summer. A session of Congress
usually means that both the Senate and the House are in session.

The Senate.

By the US Constitution each state is entitled to be represented by the Senators,

with no regard to the density of the state’s population and their job is to represent
the whole state.

The Constitution says that a Senator must be at least 30 years old, a citizen of the
USA for at east nine years, and a resident of the state from which he is elected.

Congressional elections are held every two years, but only one-third of the Senate
stands for election at two-year intervals. Senators are elected to six-year terms,
which overlap, thus assuring continuity. To senators from the same state never
finish their terms at the same time.

The Vice-President of the USA presides in the Senate. He is referred to as

“President of the Senate”. The Senate also elects from among its members a
President pro tempore, who presides during absences of the Vice-president of the
USA. Unlike the President of the Senate, President pro tempore participates in the
debates and votes, while the Vice-President can vote in the Senate only on case of
a tie vote.

Under the Constitution, The senate if granted certain powers, not accorded to the
House of Representatives.

Besides the legislative functions, which both Houses perform, the Senate is
entrusted with the power to ratify or reject treaties signed by the US president with
foreign states, a two-third majority of the Senators present being required for
ratification.

The Senate must also approve or disapprove by a majority vote the President’s
appointments of such high officials as ambassadors, Cabinet members and federal
judges.

The House of Representatives.

Today the number of members in the House of Representatives is 435. Members

are elected for a 2-year term. There is no limit to the number of times a Senator or
a Congressman may be re-elected.

A member of the lower House must be at least 25, a US citizen for seven years
and a resident of the state which elects him

The House elects from among its members a Speaker. He presides over the House,
puts motions to the vote and decides other important issues. The Speaker may vote
in case of a tie.

Besides the usual legislative functions, the House has a special power of its own.
Only a member of the House can introduce a bill to raise money, says the
Constitution. But a money-raising bill must in any case be passed by the Senate
before it can become a law.

How a bill becomes a law

Congress, being primarily a law-making body, has to deal with lots of legislative
proposals, which come in the form of bills.

“Bill” is the term for a measure, introduced by either House. To become a law,
each bill has to have three readings in each House, be approved by a Majority vote
in each House, and, normally, be signed by the President.

Thousands of bills are introduced into every Congress. They are drawn up by
pressure groups, interested citizens, congressional committees, individual
congressmen or by members of the executive branch.

Congressional committees play a most important role in the legislative process. In

fact, most of the work of preparing and considering legislation is done in
committee meetings. Here the bills are studied, sorted out, and recommendations
are made to the whole House.

There are 16 standing committees or permanent committees in the Senate and 20 in

the House. There are also 34 joint committees which function for both chambers.
Each committee sifts and sorts the bills it is responsible for.

The Legislative Process.

First, a bill must be introduced in the House or the Senate by one or a group of its
members.

The bill is sent to the Clerk of the House who gives it a number and a title. This is
the first reading, and the bill id referred to the proper committee.
The committee may decide the bill is unwise or unnecessary and table it, thus
killing it at once. Or it may decide the bill is worthwhile and hold hearings on the
bill. After members of the committee have debated the bill and, probably, offered
amendments, the bill is put to vote. If the vote is favorable, the bill is sent back to
the House.

There the Clerk reads the bill to the House sentence by sentence, and this is known
as the second reading. Members can debate the bill and offer amendments.

The third reading is by title only, and the bill is put to vote.

Then the bill goes to the other House of Congress, where it must have three
readings, too. It can be defeated there; it can be passed with amendments. In this
case a joint Congressional committee is appointed by both Houses to iron out the
differences.

After the final passage by both Houses, the bill is sent to the President. If he
approves it, he signs it, and the bill becomes a law. If not, he vetoes the bill. The
bill is sent back to the House of origin with the president’s reasons for the veto.
The objections are read and debated and then a vote is taken. If the bill receives
less than two-thirds of votes, it is defeated. But if it is approved by two-thirds of
vote, it is sent to the other House for a vote. If this house also passes the bill by at
least two-thirds of its voted, the presidential veto is overridden, and the bill
becomes a law.

