Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Energy storage system: Current studies on batteries and power condition

system
⁎
Chao Zhang, Yi-Li Wei, Peng-Fei Cao, Meng-Chang Lin
College of Electronic Engineering and Automation, Shandong University of Science and Technology, 266590 Qingdao, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: To maximize the introduction of renewable energy, introducing grid energy storage systems are essential.
Battery Electrochemical energy storage system, i.e., battery system, exhibits high potential for grid energy storage ap-
Energy storage system plication. A battery energy storage system is comprised of a battery module and a power conversion module.
Power condition system This paper starts by reviewing several potential battery systems, as well as an advanced aluminum-ion battery
Wide bandgap semiconductor
that currently has promising prospects in the electrochemical energy storage system. The characteristics of the
batteries are reviewed and compared, including the materials, electrochemistry, performance and costs. The
application prospect of the batteries is discussed. The paper summarizes the features of current and future grid
energy storage battery, lists the advantages and disadvantages of different types of batteries, and points out that
the performance and capacity of large-scale battery energy storage system depend on battery and power con-
dition system (PCS). The power conversion system determines the operational condition of the entire energy
storage system. The new generation wide bandgap semiconductor for power electronic technology is discussed
from the perspective of performance, topology, model and non-linearity and is compared to the traditional
silicon-based semiconductor. Finally, the application prospect of the new generation semiconductor technology
in the energy storage system is indicated. This paper concludes the application status of the energy storage
system in the renewable energy power generation and indicates the critical problems that need to be addressed
during the construction and operation of the storage system.

1. Introduction
Carbon emissions have caused 4 °C (7.2 °F) of warming that could
cause a sufficient eventual sea level rise to submerge land that is cur-
rently home to 470–760 million people globally [1]. To cope with
global climate changes and energy supply shortages and to achieve
carbon emission reductions, developed countries must adjust develop-
ment strategies in succession, formulate new low carbon-oriented pat-
terns of economic development, and initiate strategic moves toward a
low-carbon economy. As a high energy-consuming country, America
mainly uses electricity (68.4%) generated from thermal power stations.
According to the future energy plans announced by the U.S. Department
of Energy, 20% of the electricity in America will be generated from
wind power and 10% of the electricity will come from solar photo-
voltaic power by 2030 [2].
In Germany, the high number of installed intermittent renewable
energy systems has had a significant influence on the operation of
power systems and coal power plants. By 2034, the total installation
capacity of wind power and solar photovoltaic power is expected to be
approximately 173 GW, twice the current peak power in Germany.
However, the instant power supply gap between the intermittent fluc-
tuation of the intermittent renewable energy and the demand fluctua-
tion of the load side was as high as 74.335 MW, which was equivalent
to 92% of the peak loading in Germany. To guarantee the stability of
the power supply, the German power grid operator adjusts the elec-
tricity generation schedule of the coal power plant to increase the
amount of elasticity generation [3].
Due to the variable and intermittent nature of the output of re-
newable energy, this process may cause grid network stability pro-
blems. To smooth out the variations in the grid, electricity storage
systems are needed [4,5]. The 2015 global electricity generation data
are shown in Fig. 1. The operation of the traditional power grid is al-
ways in a dynamic balance status between electricity generation and
electricity consumption, which is the so-called status of immediate
electricity generation and immediate electricity utilization. Therefore,
the planning, operation and control of the power grid is conducted
based on the principle of balance between supply and demand: the
generated power must be transmitted immediately, and there must be a

