INTRODUCTION

Brewer’s spent grain (BSG) is defined as the extracted residue of barley malt, alone or in
mixture with other cereal grains such as corn and rice grits, resulting from the manufacture of
wort. Although it is the main by-product of the brewing industry, BSG has received little
attention as a marketable commodity. Its disposal is often a problem and it is used mainly as an
animal feed. BSG commonly contains 26-30% protein, so it can hardly be considered spent. BSG
is a barley fibre source with high dietary fibre content. It consists mainly of the husk, bran and
embryo residual of the barley kernel. BSG could be useful for increasing both dietary fibre and
protein in human nutrition through the use of this material in some formulated foods.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The process of making biscuit comprises of various unit operations. Following the
formulation, the raw materials are carefully measured out and mixed in the dough mixer. The
dough when formed is passed through the moulds. This is then stamped either before or after
cutting depending on the design of the plant. The dough pieces are taken to the oven where they
are baked for at least 10-15 minutes at 200-250oC temperatures. This however depends on the
type and thickness of the biscuit to be produced. The baked biscuits are removed and sorted out.
They are then packed in polyethylene or waxed paper previously printed and finally sealed on
the sealing machine. The wrapped biscuits are in turns packed in cartons and taken to the market.

2.2 SELECTION OF PROCESS ROUTE

Basically, the technology of biscuit production involves the thorough mixing of the wheat
four or other cereals (that can serve the same purpose) with other ingredients and additives. After
the mixing operation the dough is extruded and shaped to fancy, how be it with some restriction
in size and thickness. These shaped dough are then dried to reduce the water content and
invariably browning. The biscuits are then packaged as desired and ready for market. This
process demand the following unit operations and auxiliary services:

1. Surface tanks [2]

2. mixing equipment [3]
3. extruder
4. Cutting equipment
5. stamping equipment [6]
6. drying oven
 7. Sealing machines [8]
8. trays, rollers or conveyor

The flow of material through this equipment (units) is determined with the aim of having
optimum production cost and best quality of products. This influences the choice of optimum
process route. This route is chosen after answering the following questions:

2.3 CHOICE OF PROCESS ROUTE

The choice of process route for the biscuit plant is basically dependent on the size of the
plant i.e. capacity. The basic process route (arrangement) of mixer, extruder, stamp, drying and
packaging is universally well known and documented. However, depending on plant capacity,
the type of unit used becomes important. The use of other equipment such as pumps for supply
of water to mixer, the need for continuous flow of materials, recycling e.t.c. are factors to be
considered. Therefore in the design of the best process route, the route chosen should be seem to
be at par with other known good techniques used in the biscuit industries, it is safe from both
operational, human and environmental hazards, the technique is not technologically demanding.
The only improvement may be the use of sophisticated equipment, which is not wise considering
the economy of the proposed plant capacity.

Therefore the choice of the optimum route has been done based on breaking down the
technology in unit operations. Each unit is properly examined to choose the best that will be
compatible with others.

Optimal operation of the processing technique.

Figure. Block diagram of biscuit production

 4.1 CHOICE OF EQUIPMENT

In any production process, the choice of the equipment from the different types is very
important, so as to meet the production capacity target, ensure good quality of product, maximise
cost, durability, safety to life and property and cost of production. Equipment are built with
different sizes and shapes, they are designed on different working principle or operation, which
are therefore characteristic of the use to which it will be applied. It is therefore important to
know the nature of the material in the process and the equipment type that will serve ones
purpose.

4.2 DOUGH AND PASTE

 Dough and paste are mixed in machines, which have of necessity, to be heavy and
powerful. Because of the large power requirements, it is particularly desirable that the motor
posses reasonable efficiency; as the power dissipated in the form of heat may cause substantial
heating of the product. Such machines may require jacketing mixer to remove as much heat as
possible with cooling water.

The important principle in these machines is that the material has to be divided and
folded and also displaced so that fresh surfaces recombine as often as possible.

EXTRUDER

Extrusion is an operation in which a mass of plastic or semi soft material inside heavy
walled cylindrical container is forced to flow through an orifice (die or mould) at one end of the
container as a result of pressure applied to the material by a piston (ram) acting at the other end
of the container. The process is often successful on materials, which are too brittle to work by
other shaping methods such as rolling. The instruments for this process are generally called
extruders. They may come in many shapes and work with different principles e.g. the extrusion
mixer, presses the material via a kneader.

