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BI 302 Plant Biology

Plant cell structure and function

Key elements
• The basic anatomy of plant.

• The ultrastructure and functions of plant cell

organelles.

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Plant
Structure

Three major tissue systems make up the plant body

Dermal tissues
and ground
tissues are simple
tissues

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New cells are

produced by
actively dividing
tissues called
meristems

Plants are multicellular

• Multicellular: Different cells can have various functions,

but they must integrate their activities 6

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Three major tissue systems make up the plant body

Vascular tissues
are complex
tissues

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Plant cells – an overview

• Eukaryote organization. – nucleus, cytoplasm
subcellular organelles enclosed in a membrane.
• A rigid cell wall (cellulosic) and a protoplast (cell
contents).

• Cytoplasm is bound externally by the plasma

membrane, includes organelles, systems of
membranes and non membrane structures.

• Nucleus contains the genetic material. 9

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Plant cell under Transmission electron microscope

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Cell walls
• Each cell is surrounded by a rigid cell wall.
• Functions to provide structural support, size and structural
support.
• Made of complex polymers of cellulose, hemicellulose,
pectin, lignin and proteins.
• Primary cell walls are thin and flexible.
• Secondary cell walls are rigid (lignin).

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The major polysaccharides in the primary wall :

• Cellulose - a polysaccharide composed of 1,4-

linked β-D-glucose residues.

• Hemicellulose - branched polysaccharides

composed of 1,4-linked β-D-hexosyl residues.

• Pectin - a family of complex polysaccharides that

all contain 1,4-linked α-D-galacturonic acid.
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• Cellulose forms the bulk of the plant cell wall, and the microfibrils
themselves are embedded in a matrix/sheath composed of or
containing

• hemicelluloses
• pectins
• glycoproteins
• various enzymes
• lignins (in some cell walls--not all)
• cutins, suberins, waxes (in cells on the outside of the plant body)

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Hemicellulose
branched polysaccharides composed of 1,4-linked β-D-hexosyl residues

• Classified based on their component sugars - Xylose, mannose, and galactose form
the hemicellulose backbone; arabinose, glucuronic acid, and galactose form the
side chains.
• Limits the stretchiness of the cell wall by linking adjacent microfibrils and
preventing them from sliding against each other for unlimited distances.
• Involved in controlling cell enlargement.
• Digestibility/fermentability of the hemicelluloses (by intestinal microflora) is also
influenced by the particular sugars and their positions. For example, hexose and
uronic acid are more readily recognized by bacterial enzymes than the other
hemicellulose sugars, so hemicelluloses containing them are more easily broken
down by bacteria.
• Most are not, though that is why hemicellulose-rich foods such as wheat bran and
whole grains do what they do.

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Pectin
A family of complex polysaccharides that all contain 1,4-linked α-D-galacturonic acid.

• Water-soluble, highly hydrophilic polysaccharides, it forms gels in solution.

Because pectins attract so much water, they are responsible for the
spongy, flexible nature of growing plant cells (the walls of which may be
more than 65% water).

• Pectin backbone - unbranched chain of D-galacturonic acid units. Other

carbohydrates (mostly simple sugars) may be linked to the backbone, and
affect the pectin's particular properties.

• Pectins form part of the primary cell wall of plants

and most of the middle lamella between adjacent
cells. They're sort of like cellular glue.

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Cell wall
composition
and structure

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2 types of cell walls

• Primary and secondary walls.

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Primary cell wall – thin wall formed when cells are growing.
• Less than 1µm thick.
• Contains 9-25 % percent cellulose.
• Long unbranched cellulose bound together- microfibrils.
• Found in young growing cells, some storage cells,
photosynthetic cells and parenchyma cells.

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Secondary cell walls – several micrometers thick.

• Consists of 41 – 45% cellulose, 30% hemicelluloses and in
some cases 22 to 28 % lignin.
• Tougher due to lignin.
• Resistant to changes in form.
• Found in mature woody plant cells, xylem tissues that
have finished growing.

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• Each walled cell and its

adjacent cell are
cemented together by a
middle lamella.

• Middle lamella –
contains pectin
substances that cement
the adjacent cells
together.