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mengchanglin@sdust.edu.cn (M.-C. Lin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.030
Received 21 December 2016; Received in revised form 2 July 2017; Accepted 26 October 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Zhang, C., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2017), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.030
C. Zhang et al.
The proportion The proportion
of electricity: of electricity:
68% 10.52%
Thermal
power
Nuclear
power
Hydro
-power
The proportion
of electricity:
16.16%
real-time balance between power utilization and power supply. Such
planning and construction thinking gradually demonstrates its defects
and limitations as increasingly intermittent renewable energy systems
have been installed. Therefore, the dispatching, control and manage-
ment of the power grid are thus becoming increasingly difficult and
complicated. The upsurge of renewable energy system installation is an
important step in promoting energy saving and CO2 emission reduction
and pollution control. However, the fact is that numerous installed
renewable energy systems cannot be fully loaded, leading to a massive
amount of waste in the electricity generation from renewable energy
systems [6].
After the installation of high-performance and large-scale energy
storage technology, electricity will become a commodity, and then can
be stored. This will cause fundamental changes in the concepts of power
generation, transmission, distribution, and consumption, in which
power system operation and management must be done. The concepts
of alternative clean energy and alternative electric energy will lead
renewable energy and sustainable energy to strongly permeate the new
generation power grid [7]. The power electronization of power systems
is the inevitable trend of its development. Power electronic technology
is the core technology of electricity storage systems, which is used to
solve the large-scale connection, high-capacity and long-distance
transmission and the distributed micro-grid of the new energy. Ad-
ditionally, as battery technology does, power electronic technology
plays an important role in the energy storage system. A new generation
of semiconductor technology and other power electronic technology
will speed up the development of the large-scale energy storage system.
In this paper, the application of battery and power conversion
technology in energy storage systems is introduced. This paper first
reviews some batteries which can be potentially applied as a core
component of the electricity storage system. Then, the wide bandgap
semiconductor of power electronic technology based on performance,
topology, model and non-linearity were reviewed and compared to the
traditional silicon-based semiconductor. Additionally, the application
prospect of new generation semiconductor technology in the energy
storage device is discussed.
2. Application of the battery energy storage system and the large-
scale energy storage project
Because the energy storage technique possesses an extremely high
strategic position, all countries around the world continuously support
the fundamental researches and application projects of the energy
storage techniques. In 2013, Japan's New Energy and Industrial
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Fig. 1. 2016 Global renewable energy installed capa-
city.
The proportion
of electricity:
1.24%
Photo
-voltaic
Wind
power
The proportion
of electricity:
4.08%
Technology Development Organization (NEDO) conducted the devel-
opment of route planning aiming at all types of battery energy storage
techniques, which paid special attention to the development of tech-
niques, e.g., lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, sodium-sulfur batteries and
advanced batteries [8]. At the end of 2014, the United States Depart-
ment of Energy (US DOE) released relevant technical reports on the
development and application of all types of advanced batteries, and
special attention will be paid to research directions such as super lead
acid and advanced lead acid batteries, Li-ion batteries, sulfonic bat-
teries, flow batteries, metal-air batteries and advanced compressed air
energy storage technology [9].
Batteries, which are an electrical energy storage technology that has
high investment benefits at present, is characterized by modularization,
rapid response and a high commercialization potential. With the tech-
nical innovation and successful development of the new batteries, the
efficiency, power density, energy density and cycle life of batteries have
improved remarkably. The battery system is associated with flexible
installation and short construction cycles and therefore has been suc-
cessfully applied to grid energy storage systems [10]. The operational
and planned large scale battery energy systems around the world are
shown in Table 1 [11].
A basic battery energy storage system consists of a battery pack,
battery management system (BMS), power condition system (PCS), and
energy management system (EMS), seen in Fig. 2. The battery pack has
a modular design that is used in the integration, installation, and ex-
pansion. The BMS monitors the battery's parameters, estimates its
current capacity, and controls the overall system. The PCS is involved in
the rectification and inversion function necessary for the conversion
between AC and DC electric energy. Based on the mode setting or load
change, the energy management system is responsible for the effective
scheduling and management of the energy storage system in meeting
the seamless connection requirement between the communication and
scheduling of the station's main engine [12,13].
With its high specific energy density and strict application require-
ments, the battery has to be restricted and protected by continuously
checking the single battery cell voltage and current in the process of
charge and discharge [14]. Because of the differences in the manu-
facturing processes and application environments, their initial differences
occur in the batteries’ capacities, as well as attenuation speeds [15]. To
ensure the long-term operation and improve the utilization efficiency of
the battery pack, balancing the electric quantity of each single battery cell
is essential. For industrial demands, the need for parallel connection of the
battery is huge, thus a BMS needs to be introduced to manage well the
array of the battery components, ensure the consistent status of each
2
C. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

battery during charge and discharge and further maintain the stability of

Under Construction/Oct 01, 2016

the power supply of the battery pack [16].
The BMS can provide the battery pack with protection and balance

Operational/May 01, 2008

Operational/May 14, 2015

Operational/Nov 04, 2015
Operational/Mar 03, 2016

Operational/Feb 20, 2015

Operational/Feb 26, 2016
Operational/Jan 31, 2016

Operational/Jan 01, 2013

Operational/Oct 01, 2011

Announced/Dec 01, 2017

Operational/Jul 01, 2016

Contracted/Jan 31, 2017

functions such as overcharge protection for high or low voltage, current
monitoring, overcurrent protection, and short-circuit and high-tem-
perature protection. With the different applications of Li-ion batteries in
various fields, the essence of the BMS has been gradually prominent