Extrusion is well suited to producing long bars of constant cross section. The shape of the
cross section, which is determined by the die opening, may be quite complex. The force required
for extrusion may be supplied by a hydraulic cylinder, which drives the ram.

The material to be extruded must have sufficient plasticity so that it begins to flow
through the die at a pressure less than the breaking point of the material. The ram pressure should
not be above 180,000lb/m2. The die is another limiting feature of the process since it may lose
its shape if pressure and temperature becomes excessive and abrasive wear may occur.

The pressure (force/area) required for extrusion is a function of the stiffness of the
material, surface friction and changes in cross sectional are from the billet to the rod or shaped
material.

A useful expression is P = KlnR.

Where R = Ratio of the initial to final cross sectional areaPowerful presses up to 15,000 tonnes
capacity are used for extrusion, but the most common size is about 2,500 tonnes. Suitable
lubricants (ground nut oil) must be used to reduce extrusion force, increase die life and give
better surface on the extruded product. In general the force required to overcome friction, even in
well-lubricated operation is about 25% of total force.

Extruded product are usually or sometimes used as extruded, but it is more common
practice to employ a subsequent cold working operation, such as drawing to improve the surface
finish and to get greater dimensional accuracy or desired thickness.

OVEN (DRYER)

Drying (baking) is the removal of volatile substances (moisture) by heat from a mixture
that yields a solid product (biscuit). Dryers are classified by:

(1) HEATING METHOD: The manner whereby the moist material removes heat i.e. by
conduction heating from the sheets or very wet material. Convective heating is the most
common, where mild heating is necessary to avoid heavy degraded product, and radiation drying
is used in the microwave oven (Macrea and Robbinson, 1997).

(2) PROCESS CONDITION: The pressure and temperature of operation which are constrained
however by the nature of the materials to be dried. The thermal sensitivity of the material fixes
the maximum temperature to which the material may be heated. The temperature rises with the
time the material is held in the dryer.

(3) CONVEYING METHOD:

The way the material is loaded or supported in the dryer.

The outward appearance of the dryer depends largely upon the way the drying material
moves through the equipment. Free flowing granules can be handled in many ways (conveyor,
rolling, trays etc), but more awkward materials often require special techniques.
 Most modern dryers are operated continuously or semi-continuously over the working
tray, as a continuous dryer will require less labour, fuel and floor space than the batch dryers.
Certain factors are considered in the selection of dryer for particular purpose, they are:

(1) Feed Condition: is it solid, liquid, paste powder, crystals etc.

(2) Feed Concentration, the initial liquid content.
(3) Product Specification, dryers required, physical form.
(4) Throughput Required.
(5) Heat Sensitivity of The Product.
(6) Nature of Vapour, toxicity and flow ability.
(7) Nature of the Solid: flammability (dust explosion hazard), toxicity.

CONVEYOR DRYERS(CONTINUOS CIRCULATION BAND DRYERS)

The conveyor dryer (oven) has been chosen for the production of one tonne of biscuit per
day, because of the complete accessories it has to offer. In this type the solids are fed onto the
endless, perforated conveyor belt, through which hot air is forced. The belt is housed in a long
rectangular cabinet, which is divided into zones, so that the flow pattern and temperature of the
drying air can be controlled. The relative movement through the dryer of the solids and drying
air can be parallel or more usually counter-current (Marcel and Dekkar, 1987).

This type of dryer is clearly only suitable for materials that form a belt with an open
structure. High drying rate can be achieved with good product quality control. Thermal
efficiency are high and with steam heating, steam usage can be as low as 1.5 per Kg of water
evaporated.

COST OF PRODUCTION
RAW MATERIALS

The main raw materials for the production of biscuit are flour, sugar, additives, water,
baking powder and yeast. Wheat flour and sugar are produced locally and this will reduce the
overall cost of production. Additives include; flavouring, shortening, colourants and modifiers,
which are also obtained locally while water, baking powder and yeast, are readily available.
Most of these materials are locally produced (although most of them are still imported to meet
the demand of the populace) and thus help reduce the overall cost of production and
consequently produce biscuit at a cheaper rate, but putting into consideration that they must of
necessity be good food grade and hygienic.