However, if the President wishes neither to sign nor to veto a bill, he may retain it
for ten days, after which time it automatically becomes a law without his signature.

However, if Congress has adjourned within those ten days, the bill is automatically
killed. The process is known as a “pocket veto”.

Account should also be taken of the deliberate killing of a bill, opposed by a group
of politicians inside or outside the Capitol. There are quite a few informal devices
to block and undesirable bill. One of the most effective of such devices is resort to
obstructionalist tactics, nicknamed “filibustering”. To stop a bill its opponents in
the Senate take advantage of the freedom of unlimited debates and literally talk the
bill to death not to allow it to be voted upon.

Another way by which legislation is delayed is to use a tabling motion. In such a

way a bill is just put aside never coming to a vote. An unrelated “rider” – an
amendment having nothing to do with the bill’s main purpose – can be used to
bury it.

Ex.1 Answer the following questions:

1) What governmental body is vested with legislative power in the USA?

2) What is the business of Congress? What are its powers?
3) What chambers is Congress composed of? What is the difference between
the two chambers’ powers and functions?
4) What are the duties of a member of Congress?
5) What does it take to become a Congressman? A Senator?
6) What is a bill? How does it become a law?
7) Describe the role of Congressional committees and the types of committees
you know.
8) In what case does a bill automatically become a law?
9) What are direct and indirect ways to kill a bill?
10) What does “to override the President’s veto” mean?

Ex.2 Give English equivalents to the following expressions and illustrate their use:

1. быть облеченным властью

2. верхняя палата, нижняя палата
3. поправка к закону
4. законотворчество
5. быть уполномоченным
6. печатать деньги
7. малонаселенный/густонаселенный штат
8. выполнять предвыборные обещания
9. срок полномочий
10.отдать голос за (против)
11.закрываться ( о сессии Конгресса)
12.равный счет голосов
13.вносить на рассмотрение законопроект
 14.постоянно действующий комитет
15.сглаживать противоречия
16.отложить рассмотрение законопроекта
17.обсуждать законопроект
18.вносить поправки
19.ставить на голосование
20.наложить вето на законопроект
21.преодолеть вето
22.«карманное вето»
23.«заболтать» законопроект
24.блокировать принятие закона

Ex.3 Give Russian equivalents to the following:

1. to vest somebody with power

2. to raise money by means of taxes and borrowings
3. to appropriate funds
4. to elect by a direct popular vote
5. to overlap
6. party whip
7. to be accountable to somebody
8. to live up to one’s pledged
9. to adjourn
10.in case of a tie
11.to table a bill
12.to sift and sort bills
13.to iron out the differences
14.to veto a bill
15.to override a veto
16.“filibustering”
17.tabling motion
 Additional text.
Interest Groups and Lobbyists.

America is a democracy and quite often groups and individuals try to influence the
governmental policy and legislation. Organized interest groups can generally exert
influence much more effectively than isolated individuals can.

Interest groups are organized by people who want to influence public policy
decisions on special issues. There are many different types of interest groups in the
United States. The largest organizations are labor unions; business groups, such as
the United States Chamber of Commerce; farm groups, such as the National
Farmers' Union; and professional groups, such as the American Medical
Association. There are many issue-oriented groups with broad concerns such as the
environment, civil rights, and peace. Some interest groups focus on narrow issues
such as the preservation of historic buildings or the control of neighborhood crime.

What all the various interest groups have in common is the desire to sway public
opinion and political policy. The press, radio, and television are the most obvious
media through which interest groups may influence voters and politicians.
Members of interest groups also write letters to government officials, make
telephone calls, hold public meetings, and sponsor newspaper advertisements.

To exert direct pressure on legislators in Washington or in state capitals, a major

interest group may employ a professional lobbyist. A lobbyist, a lawyer or former
legislator, is someone who not only specializes in the interest he or she represents,
but also possesses an insider's view lawmaking process. Lobbyists work for
interest groups by keeping them informed about proposed legislation and by
talking to decision-makers about their group's concerns.