Operational
Status/Date

Announced

Announced
Contracted

Contracted

Contracted
[17]. In 2008, Tesla Motors Inc. successfully launched the first elec-
tronic mobile that uses a 400 km cruising power. With its outstanding
BMS, 6831 single 18650-type lithium batteries are employed to suffi-
ciently exemplify their efficiencies. With the market demand for battery
Storage capacity

energy storage system increasing gradually, the BMS development has

been greatly promoted.
31.5 MW
31.5 MW
102 MW
100 MW
68 MW

50 MW
48 MW
40 MW
40 MW
40 MW
36 MW
36 MW
34 MW
32 MW

30 MW
30 MW
30 MW
30 MW
30 MW
The electricity of an energy storage battery can pass through the
power grid using a single-stage AC-DC converter. In a distributed power
generation system, the grid connection of an independent power source
Gyeongsan-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Korea, South

usually adopts this topology, which has the advantages of a simple

Kabankalan, Negros Occidental, Philippines
Minamisoma, Fukushima Prefecture, Japan

structure and high efficiency but lacks flexibility in its capacity selec-
Non-Gong Substation, N/A, Korea, South
Roxby Downs, South Australia, Australia

HurGhada, Red Sea Governorate, Egypt

tion. Another structure is the AC-DC and DC-DC two-stage converter.

Long Beach, California, United States

Magdeberg, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany

Rupert, West Virginia, United States

Escondido, California, United States

Livermore, California, United States

Elkins, West Virginia, United States

El Centro, California, United States

Under this topology, the battery pack configuration of the energy sto-
Buzen, Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan

Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture, Japan

Marseilles, Illinois, United States

Goldsmith, Texas, United States

rage system is more flexible, where the charging and discharging

Multiple, Multiple, Germany

management is more accurate and reliable. Thus, it is suitable for co-

Rokkasho, Aomori, Japan

ordinating with the new energies in a large-scale connection. Since the

charge characteristic of the Li-ion battery is quite different with the
lead-acid battery, the charging current needed by the Li-ion battery is
quite small. If the charging current (i.e., C-rate) is too large, it can result
in cycle life degradation and even cause risks such as an explosion.
Location

Therefore, designing a BMS with current limiting and balancing func-

tion is necessary. The efficient power conversion of the DC-DC con-
verter can remarkably reduce energy consumption. The application of
Lithium nickel manganese cobalt battery

the DC-DC converter in the BMS has practical uses on achieving an

efficient current limitation [18].
Lithium iron phosphate battery
Lithium iron phosphate battery

In recent years, the electricity storage industry has forged ahead. Up

Advanced lead-acid battery

to December 2016, 1227 electricity energy storage projects were car-

ried out around the world, and the total installed capacity reached
Sodium-sulfur battery

Sodium-sulfur battery

1930 MW [19]. North America occupies the largest electricity con-

Lithium-ion battery
Lithium-ion battery
Lithium-ion battery

Lithium-ion battery
Lithium-ion battery
Lithium-ion battery
Lithium-ion battery

Lithium-ion battery

Lithium-ion battery
Lithium-ion battery
Lithium-ion battery
Lithium-ion battery
Lithium-ion battery

sumption market in the world, Asia and Europe stands for the second
and third, respectively. Obviously, the electricity storage techniques
Battery type

being used in the projects that the lithium-ion battery ranked first with
year-on-year growth of 55%, as shown in Fig. 3.
In the North America market, investment in public utilities has
become an important impetus that promotes the development of the
Germany Residential Energy Storage Systems - 34,000 PV Battery Storage Systems@

energy storage industry. In 2016, the North America market added the
project installed capacity of 221 MW [20]. Texas plans to build 20 MW
Li-ion battery energy storage projects for the peak of electricity pro-
blem. Los Angeles Water and Power (LADWP) released the LADWP
Kyushu Electric - Buzen Substation - Mitsubishi Electric/NGK Insulators