LABOUR COST

In estimating the labour requirement and cost for plant personnel, a one eight hour shift was
assumed for the direct production workers. The indirect production workers will also operate a
single shift for eight hours.

WASTE MANAGEMENT

This is a newer approach to cost-effective food-processing waste disposal. Through waste

management, modifications are applied to biscuit plant operation and manufacturing processes.
These modifications reduce the amount of solid and liquid wastes, recover more product and by-
products, often reduce energy consumption and exhibit other benefits. In general, the principle is
to convert waste liabilities into profitable assets. One major objective of waste management is to
eliminate or at least lessen the dependence upon end-of-the-pipe sanitary engineering methods.
This is achieved by reducing both the amount of waste solids generated and the volume of the
waste water discharged.

The following are examples of modifications, which can be made to biscuit plant
operations:

1. Incorporating good manufacturing practices

2. collecting culls and other solid wastes into containers rather than discharging to the floor
drain,
3. recycling water
4. reusing spent process water in another plant operation and
5. using less or no water in plant operations that formerly used a fair to a large amount of
water.
 Good manufacturing practices that reduce water usage and waste require good personnel
management and employee awareness of conservation practices. Such practices as needless use
of water or overloading of containers, thereby causing spillage, should be discouraged.
Recycling of water in the same plant operation can be achieved by treating spent process water
with activated charcoal or sand filter or by ion-exchange columns, chemical treatment, pH
adjustment, temperature adjustment, pasteurisation, or a combination of these and other methods.

Counter currents water reuse systems can be established in many plant operations. For
example, spent wash water can be used again to initiate wash down of dirty floors or to flume
solid waste away from the process line.

PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTION

The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project, and the
scope for future expansion. The principal factors are:

1. Location with respect to the marketing area

2. Raw material supply
3. Transport facility
4. Availability of labour
5. Availability of utilities (water, fuel, power etc.)
6. Availability of suitable land
7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal
8. Climate
9. Political and strategic consideration

MARKETING AREA

For a product such as biscuit in which case the product per tonne is low the plant should
be located close to the primary market.

RAW MATERIALS

The availability of suitable raw materials will often determine the site location. A plant
that will produce biscuit should be sited close to where the major raw materials are available.
TRANSPORTATION

The transport of materials and products to and from the plant is an overriding
consideration in site location. The plant should be located close to at least two major forms of
transport: road, rail, waterway (canal and river) or airport. Choosing at least two will be an added
advantage for the two cannot be out of service at the same time.

AVAILABILITY OF LABOUR

Labour will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled workers will
be brought in from outside the site area, but there should be an adequate pool of unskilled labour
locally and labour suitable for training, to operate the plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for
plant maintenance.

UTILITIES

A biscuit plant invariably requires large quantities of water for its operation (process and
general use). Hence the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable quality. Process
water may be drawn from borehole or purchased from local authority. Electrical power will be
needed for the plant production process (mixer, electric pumping machine, oven heater etc.) and
also for lightings.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Full consideration must be given to the difficulties and cost of disposal of biscuit plant's
by-product.

LAND (SITE) CONSIDERATION

Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant and for future expansion,
the land should be ideally flat, well drained and have suitable load bearing characteristics.

CLIMATE

Since weather in Nigeria is neither too hot nor too cold, the site consideration in form of
climate can be neglected since the raw materials will not degrade in quality over the little time
for storage and production. Also the country is not situated within the earthquake region of the
world.

POLITICAL AND STRATEGIC CONSIDERATION

Capital grants and other inducement are often given by government to direct new
investment to preferred area or locations such as high unemployment prone zone. The
availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection.

SITE LAYOUT

The biscuit industry and ancillary building should be laid out to give the most economical
flow of material and personnel around the site. Consideration must also be given to the future
expansion of the biscuit factory. The ancillary buildings and services required on a site in
addition to the main processing units (buildings) will include:

1. Storage for raw materials and products

2. Maintenance workshop
3. Stores for maintenance and operating supplies
4. Laboratory for process control
5. Fire station and other emergency services
6. Utilities (storage tank, cooling water, steam)
7. Effluent disposal plant
8. Offices for general administration
9. Canteens, car park, security post etc.