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Lignified xylem provides structural support for

vascular plants

St. Paul’s Cathedral 111 m

Statue of Liberty 93 m
115 m Sequoia sempervirens

The tallest living trees

tower over many
familiar monuments

Sydney Opera House 65 m Taj Mahal 65 m

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Plasmodesmata
• Plasmodesmata (singular, plasmodesma) are narrow
channels that act as intercellular cytoplasmic bridges aid
in symplastic transport.

• About 40-50nm in size.

• Traverse the cell wall and

connect the cytoplasms
(symplast) of adjacent cell.

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• Serve in translocation and allow certain molecules to pass

directly from one cell to another.
• Important in cellular communication.
• Lined by plasma membrane and traversed by a
desmotubule from the endoplasmic reticulatum (ER).

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• Each plasmodesmata contains a tubule of endoplasmic reticulum

that is continuous with the ER of adjacent cell.
• Symplast joins the cytosol of neighbouring cells and the contents of
ER lumens as well.
• The size exclusion limit (SEL) of plasmodesmata is about 1.5nm to
2.0nm.

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Plasma membrane
• Composed of two layers of
phospholipids (lipids with two fatty
acids covalently linked to glycerol) –
fluid mosaic model.

• The two layers of phospholipids are

arranged with the “heads” on the
outside and the “tails” on the inside.

• Head group is the variable

component and may have serine,
choline, glycerol or inositol. (polar
and hydrophilic).

• Fatty chains form the nonpolar

hydrophobic region. 29

Chloroplast membranes are unique and composed

entirely of glycosylglycerides instead of phospholipids .

Polar head group

Phospholipids Glycosylglycerides 30

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• Protein molecules are interspread, some going all the way to both sides,
some not (integral, peripheral and anchored).

• Integral proteins - passing all the way through

aid in passage of certain ions (ion channels).

• Peripheral proteins - bound to the membrane

surface by non-covalent bonds and can be
dissociated from the membrane surface by
chaotropic agents. Interact with plasma
membrane and components of cytoskeletons.

• Anchored proteins bound covalently to the

membrane surface via lipids , includes fatty
acids such as lipids include fatty acids
(myristic acid and palmitic acid) and prenyl groups. 31

Embedded proteins in a phospholipid bilayer

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Different types of anchored membrane proteins

Membrane fluidity plays a critical role

in membrane functions.
• Plant cell membranes are more fluid then animal cell
membranes.

• Fluidity is increased by a cis double bond in one of the fatty

acid chains.

• Plant phospholipids have a high percentage of unsaturated

fatty acids (such as oleic acid and linoleic acid) which increase
the fluidity of membranes (maintains fluidity in low
temperatures).

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Cis Double bonds

(unsaturated)

No double bonds
(Saturated)

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Comparison with animal cell membrane

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Plasma membrane Functions

• Serves as an envelope enclosing the cytoplasm.
• Transport. Controls passage of molecules, fluxes of ions and
metabolites into and out of the cell, preventing some and promoting
others (selectively permeable).
• Delimit boundaries of specialized internal organelles regulating passage
of ions and metabolites.
• Coordinates the synthesis of cell wall microfibrils.

Overview of the various

transport process on the plasma
membrane and tonoplast of
plant cells

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Overview of the various transport process on the plasma membrane and tonoplast of plant cells

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Nucleus
• Contains the genetic
information primarily
responsible for regulating the
metabolism, growth, and
differentiation of the cell –
nuclear genome

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Arabidopsis thaliana – the model plant

• The sequence of the first plant genome was

completed and published at the end of 2000.
25,000+ genes identified in Arabidopsis thaliana
(Arabidopsis).
• Small plant belongs fto family Cruciferae.
• Relatively smaller and simpler genome.
• Genome size: Nuclear- 125 Mb, Plastid- 154 kb,
mitochondria- 367 KB.
• Low amount of repetitive DNA.
• Susceptible to T-DNA insertions.
• Basic similarities to other crops.
• Larger no. of offsprings and short generation time.
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Plant genomes are variable in sizes

Source;
Altschul, S.F., Madden, T.L., Scha¨ ffer, A.A., Zhang, J., Zhang, Z., Miller, W., Lipmanm, D.J., 1997. Gapped BLAST and
PSIBLAST: a new generation of protein database search programs. Nucleic Acids Res. 25 (17), 3389–3402. 42

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• The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane called

the nuclear envelope.
• Perinuclear space – space between the two membranes
of the nuclear envelope.
• The two membranes of the nuclear envelope join at sites
called nuclear pores.