178 MW energy storage target five-year implementation plan. In Col-

Gyeongsan Substation ESS - 48 MW ESS - KEPCO/Woojin/LG Chem

40 MW - AES/National Grid Corp. of the Philippines (Kabankalan)

orado, the battery energy storage system was widely used in renewable
energy integration and smart power grids. In addition, in terms of user-
Rokkasho Village Wind Farm - Futamata Wind Development

side energy storage, numerous enterprises proposed energy storage

Non-Gong Substation ESS - 36 MW ESS - KEPCO/Kokam

solutions in succession, which could be used in the self-generation and

Minami-Soma Substation - Tohoku Electric/Toshiba

self-utilization of clean power and the reduction of the demand elec-

Nishi-Sendai Substation - Tohoku Electric/Toshiba

tricity. The financial schemes proposed at the same time, such as energy
Notrees Battery Storage Project - Duke Energy
Global grid-level battery energy storage project.

storage system leasing and fixed rate acquisition, could greatly decrease
the initial investment [21].
Grand Ridge Energy Storage 31.5 MW

Imperial Irrigation District BESS - GE

To replenish the frequency modulation equipment in the present

Beech Ridge Wind Storage 31.5 MW
AES Alamitos Energy Storage Array

SDG&E Escondido Substation - AES

power grids and to achieve the enhanced frequency response, the UK

Japan-Egypt-Hurghada - 30 MW

Golden Hills - NextEra Energy

National Grid Company calls for bids for the distributed energy storage
30 MW SK Innovation BESS

system, and the total target installed capacity reaches 200 MW [22].
Korea Electric Power Corporation plans to install an energy storage
AES Laurel Mountain

system with a total installed capacity of 500 MW in 8 transfer substa-

Kingfisher Project

tions for frequency modulation [23]. In 2015, energy storage at power

grid level occupied the dominant market share, with frequency mod-
2 kW

ulation and renewable energy integration being the major application

Project
Table 1

modes. The energy storage systems (> 0.1 MW) from 2009 to 2015 are
shown in Table 2.

3
C. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 2. Schematic of battery-based electricity storage

system.

discharge rates as well as response time, then a suitable battery systems

should be chosen. Second, the construction form should be determined
in accordance with both the power and capacity. A robust battery
module is fundamental for constructing an efficient battery system.
However, the existing electrochemical energy storage systems cannot
comprehensively satisfy the requirements for grid energy storage ap-
plication, especially with regard to cost [24,25]. Therefore, developing
new or improving existing cost-effectiveness for electrochemical energy
storage systems with good performance has generated increased in-
terest from researchers. Here, the authors reviewed several promising
battery systems with good application prospects in the energy storage
field.

3.1.1. Lead-acid batteries

Fig. 3. 2016 Global battery energy storage system installed capacity. Lead-acid batteries (Pb-acid batteries) refer to a type of secondary
battery that treats lead and its oxide as the electrodes and the sulfuric
acid solution as the electrolyte [26]. The Pb-acid battery energy storage
Table 2
is the most mature battery system with the lowest cost among battery
2009-2015 Global energy storage capacity statistics (MW).
energy storage techniques. Pb-acid batteries have served as backup
Application mode 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 batteries in power plants and transformer substations for years, which
has played an extremely important role in maintaining the reliable
Price arbitrage 258.5 323.2 1.5 8.6 0.9 4.1 27.8
operation of power systems [27]. However, its capacity significantly
Backup power 135.3 236.5 8.4 15.9 35.4 10.9 64.1
Frequency regulation 11.8 271.4 47.8 185.6 75.5 66.9 651.2 decreases in the case of deep and/or rapid discharge. Lead-acid bat-
Energy storage 136.5 4.9 60.5 233.8 0.1 113.8 26.7 teries are suffering from low energy density, low power density, long
Renewable energy 266.3 470.2 51.3 70.7 290.1 52.0 367.1 charge times, low cycle life and high self-discharge rates. In addition,
integration these batteries are likely to cause environmental pollution; as a result,
Transmission and 195.9 15.6 4.1 1.4 18.2 2.9 60.3
distribution
the batteries have been rarely used in the power energy storage market
The user side 2.1 0.1 7.9 29.8 2.7 119.2 42.8 around the world in recent years despite its low cost.
Others 335.8 235.0 26.0 62.8 41.1 198.0 147.7 The addition of activated carbon into the negative plate of the lead-
acid battery can greatly enhance its cycle life [28]. There are primarily
two ways to add activated carbon into the electrode, which is shown in
3. Critical technical problems in the battery energy storage system Fig. 4. One is where the negative electrode materials are made of lead
and activated carbon, respectively, and then the negative electrode is
3.1. Battery systems formed through parallel connection, which is called the ultra-battery
[29, 30]. The other method is to mix the activated carbon with lead to
First, the construction of the battery system should be based on form the negative electrode, which is called an advanced lead acid
specific application requirements, such as capacity, power, charge- battery [31-33]. There is no difference in the specific energy between