When roughing out the biscuit factory layout the process unit will normally be sited first and
arranged to give a smooth flow of material through the various processing steps, from raw
material to final step.

The location of principal ancillary buildings should then be decided. They should be arranged
so as to minimize the time spent by personnel in travelling between buildings. The sitting of the
main process route will determine the layout of the plant roads, pipe alleys and drains. Access
roads will be needed to each building for construction, operation and maintenance. Utility
buildings should be sited to give the most economical runs of pipes to and from the process units.
The main storage area should be placed between the loading and unloading.

OVERALL BALANCE

The composition of the feed is as listed in chapter three. From the material balance
carried out it can be seen that to get a product of 1000 kg (1 tonne) of biscuit, a feed mass of
1357.15 kg of the raw material is required. This will require the following mass of feed:

[1] Flour 678.58 kg (50%)

[2] Sugar 27.14 kg (2%)

[3] Water 407.15 kg (30%)
[4] Baking powder 27.14 kg
[5] Addition/modifier 217.14 kg

MATERIAL BALANCE

Taking a basis of 1000 kg of feed; the masses of the feed based on the composition is:

(a) Flour = 50%=500 kg

(b) Sugar = 2.0%=20 kg
(c) Water = 30%=300 kg
(d) Baking powder = 2.0%=20 kg
(e) Additives = 16%=160 kg
Additives includes flavouring, shortening (about 14%), colourants and modifiers includes
salts (about 1.0%), eggs, milk, glucose and fat (Thet are added in very small quantities
depending on the types of biscuits)

Initial moisture content = 30%=300 kg

Final moisture content = 5% = 50kg
300 kg of moisture is associated with 700 kg of dough
300 kg ---> 700 kg (i.e. 300 kg + 700 kg = 1000 kg)
50 kg ---> 950 kg of dry matter (i.e. 50 + 950 =1000 kg)
==> (50 x 700)/950 =36.84 kg moisture associated with 700 kg
1000kg of original matter must loss (300-36.84)=263.16 kg of moisture
==> weight of dried matter leaving the dryer =1000-263.16 =736.84 kg
Working backward,
0.30T ---> 0.70T
0.05T ---> 0.95T
Y=(0.05T x 0.70T) / 0.95T =0.0368T
x of the original matter must loss (407.15-49.998) = 357.15kg
0.3T - 0.0368T = 357.15 kg
(0.3-0.0368) = 357.15 kg
T= 357.15/0.2632=1356.95 kg
The difference (1000-736.84) =263.16 kg of moisture lost

The difference (1356.95-357.15)= 999.8 kg of biscuit, this value is 0.2 short of the
expected 1000kg. This means that the original feed must be (1356.95 + 0.2)= 1357.15 kg.

HEAT BALANCE

Heat capacity = ((4.19 P) +(0.84(100-P)))/100, where P= moisture content of biscuit dough

=30%

Heat capacity=((4.19x30)+(0.84(100-30)))/100=1.845 kJ/kgoC

Latent heat = 335P/100= 335x30/100=100.50 kJ/kgoC

Heat required for 1kg original material:
= Heat energy to raise temp. to 100oC + Latent heat to vaporise water = m1Cp0 + m2L
=1 x 1.845(100-30) + (357.17 x 2257)/1357.15 = 715.97 kJ (kW/s)
The heat required in baking 1357.15kg = 1357.15x1.845(240-30) + 357.17 x 2257
= 525827.77+806132.69 = 1331960.46 kJ
Since 10% of moisture is lost the overall heat balance over the oven is:
m1=(1357.15-(1357.15x10)/100 = 1221.44 kg
me=(357.17 - (357.17x10)/100 = 321.453 kg
Heat = 1221.44 x 1.845 (240-30)+ 321.453x2257 =1198766.35 kJ
 From the material balance carried out, to get a product of 1000kg (1 tonne) of biscuit we
will need to feed a mass of about 1492.96 kg of the raw material. This will require the following
mass of feed:

[1] Flour 746.48 kg [2] Sugar 298.59 kg

[3] Water 447.84 kg [4] Baking powder 29.86 kg
[5] Addition/modifier 238.87 kg

The loss is estimated at 134.85 kg to make up to 1492.96 (1357.15 + 134.85)

OVERALL MATERIAL BALANCE

In a hourly basis:

Mass in
Total material in = (1492.96/8) =186.62 kg/hr
Total dry solid in = (1045.12/8) =130.64 kg/hr
Total water in = (447.84/8)= 55.98 kg/hr

Mass out
Total material out = (1100/8) = 137.5 kg/hr
Total dry solid out = (1045/8) = 130.63 kg/hr
Total water out = (55/8) = 6.875 kg/hr
Loss = 49.11 kg/hr

UNIT MATERIAL BALANCE

MIXER

Mass in
Total material in = 1492.96 kg
Water in = (30% of 1492.96) = 447.84 kg
Solid in = (70% of 1492.96) = 1045.12 kg
Since there is no loss in the mixer
Material in = material out
1492.96 kg = 1492.96 kg
On an hourly basis:
Total material in = Total material out
Water in = Water out = 55.98 kg/hr
Solid in = Solid out = 130.64 kg/hr

EXTRUDER

Mass in
Water in = 447.84 kg
Solid in = 1045.12 kg
Total material in = (447.84 + 1045.12)=1492.96 kg
Mass out
Water out = 261.25 kg
Solid out = 1045 kg
Losses = 186.71 kg
Total material out =(1045 +261.25)= 1306.25 kg
On a hourly basis:
Water in = (447.84/8) = 55.98 kg/hr
Solid in = (1045.12/8) =130.64 kg/hr
Material in (total) =(55.98 + 130.64)= 186.62 kg/hr
Water out = (261.25/8)= 32.66 kg/hr
Solid out =(1045/8)= 130.63 kg/hr ; Losses = (186.71)/8=23.34 kg/hr
Total material out =32.66 + 130.63 = 163.29 kg/hr
DRYER
Basis: 1000kg/hr of product
Water in = 261.25 kg
Solid in = 1045.00 kg
Total material in = (261.25 + 1045)=1306.25 kg
Water out = 55 kg
Solid out = 1045 kg
Total material out =(55+1045) = 1100 kg
On a hourly basis:
Material in = 1306.25/8= 163.28 kg/hr
Material out =1100/8= 137.50 kg/hr
Dry solid in = 1045/8=130.63 kg/hr
Dry solid out =1045/8=130.63 kg/hr
Water in = 261.25/8= 32.656 kg/hr
Water out =55/8= 6.875 kg/hr

ENERGY BALANCE
OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE
HEAT GENERATED FOR THE MIXER + HEAT GENERATED FOR THE EXTRUDER +
HEAT GENERATED FOR THE DRYER = TOTAL HEAT LOAD
80568 + 469800 + 99990.824 = 650358.824 kJ/hr

UNIT ENERGY BALANCES

MIXER
Heat in = 80568 kJ/hr
Heat load in dough = 4226.72 kJ/hr
Heat loss in mixer = 76341.28 kJ/hr

EXTRUDER
Heat in = Heat out
Heat generated in extruder = Heat load in dough + heat loss in extruder
Heat generated = 469800 kJ/hr
Heat loss in extruder = 448516.8 kJ/hr
Heat load in dough = 21283.2 kJ/hr

DRYER
The dryer zone has three zones:
Zone 1 (heating zone)
Heat generated for solid = 19725.13 kJ/hr
Heat generated for liquid = 13682.864 kJ/hr
Total heat load for zone 1
19725.13 + 13682.864 = 33407.994 kJ/hr

Zone 2 (constant rate change zone)

Heat in = Heat out
Heat generated = 40953.265 kJ/hr

ZONE 3 (falling rate zone)

Heat load for solid = 3944.12 kJ/hr
Heat load for evaporated water = 21109.32 kJ/hr
Total heat load in the filling rate zone
= Heat in solid + Heat in evaporated liquid
= 3944.12 + 21109.32 + 576.125 = 25629.565 kJ/hr
Total load for the dryer = 33407.994 + 40953.265 + 25629.565 = 99990. 824 kJ/hr