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Anatomy of nuclear envelope Anatomy of nucleus

• The nuclear “pore” is composed of more than a hundred

different proteins arranged octagonally to form a nuclear pore
complex.
• The central “plug” of the complex acts as an active (ATP driven)
transporter that facilitates the movement of macromolecules
and ribosomal subunits both into and out of the nucleus.

Nuclear pores from onion cells

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Structure of nuclear pore complex

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• Nuclei contain a densely granular region, called the

nucleolus (plural nucleoli), that is the site of ribosome
synthesis. (usually one or more nucleoli per nucleus in a
cell).

• Each 80S ribosome is made of a large and a small subunit,

and each subunit is a complex aggregate of rRNA and
specific proteins. The two subunits exit the nucleus
separately, through the nuclear pore, and then unite in the
cytoplasm to form a complete ribosome.

• Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.

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Ribosomes
• Small ellipsoidal particles 17—23 nm in
diameter.

• About 60% of mass is RNA, the rest mostly

protein.

• Considered an organelle, but not membrane

bounded.

• Located floating in the cytoplasm, on the rough

ER, in other organelles, and on the nuclear
membrane.

• Comprise two subunits made of RNA and

proteins.

• The two parts function in assembling proteins

by reading (transcribing) messenger RNA and
putting the amino acids in the correct order 46

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The "S" stands for svedbergs, a unit used to measure how fast molecules
move in a centrifuge.

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Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

• Three dimensional membrane system
within the cell.
• Network of internal membrane that
form flattened sacs and tubes creating
channels and creating sub
compartments.
• Membranes of the ER are typical lipid
bilayers with interspersed integral and
peripheral proteins.
• Flattened or tubular sacs known as
cisternae (singular cisterna).
• ER is continuous with the outer
membrane of the nuclear envelope.

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Two kinds of ER
Rough ER (RER)
• Is covered with ribosomes that are actively engaged
in protein synthesis.
• RER tends to be lamellar (a flat sheet composed of
two unit membranes).
• Predominates in cells storing proteins.

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Two kinds of ER
Smooth ER (SER)
• Is mostly without ribosomes and tends to be tubular.
• Functions in making lipids.
• Predominates in cells that secrete lipids

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Golgi apparatus
• Golgi apparatus or golgi complex -collective term for golgi bodies.
• Flattened membrane sacs (cisternae) and an irregular network of
tubules and vesicles (called trans Golgi network: TGN).
• Polarized membrane system with one side facing the nucleus (cis) &
the other (trans) the plasma membrane.

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Distinct functional regions

• trans face – cisternae closest to the plasma membrane
• cis face - cisternae closest to the centre of the cell.
• medial - cisternae between trans and cis.
• Intercisternal elements – protein cross links that hold and stabilize
the cisternae structure

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Golgi functions
• Synthesis and secretion of complex polysaccharides.

• Assembly of oligosaccharide side chains of glycoproteins.

• Secretory vesicles from Golgi carry polysaccharides and

glycoproteins to the plasma membrane, vesicles fuse
with plasma membrane and empty the contents into the
cell walls.

• Vesicles also transport storage protein to protein –

storing vacuoles.
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Plant cells have several hundred separate Golgi

bodies dispersed throughout the cytoplasm

Distribution of Golgi bodies within two Nicotina

root cells shown by immunofluorescence labeling
with a monoclonal antibody.

From Drupee P and Sherrier D. J. 1998. The plant Golgi apparatus.

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 259-270

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Chloroplast
• Found only in plants and algae.

• Double membrane organelles called plastids.

• Several kinds concerned with storage and

photosynthesis.

• Usually 75 to 125 per cell is common, more

than that in algae, and up to several hundred
in some plants.

• Membranes contain chlorophyll and are sites

of photosynthesis.
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• Colourless liquid matrix called

stroma contains enzymes.

• Grana are stacks of discs with double

membranes known as thylakoids.
Each granum contains stacks of 2 to
100 thylakoids.