4
C. Zhang et al.
Fig. 4. Schematics of (a) ultrabattery [30] and (b) advanced lead-acid battery [33].
the lead acid battery and the lead-carbon battery, but the latter one has
substantially increased the specific power as well as remarkably en-
hancing the cycle life for small discharge depths.
3.1.2. Lithium-ion batteries
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries operate through the movement of the
lithium ions between the positive and negative electrodes. While
charging, the lithium ions de-intercalate from the positive electrode and
then intercalate into the negative electrode via the electrolyte; at the
time, the negative electrode is in a lithium-enriching status. When the
battery is discharged, the lithium ions move in the opposite direction.
The positive electrode of the lithium-ion battery is composed of lithium-
based compounds, such as lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) and li-
thium manganese oxide [34,35]. The most extensively used negative
electrode material of the lithium-ion battery is graphite. Graphite
electrodes have sufficient specific capacity (200 mA h/g) and high
voltage [36]. However, the dendrite crystal-induced short circuit during
rapid charging has introduced significant potential risks [37]. At pre-
sent, efforts are made to develop graphite substitutes with higher spe-
cific capacities (up to 300 mA h/g), including the use of silicon, metallic
tin and their oxides [38].
High initial capital cost is an important factor that limits the ex-
tensive application of Li-ion batteries in grid energy storage. For si-
tuations with significant charge-discharge randomness and frequent
charging, the insufficient cycle life restricts the application of the li-
thium-ion battery. Li-ion batteries experience temperature increases
when they are over-charged or with internal short circuits; thus, certain
safety risks exist [39].
Lithium-ion batteries play an important role in promoting the de-
velopment of electrical vehicles. As a power source, lithium-ion bat-
teries are ideal for small-scale electronics. Currently, for demonstration
purpose, lithium-ion battery is extensively applied in renewable energy
grid systems and micro-grid systems.
3.1.3. Vanadium-based flow batteries
Flow batteries are a type of battery that performs energy storage and
release through an electrochemical reaction by the soluble electron pair
on inert electrodes. At present, the relatively mature flow battery
techniques include all-vanadium redox flow batteries [40], Zn-Ce hy-
brid redox flow batteries [41], iron-chromium flow batteries [42] and
zinc/bromine flow batteries [43].
The all-vanadium redox battery was first proposed by Prof. Maria
Kacos from the University of New South Wales in Australia in 1985. The
5
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
schematic of the all-vanadium redox battery is shown in Fig. 5 [44].
The electrical energy of the all-vanadium redox battery is stored in the
form of chemical energy in the sulfuric acid electrolyte, which contains
various valence states of vanadium ion, and the conversion between
electric energy and chemical energy is completed by changing the va-
lence state of the vanadium to transfer the electrons during the op-
eration of the battery [45]. The positive electrode electrolyte is com-
posed of a V(V) and V(IV) ion solution, while the negative electrode
electrolyte consists of a V(III) and V(II) ion solution. Following the
charge of the battery, the positive electrolyte material is the V(V) ion
solution, and the negative electrode is the V(II) ion solution; after the
discharge of the battery, the positive and the negative electrodes are the
V(IV) and V(III) ion solutions, respectively, and electric conduction is
carried out through H+ inside the battery.
In recent years, the research emphasis on the all-vanadium redox
flow battery has mainly been done by focusing on the critical materials
of batteries (electrolytes, ion exchange membranes, and electrode)