The term lobbyist often has a negative connotation. Public officials and others
sometimes resent lobbyists' interference. Yet lobbyists fulfill vital functions.
Besides voicing the concerns of a special group in society, they fulfill important
needs of decision-makers. Legislators and their staff frequently to lobbyists for
valuable data they would otherwise have to gather themselves. During the
committee stage in the legislative process, for instance, lobbyists are invited to
appear before congressional committees to provide advice, information, albeit one-
sided, which will help the committee make a decision.

While they are not mentioned in the Constitution, organized interest groups and
their lobbyists play a significant role in American democracy. The political party
system is another important part of the political scene which is not described in the
Constitution.
 Chapter III.
The Executive Branch.

The executive branch, which includes the President Vice-President and the
President’s Administration, is responsible for administrating and executing the
laws, passed by the US Congress.

The President is elected for a four-year term together with a Vice-President. He

may be re-elected for a second term of four years. The 22nd Amendment to the
Constitution, passed in 1951, limits the President to two terms.

The president must be a natural-born citizen (that is, born on the territory of the
USA), at least 35 years old and for at least fourteen years a resident of the United
States. The president’s term of office starts in January, 20, when he is sworn to
preserve, protect and defend the Constitution. The official residence of the
President is the White House in Washington, DC.

The Constitution gives the President many important powers. As the chief
executive, the president appoints secretaries of the major departments that make up
the presidents Cabinet. He also appoints senior officials of the many agencies in
the expansive bureaucracy.

As head of state, the president represents the country abroad, entertains foreign
leaders and addresses the public.

As director of foreign policy, he with consent of the Senate appoints ambassadors

to foreign countries and makes international treaties (they however must be ratified
by the Senate). He can establish or sever diplomatic relations with foreign powers.

As Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, the president has considerable

authority over military policy: without consulting Congress, he may send troops to
foreign soil, order naval and/or air forces to any part of the world, if he believes the
country’s security is jeopardized. However, to declare war is the business of
Congress.

The president is also the Chief Legislator. Formally, he cannot initiate legislation,
but he has the right to send a message to Congress. The major presidential
messages are the annual states of the union message, the annual budget message,
and the annual economic report. Through these messages the President outlines the
course of his administration. They serve as a guide to legislative action.

The vice-President is elected together with the president for a term of four years.
He presides over the Senate, where he votes only in the event of a tie. In fact, the
vice president has no other duties. But if the President dies, becomes disabled or
removed from office, the Vice-Present takes the President’s office.
 The President’s Cabinet.

The Secretaries of the major thirteen executive departments are known as “the
Cabinet”. Unlike in Great Britain, they are not members if the legislative body and
do not appear in the House to be questioned. However, they do appear before
committees of the two Houses to give testimony, if needed.

The 13 major departments in the executive branch are: the Department of State,
treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, and Health and
Human Services. Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy and
Education.

The Department of State ranks ahead of other departments in prestige and

importance. The power of the secretary of State is second only to that of the
President.

A Cabinet member’s term is not fixed, so he can be replaces by the President at

any moment, All secretaries are directly responsible to the President.

Ex.1 Answer the following questions:

1) What is the highest executive office in the USA?
2) What is the business of the executive branch?
3) Who can be elected President of the USA?
4) What powers are conferred on the US president by the Constitution?
5) Are powers of the US president limited in any way? How?
6) How can the president influence the legislative process?
7) What are the duties of the Vice-President?
8) Whose position is more important – that of the Vice-President or the
Secretary of State? Prove your point.
9) What kind of body is the Cabinet?
10) What are the 13 major departments? Are they equal in prestige and
importance?