• Grana are connected by unstacked

membrane called stroma lamellae.

• Has one small circular strand of DNA

for synthesizing proteins related to
synthesis of proteins used in
photosynthesis and other activities.
(semiautonomous) 57

Diagrammatic representation of
chloroplast showing the complexity
of organization and the thylakoid
membrane

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Plastid types vary during plant development

• Meristem cells have proplastids (few internal membranes, no
membrane and lack complete enzymes). In higher plants proplastids
develop in chloroplast upon illumination.
• Etioplasts (formed in seeds germinating in dark)
• Chloroplast converts to chromoplast (autum leaves and fruit ripening)
• Amyloplasts converts to chloroplasts when exposed to light.

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Mitochondria
• Double membrane organelle, that is involved in cells energy
generation.
• Inner membrane forms cristae (partitions). These increase
surface area for enzymes to work.
• Matrix also contains DNA, RNA, ribosomes, proteins, and
dissolved substances. (semiautonomous)
• Energy is released in cellular respiration inside them.

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The Mitochondria
• Contain their own DNA and
protein-synthesizing machinery
– Ribosomes, transfer RNAs,
nucleotides.
– Thought to have evolved
from endosymbiotic
bacteria.
– Divide by fusion
– The DNA is in the form of
circular chromosomes, like
bacteria
– DNA replication is
independent from DNA
replication in the nucleus

The Mitochondria
Site of Cellular Respiration
• This process requires oxygen.
• Composed of three stages:

– Glycolysis--glucose splitting, occurs

in the cell. Glucose is converted to
Pyruvate.

– Krebs cycle--Electrons are

removed--carriers are charged and
CO2 is produced. This occurs in
the mitochondrion.

– Electron transport--electrons are

transferred to oxygen. This
produces H2O and ATP. Occurs in
the mito.

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Semiautonomous nature of mitochondria and

chloroplast is believed to have originated from
endosymbiotic bacteria

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Central Vacuole
• Large and water filled makes up to 80
to 90% of cell contents.

• Bounded by vacuolar membranes

(tonoplast) single, and similar to cell
membrane.

• Filled with cell sap, slightly to

moderately acidic.

• Immature cells (meristematic tissues)

have small vacuoles (provacuoles) that
combine in growth. 65

Vacuole functions
• Contains water, dissolved inorganic ions, organic acids, sugars,
enzymes and secondary metabolites.
• Maintains turgor pressure through osmosis.
• Primary site for pigment deposition.
• Sometimes contains water-soluble pigments called anthocyanins
that cause the colors of aging leaves and flowers.
• Also contains hydrolytic enzymes – proteases, ribonucleases and
glycosidases.
• Protein storing vacuoles
(protein bodies) are abundant
in seeds.
• Required for plant cell
enlargement
Plasmolysed cells showing the shrunken vacuoles 36 66

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Microbodies
• Spherical organelles bounded by single membranes
(Perioxisomes and glycoxysomes, oleosomes)
• Specialized for one of several metabolic functions.
• Perioxisomes function in oxidative reactions.
• Glycosomes convert fatty acids into sugars (present in oil-
storing seeds).
• Oleosomes made up of phospholipid monolayer, function in oil
storage during seed development.

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Cytoskeletons
• Filamentous proteins – microtubules, microfilaments and
intermediate filaments.

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Cytoskeletons
Three main components:
• Microtubules: are a and b proteins
that create scaffolding in a cell.
MTs are formed from the protein
tubulin. 13 rows of tubulin =1
microtubule

• Microfilaments: solid (7 nm) made

from G-actin protein. Consists of 2
chains of actin subunits that
intertwine in a helical fashion

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Cytoskeletons
• Intermediate filaments: a
diverse group of helically
wound linear proteins.
• Dimers line up parallel to
each other.
• These form anti-parallel
Tetramers.
• These join together to form a
filament.

Cytoskeletons
• All these elements can assemble and disassemble
• Microtubules function in mitosis and cytokinesis.
• Microfilaments function in cytoplasmic streaming and tip growth.
• Intermediate filaments occur in the cytosol and nucleus of the plant
cells.
• Involved in plant cell division
– During mitosis - Process of division that produces two daughter
cells with identical chromosomal content of parent cell

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