[46–48]. A flow battery has the advantage of high capacity, high power,
high efficiency, long life and high safety, which renders its rapid de-
velopment within a short time. However, its industrialization still faces
problems of the restriction of critical materials, such as electrolytes,
electrode, especially ion exchange membranes, and high construction
capital [49].
3.1.4. Sodium-sulfur batteries
Sodium-sulfur batteries treat the molten sodium and sulfur as ne-
gative and positive electrodes, respectively, while the β″-Al2O3 ceramic
tube serves as the solid electrolyte and the separator between the po-
sitive and the negative electrodes, and the operating temperature of the
battery is 300–350 °C. The schematic of the sodium-sulfur battery is
shown in Fig. 6 [44]. The multiple requirements in the large-scale
power grid energy storage have posed new challenges to the develop-
ment of the sodium-sulfur battery [50]. First, the sodium-sulfur battery
operates under a high temperature (350 °C), and ceramic tube rupture-
induced short circuits leads to severe fire accidents [51]. For instance,
on September 21st, 2011, a fire accident occurred in sodium-sulfur
batteries in the Mitsubishi and Tsukuba materials corporation in Japan.
Second, the corrosion of the sodium-sulfur battery under high tem-
peratures remains one of the major obstacles that inhibits its further
development. Currently, researchers hope to modify the structure of the
sodium-sulfur battery to reduce the operating temperature of the bat-
tery system [52], or to directly formulate the room temperature so-
dium–sulfur battery [53], to solve the abovementioned problems.
C. Zhang et al.
However, the performance of these batteries remains to be further
improved [54,55].
3.1.5. Aluminum-ion batteries
In 2015, Dai group at Stanford University revealed a novel alu-
minum-ion (Al-ion) battery which can be fully charged within one
minute and the charge/discharge cycles can be up to 7500 cycles [56].
The schematic of the Al-ion battery is shown in Fig. 7. The paper
showed that the first aluminum-ion battery could be stable and cycle for
a long time.
The aluminum-ion battery reported in the paper used metallic alu-
minum as the negative (anode) electrode, the three-dimensional gra-
phic foam as the positive (cathode) electrode, and the AlCl3/EMImCl
ionic liquid as electrolyte. The battery operates through the electro-
chemical deposition and dissolution of aluminum at anode, and the
intercalation/deintercalation of chloraluminate anions in the graphite
cathode. The battery could be stable cycling for 7500 charge/discharge
cycles with little capacity decay. In practical, the Al-ion battery can
afford an energy density of 40 W h/kg and a power density up to
6
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Fig. 5. Schematic of vanadium based flow battery [44].
3000 W/kg, which makes the battery comparable to lead-acid batteries.
Such rechargeable Al-ion batteries have potential to be cost effective
and safe, and to have high power density.
For revealing the ultrafast charge/discharge behavior of Al-ion
battery, efforts from various research groups have been done [56–61].
In addition, several studies have been reported to address the potential
of Al-ion battery for grid energy storage application [62,63].
3.2. Energy storage battery and power condition system (PCS)
The energy storage battery can attain the mutual conversion be-
tween the electric and chemical energy through the electrochemical
reactions so as to achieve the storage and release of an electric energy.
The energy storage battery performance mainly depends on the appli-
cation requirements that are specific to the different voltages and en-
ergy levels, such as power, conversion efficiency, and charging or dis-
charging time.
The energy storage battery for adjusting the grid frequency is not
necessary to save energy for a long period, but it is required in grid
Fig. 6. Schematic of sodium-sulfur battery [44].
C. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