Ex.2 Give English equivalents to the following expressions and illustrate their use:

1) орган исполнительной власти

2) приносить присягу
3) ставить под угрозу
 4) устанавливать/разывать дипотношения
5) с согласия Сената
6) верховный законодатель
7) выступить с послание к конгрессу
8) отстранить от должности
9) правительственный департамент
10) департамент (министерство) финансов

Ex.3 Give Russian equivalents to the following:

1) to administer and execute the law

2) natural-born citizen
3) to be sworn into the office
4) chief executive
5) to jeopardize security
6) to sever diplomatic relations
7) with consent of
8) to initiate legislation
9) to serve as a guide to legislative action
10) to rank ahead in prestige and importance
 Additional text.
Sum up the following text in 10 sentences:

SENATE
THE AMERICAN voters gave George Bush and the
Republican Party a pattern-breaking presidential victory
Tuesday but blurred the import of their decision by
cautiously opting once again for divided government in
Washington. The outcome of the long and expensive
struggle signaled little more than the start of a new
round of political warfare, one in which the White
House and Congress will wrestle for control of the policy agenda and both parties
will search for answers to vexing problems — like the budget deficit — which the
candidates sidestepped on the stump.
.. . the evidence suggests that the preference for divided government — with
Democrats looking after domestic needs in Congress
and the state capitals while Republicans manage the economy, defense and foreign
policy from the White House — may have had as much to do with the outcome as
any impressions created by the often-venomous campaign. An NBC News-Wall
Street Journal poll just before the election found voters by a 5-to-3 margin thought
it better for different parties to control the White House and Congress. Ken Adams,
35, a tire-store owner in Clarkston, Ga., and pro-Bush Democrat, spoke for many
when he said Tuesday, "I'd rather have a little argument going to work things out."
Echoed Karen Ekegren, 54, a Chicago office worker, "It's not good to have one
party in control."
Scholars of presidential elections said they were sure that
in-depth analysis of the unprecedented mass of polling data
this election generated will demonstrate that peace and
prosperity were the fundamental forces behind Bush's
victory. Six years of sustained economic growth, low
inflation and declining unemployment, coupled with improving relations between
the United States and the Soviet Union boosted President Reagan's popularity back
up from its Iran-Contra lows. And as Reagan's standing rose, so did support for his
loyal vice president.
William Galston, a professor of public affairs at the University of Maryland and
adviser to past Democratic presidential candidates, said, "All year long, the voters
felt the tension between general satisfaction with the present and vague but
pervasive anxiety about the future. In the end, the present trumped the future."
That left the question of mandate open to interpretation. Paul Wey-rich, a leading
conservative strategist, argued that "if the Democrats take the policy initiative on
the basis of their projected Senate gains, they will probably get somewhere with it.
They could say voters were deliberately tying Bush's hands because they were
worried what he might do." ...

Iran-Contra: a reference to a scandal of the Reagan presidency

when it was discovered that the U.S. had sold arms to Iran and
illegally diverted the profits to the contra rebels fighting the
Sandinista government of Nicaragua.
 Chapter IV.
Presidential elections in the USA