INDUSTRY OUTLOOK/TREND
 The biscuit manufacturing industry is growing at the rate of 8% per annum. Now with
GST in place more growth will be in organized sector. The trend is to go for more variety, taste,
healthy products and innovative packaging. The completion is also very much in this industry
and therefore creativity and innovation in products and packaging will decide the growth of this
sub-sector

MARKET POTENTIAL AND MARKETING ISSUES, IF ANY:

The biscuits and cookies industry in India, valued at INR 15,000 crores is growing at
CAGR of 8% over the last three years. It is estimated that the industry will be worth nearly INR
30,000 crores by FY 2019. The industry can be classified into two separate sectors – organized
and unorganized. Biscuits and breads are the major components of the Indian bakery industry
and together these two account for almost 80 percent of the aggregate production. Nowadays the
biscuit industry contributes approximately 33 percent of the total production of the bakery
industry. 70 percent of the biscuits in India are produced by the small scale sector.

Per capita consumption of biscuits in India has been estimated at 2 kg. This is fairly low
compared to the per capita consumption of over 10kg in the US and the UK and over 4.5kg in the
South-east Asian countries (Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand, etc.). India is also one of the
leading producers of biscuits in the world along with the US and China. Approximately 17
percent of the biscuits produced in India is exported to locations such as the following: USA,
UK, Ghana, Angola, Haiti, UAE, etc.

With rising incomes, consumers are being lured towards cream biscuits and cookies
instead of glucose biscuits Premium biscuits are likely to increase its share by FY 2019 as
manufacturers are now aggressively entering the premium biscuit and cookie segment on account
of higher margins prevalent in this category.

The leading biscuit brands in India are: PARLE, BRITANIA, PRIYA GOLD, ANMOL,
HORLICKS, CREMICA, SUNFEAST, BISKFARM, ROSE, SOBISCO, DUKES, NEZONE,
etc. Apart from Indian brands, imported brands popular in India are: OREO, SUMO,
HAPPYBITE, etc.
RAW MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS:

Requirements of Raw Material

Sr. No. Raw Material Tons/Annum

1 Maida 927.314
2 Sugar 278.194
3 Liquid Glucose 92.731
4 Palmolein 176.190
5 Skimmed Milk Powder 8.140
6 Flavour 1.649
7 Salt 9.994
8 Ammo. Bi-Carbonate 11.849
9 Soda 4.121
10 Sodium Meta Bi-Sulphite 0.155
11 Lecithin 0.567
12 Water 139.097

1,650.000

MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

Biscuit manufacturing consists of four major processes: mixing, forming, baking and
packing. Mixing is a crucial process where shifted flour is mixed with other ingredients and
additives in right proportion to form dough of right consistency as per type of biscuit to be
produced. The mixing may be carry out in single or double or triple stages as per type of biscuit,
ingredients and additives mixing characteristics and required consistency of dough for molding.
The mixed dough of required consistency is then fed on to the processing line where it is sheeted
or laminated, then cut into required dimensions under rotary molding machine followed by
baking in four stage oven where every baking zone has different temperature to bake individual
piece of biscuit to get right color, taste and aroma. Thus baked biscuits are needed to cool
properly in a well-designed cooling zone or belt. The cooled biscuits are then packed and
dispatched. For making cream sandwiched biscuits, first cream is prepared with proper
whooping, cream spreader is needed and then a special machine for packing of cream
sandwiched biscuit is required to pack them.

Adeniyi O.D. (1998) “ Design of a plant to produce one tonne of Biscuit per day” Plant Design
Thesis, Federal University of Technology, Minna, pp. 1-63

Öztürk, S., Özboy, Ö., Cavidoğlu, İ., Köksel, H. (2002) “Effects of Brewer´s Spent Grain on the
Quality and Dietary Fibre Content of Cookies”. The Institute & Guild of Brewing. Vol. 108, No.
1. Consultado el 11 de Marzo en: www.researchgate.net/publication/264485701_Effects_of_Br
ewer's_Spent_Grain_on_the_Quality_and_Dietary_Fibre_Content_of_Cookies
http://www.bphs.net/HistoryOfKeyBusinesses/Biscuits/Part1/index.htm

https://agriexchange.apeda.gov.in/Weekly_eReport/Biscuit_%20Report.pdf