sulfur battery [50-55] has the characteristics of high specific capacity,

Fig. 7. Schematic of aluminum-ion battery [56].
dispatching in real time. The energy storage in minutes is acceptable.
However, with the frequent frequency adjustment, the daily discharge
events may occur repeatedly. This requires a battery to have a long
cycle life and high discharge rate or current density. If the energy
storage battery is used for the renewable energy integration or electric
peak shaving, its energy management has to have an MW h or GW h-
level system and its energy storage needs to last several hours or longer.
This type of application requires high energy conversion efficiency,
long cycle life, and low operation and maintenance cost of the energy
storage battery. The requirements of the grid energy storage battery and
electronic mobile power battery are not totally the same. The former
takes energy storage cost and battery life as the initial elements while
the latter needs energy density, power characteristic, and safety as the
research and development emphases. Also, the grid and renewable
energy applications usually need the rapid response of the energy sto-
rage battery, which enables the grid to achieve the full power in a short
period.
From the energy storage batteries discussed in this paper, the effect
of lead-acid battery [26-33] on the environment and its limited cycle
life restricted its application in the power system energy storage. The
novel lead-acid batteries such as lead-carbon super battery [29-33] are
seen to replace the existing lead-acid batteries. The energy storage cost
of Li-ion battery [34-39] is high while its safety performance has always
been an issue that requires a special attention. The safety of flow bat-
teries [40-49] is low, thus, it is applicable to the grid's large-scale en-
ergy storage. However, flow batteries need further enhancement in
battery performance and reduction in energy storage cost. The sodium-
long cycle life, and high energy efficiency. However, the safety and
reliability of the sodium-sulfur battery are inferior compared to those
room temperature batteries, which restricts the popularization and
application of the sodium-sulfur battery in the field of energy storage to
some extent. The raw materials of aluminum-ion battery [56-63] are
earth abundant and low cost. Thus, its price instability does not exist, its
safety and reliability are high, and the battery is also applicable to both
power and energy storage. This means that the aluminum-ion battery
can be used to conserve renewable energies, such as the wind and solar
energies in the grid.
The market penetration of the battery energy storage system has to
establish reasonable capital cost and life-cycle cost of the system. The
battery energy storage technology can be widely used only when the
electricity storage cost is equal to the cost of electricity generating by
conventional fossil-fuel based technology. Also, the system needs to
consider the reliability, durability, and safety performance. The energy
storage battery shall have a long shelf life (longer than 15 years) and
cycle life (e.g. up to 4000 deep cycles), and the energy storage system
requires the minimum cost for public asset maintenance, safety re-
quirements, and low life cycle. In case the battery energy storage
system structure is invalid or exceeds the temperature limit, the energy
may be rapidly released, which can result in an explosion and dis-
charge. To achieve better safety and reliability of the battery system,
the energy storage battery with good performance is used. Also, a sui-
table power electronic converter should be designed as the connector
between the battery and the DC or AC bus, so that the battery can reach
the maximum power or energy conversion efficiency, ensuring the
current limiting function of battery charge and discharge.
Batteries are currently a hot topic [64-67], and we compared the
performance of several batteries, as shown in Table 3. Additionally, we
discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different batteries, as
shown in Table 4. However, studies on the PCS topic are relatively few
[68-79]. PCS is the power electronic interface between the DC battery
system and the AC power grid, which will see an interconnection
function of the energy storage system apart from the charge and dis-
charge management of the battery. Here, we present recent studies on
the PCS from 2014 to the present, which is shown in Table 5. Currently,
the PCS that is exclusively used in the energy storage of high power
batteries is relatively rarely seen and immature and generally custo-
mized in accordance with user requirements. Therefore, investigating
the PCS that is applicable to the energy storage of high power batteries
contributes to normalizing engineering design and reducing costs.
4. Research on battery energy storage system power conversion
problems
4.1. Large energy gaps in power electronic device and power electronic
topology
As the performance of silicon-based power electronic devices has
already approached the intrinsic limits of its materials, the new gen-
eration of large energy gap power electronic devices, which are re-
presented by silicon carbide and gallium nitride, has become the

Table 3
Parameters comparison of different battery technologies.

Battery technology Rated power Energy density Discharge duration Energy efficiency Lifetime/Cycles Storage costs (USD/
(MW) (W h/kg) (h) (%) kW h)

Lead-acid battery < 36 < 50 <8 75–85 3–12 years/500–1200 300–600

Lithium-ion battery < 102 < 200 <6 90–94 5–15 years/1000–10,000 1200–4000
Vanadium based flow battery < 28 < 30 < 10 70–85 5–15 years/12,000–18,000 600–1500
Sodium-sulfur battery < 50 < 240 <8 75–86 5–10 years/2500–4000 1000–3000
Aluminum-ion battery N/A < 60 <6 90–94 5–15 years/1000–10,000 300–600
(Estimated)