In compliance with the US Constitution the elections in the USA are based in
universal, equal adult suffrage with secret ballot.
The elections are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November of
the leap-year.
The main stages of the presidential campaign are:
1) Primaries, a direct primary election held in 22 states and the District of
Columbia. Primaries are usually conducted in February of the election year
in each of the contesting parties. Their purpose is to determine which
candidate is likely to get the biggest vote.
2) National convention, held by each party in July and August of the election
year. The Candidates from each party, who got the biggest popular vote
during the primaries, are officially nominated candidates for presidency.
After that they officially start election campaign.
3) Election of the electors, held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in
November. This stage is viewed as crucial
4) Election of the President by the Electoral College held on the first Monday
after the second Wednesday in December. The President is elected by
people’s representatives (electors), elected in November in every state.
5) A joint session of the Congress held on January, 6 to open the ballots and
officially announce the name of the next President.
6) Inauguration of the President held on January, 20, when he is sworn into the
office.
As was mentioned above the crucial stage is the election on electors, though
technically this is and election of the state Electoral College, not of a President
directly.
Each party, contesting the election, submits its own list of presidential electors,
They are usually prominent people living in the state. The party, whose list gets the
majority of votes of the state, wins, and the people on the list form the Electoral
College of this particular state.
The number of the electors chosen in each state equals the total number of senators
and congressmen who represent the state in Congress. Thus, the Electoral College
in each state is represented by members of one party only. Other parties have no
representation in the Electoral College. So the outcome of the presidential election
is generally known on the next day after the election of electors. It is not difficult
to count which candidate has secures the decisive number of electoral votes.
Formally, however, voting for the President takes place in the Electoral College in
early December. The ballot is secret, the electors vote in their state capitals. Then
their votes are sent to Congress. The President of the senate opens the ballots and
counts them in the presence of both houses on January, 6.
To be Elected President, a candidate must pole at least 270 votes of electors (a
simple majority of the 535 votes).
The newly elected President is then referred to as “President-elect”, and his
predecessor – “the acting President”, or, popularly, “the lame duck”.
The President-elect becomes President after his inauguration on January, 20.
Sometimes during the elections parties in the USA practice so called
gerrymandering. This is reapportioning of election districts, so as to give
themselves a majority of votes in a larger number of districts.
It is also worth mentioning, that American electoral laws provide for winning by a
plurality vote. Plurality means a sufficient number of votes but not necessarily a
majority. To win ht eelection, a contestant must pole more votes than the next
standing candidate. Thus, this system can give and electoral majority to a candidate
who doesn’t have a popular majority.
Exercise 1. Answer the following questions:
1) What principle are elections in the USA based on?
2) What stages does the presidential campaign include? Briefly characterize
them
3) Why is the third stage in the campaign viewed as crucial?
4) Who can become a member of the Electoral College? What is the role of
electors during the presidential campaign?
5) What is “gerrymandering”?
6) Explain the difference between a plurality vote and a majority vote

Exercise 2. Give English equivalents to the following expressions and illustrate

their use:
1) всеобщее равное избирательное право
2) тайное голосование
3) первичные (предварительные) выборы
4) партийный съезд
5) выдвигать кандидата в президенты
6) коллегия выборщиков
7) приводить к присяге
8) отдать голос за/против
9) относительное (простое) большинство
10) абсолютное большинство

Exercise 3. Give Russian equivalents to the following:

1) universal equal adult suffrage
2) primaries
3) national convention
4) to nominate a candidate
5) electoral college
6) Inauguration
7) To poll votes
8) Simple majority
9) Plurality/majority vote
10) Gerrymandering
 Additional text.
Briefly characterize the situation with political parties in the USA:

Historically, three features have characterized the party system in the United
States: 1) two major parties alternating in power; 2) lack of ideology; and 3)
lack of unity and party discipline. The United States has had only two major parties
throughout its history. When the nation was founded, two political groupings
emerged-the Federalists and Anti-Federalists. Since then, two major parties have
alternated in power.
For over one hundred years, America's two-party system has been dominated by
the Democratic and Republican Parties. Neither party, however, has ever
completely dominated American politics. On the national level, the majority party
in Congress has not always been the same as the party of the president. Even in
years when one party dominated national politics, the other party retained much
support at state or local levels. Thus, the balance between the Democrats and
Republicans has shifted back and forth
While minor parties, also called "third parties," have appeared from time to
time, and continue to appear, they have been conspicuous in their inability to
attract enough voters to enable them to assume power. Occasionally, a third party
candidate will win a seat in Congress or in a state legislature. Seldom, however,
have minor parties been successful for more than a short period of time. In most
cases, minor parties have been assimilated by the larger two or have just faded
away.
Some current third parties in the United States are the Socialist Labor Party, the
American Independent Party, the Libertarian Party, and the Peace and Freedom
Party
The way candidates are elected explains why two major parties have come
to dominate the American political scene. Elections are held according to the
single-member district system, based on the principle of "winner take all." Under
this system, only one candidate —the one with the most votes—is elected to a
given office from any one district. Many people will not vote for a minor party
candidate; they feel they are throwing away a vote since only one person wins.
The Democratic and Republican Parties have supporters among a wide variety
of Americans and embrace a wide range of political views.
The parties tend to be similar. Democrats and Republicans support the same
overall political and economic goals. Neither party seeks to shake the foundation of
America's economy or social structure.
Democrats and Republicans, however, often propose different means of
achieving their similar goals. Democrats generally believe that the federal
government and state governments should provide social and economic programs
for those who need them.
While Republicans do not necessarily oppose social programs, they believe that
many social programs are too costly for taxpayers. They tend to favor big business
and private enterprise and want to limit the role of government.
A poll taken in 1986 by Louis Harris and Associates reveals how Americans
perceive the stance of each party on certain key issues:
Because of these differences, Americans tend to think of the Democratic Party
as liberal and the Republican Party as conservative.
American party politics has been largely devoid of ideology. Several attempts at
developing an ideological party were unsuccessful. The Populist Party of the 1890s
and the Progressive Party of the early twentieth century gained only temporary
support. Senator Barry Goldwater, the Republican candidate in the 1964 election,
tried to imbue his party with the spirit and force of a conservative ideology. Yet the
election resulted in a landslide victory for Democratic candidate Lyndon Johnson.
These examples suggest that Americans tend to prefer somewhat vague party
programs to the rigors of political ideology.
A third characteristic of the American party system, which sometimes con-
founds foreign observers, is the lack of unity and discipline within each party.
Disagreement among members of the same party is common.
 The voting records of Congressmen and Senators demonstrate a baffling lack of
party unity. It is not uncommon for either a Democrat or a Republican to vote
against the party line. There are conservative Democrats who agree with
Republican ideas and liberal Republicans who agree with Democratic ideas.
Personal views and the views of constituents often have priority over party views.
The loose organization of America's political parties helps explain this lack of
unity within American parties, which contrasts sharply with more tightly-
organized, ideologically-oriented western European parties.
In the United States, parties are decentralized, with relatively few members.
Parties are organized as loose confederations of state parties, which, in turn, are
decentralized down to the local level. Local party committees, which are
numerous, are relatively independent of each other. Only during national elections
do party committees join together to clarify issues. Party leadership, insofar as it
can be located, is in the hands of a few officials and other notables.
The absence of an organized party structure and established hierarchy of leaders
contributes to party disunity. Furthermore, candidates and elected officials are not
held accountable for following the party line. Even at national party conventions,
no formally binding party platform is drawn up.
Party membership is equally undemanding. Republicans and Democrats
undergo no official initiation, pay no membership dues, and have no obligation to
attend meetings or even vote for the party. Identification with a particular political
party has less significance in the United States than in most other western
democracies.
Political parties, interest groups, and elections are opportunities for citizens to
participate in the democratic process. Many Americans, however, are politically
uninvolved.
Although every citizen has the right to vote, the percentage of the voting age
population that participates in elections is quite low. Voter turnout for presidential
elections is usually under 60 percent, and the percentage is even lower for state and
local elections.
 Several factors may contribute to these differences in voter participation:
—Unlike most of the nations shown on the graph, the United States requires
early voter registration.
—Election campaigns tend to be much longer in the United States than in many
other nations. After following campaigns that sometimes begin a year or more
before the election, many Americans lose interest and do not vote.
—American elections are always held on Tuesdays, a normal working day,
whereas elections in many other nations are held on weekends.
—The American two-party system may contribute to low voter turnout because
voters' choice is limited.
—The other democratic nations shown on the graph have parliamentary
systems, in which the outcome of the election determines both the executive and
legislative branches of government. Voters in these countries may feel that their
vote carries more weight.
The United States Constitution established a system in which the people have
the right, whether they exercise it or not, to influence the direction of government.
Sources used:
1. America in close-up. E.Fiedler, R.Jansen, M. Norman-Risch,

Longman group UK limited, 1990

2. А.Тольц. Госстрой США, М., МГПИИЯ, 1982

3. http://www.britannica.com/