7
C. Zhang et al.
Table 4
Advantages and disadvantages of different battery technologies.
Battery technology Advantages
Lead-acid battery Low capital cost
Lithium-ion battery High energy densities, high efficiency,
and long life cycle
Vanadium based flow battery High power, long life cycle, fast charge
and discharge
Sodium-sulfur battery High power and energy densities, high
efficiency
Aluminum-ion battery Low capital cost, fast charge and
(Estimated) discharge, high efficiency
hotspot of research and application in power electronics studies as a
result of their excellent switching and temperature characteristics [80-
83]. They have attracted extensive attention in fields such as national
defense, industry and civil use and have become the development di-
rection of the power electronics technology. The adoption of these new
generation power electronic devices can greatly reduce the switching
loss of the converter, enhance efficiency, decrease the volume and
weight of the converter, and become adaptable to working at higher
temperatures. At present, the research on the large energy gap for
power electronic devices in the energy storage system mainly focuses
on the following aspects.
4.1.1. Device model
An in-depth understanding of the operating characteristics of de-
vices under different temperatures and polarization, as well as an ac-
curate description of the dynamic and static performance of the devices,
contributes to increasing the reliability of the power electronic circuit
design. The modeling of SiC power device mainly uses the physical
(analytical) model, equivalent circuit model and empirical model.
The traditional field-effect device model cannot describe the mate-
rial properties of SiC. The SiC power metal-oxide semiconductor field-
effect transistor (MOSFET) model should include descriptions of the
dependence of channel charge and electron mobility on the charge of
interface traps [84,85]. The construction of the physical model depends
on the extraction of the electronic device parameters. Study [86] pro-
posed a type of experimental parameter extraction method that was
applicable to SiC power MOSFETs and constructed a circuit model of
SiC MOSFETs. The extracted parameter included carrier concentration,
an active area and drift region, and the extraction of the thickness of the
power Schottky diodes. The construction of the physical model mainly
analyzes the device characteristics from the point of view of the carrier
motor process within the device. Although such a model is accurate, it
is associated with significant computation burdens and thus is not
suitable for engineering applications. Study [87] proposed a simple and
accurate circuit simulation model of the SiC power MOSFET. Study [88]
proposed a PSpice-based parameter modeling method, which was ap-
plicable to a 4HSiC-based bipolar junction transistor (BJT) power
module with a voltage and current rating of 1200 V and 800 A, re-
spectively. Study [89] was based on PSpice, and the developed model
can be used to promote the battery energy storage converter level and
predict and optimize the battery performance by altering the circuit
parameter. Study [90] took the effects of environment temperature on
the model into consideration and proposed the Matlab model with a
wide temperature range of 25-200 oC. The model introduced the tem-
perature-controlled voltage source and the temperature-controlled
current source to compensate for the changes of the SiC MOSFET static
characteristics with temperature. At the same time, it emphasized the
effect of the low-temperature characteristics of SiC MOSFETs and that
of the driving circuit negative pressure.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Disadvantages Energy storage applications Refs.
Limited life cycle, long charging time and high Hot spare, frequency control and load [26-33]
self-discharge rate adjustment
Environmental pollution
High production cost, requires special charging Frequency control, load shifting and [34-39]
circuit power quality
High production cost, large area Load shifting, emergency standby [40,46-49]
and power quality
Production cost and safety concerns Load adjustment and standby power [50-55]
Under development N/A [56-63]
Low energy densities
4.1.2. Performance
At present, numerous studies have devoted themselves to analyzing
the performance improvements of the converter introduced by the SiC
in the aspects of loss [91], dynamic characteristics and high tempera-
ture [92] through simulations and experiments. We compared the main
parameters of the silicon-based and the silicon-carbide-based devices,
as shown in Table 6 [93-98]. Additionally, the advantages and dis-
advantages of different devices are discussed, which are shown in
Table 7.
Study [81] compared the SiCbased isolated bidirectional DC-DC
converter with the Sibased converter, and discovered that the former
had better performance, which included lower power dissipation,
higher operating temperatures, and faster switching. Study [108] in-
cluded a comparison of the efficiency, size, and weight between Sibased
and SiCbased converters. Study [109] compared the SiCbased isolated
bidirectional DC-DC converter to the Sibased cascaded converter and
discovered that the SiCbased converter could be used in medium vol-
tage power conversion even in the absence of such topologies as multi-
level and cascade types. The circuit design of the SiCbased converter
was simpler, and the relative control strategy was not complicated.
Study [110] adopted SiC-based power switches to improve the perfor-
mance of photovoltaic (PV) converters and found that SiC-based power
switches could reduce the current oscillation effects. The design con-
verter featured high efficiency and high power densities. Study [111]
designed the threephase DC-DC converter using SiC MOSFETs to gen-
erate high voltage and high frequency operation. The designed con-
verter could provide 5 kW power output and reduce the current output
in each phase, with the power conversion efficiency reaching 97.6%.
4.1.3. Research on the multi-port converter topology
In the renewable energy power energy storage device hybrid power
supply system with a traditional structure, each renewable energy
power supply or energy storage device requires the conversion of
electric energy generated by the renewable energy power supply or
energy storage device to the electric energy that corresponds to prac-
tical requirements through a DC-DC converter before it can be con-
nected to the DC bus side [112]. This system structure has the following
problems [113]: first, the large number of the power switching devices,
complicated system structure and massive device volume; second, the
disadvantage of being expanded into a multiform input source; and
third, the complicated system control circuit, which requires installing
more communicators with poor system stability.
The concept of a multi-port DC-DC converter is proposed by aiming
at the existing problems in the traditional structure of the hybrid power
supply system. The typical structure of the multi-port DC-DC converter
is shown in Fig. 8. The multi-port DC-DC converter is the integrated
power conversion device that integrates each independent power con-
version device in the hybrid power supply system into a device that can
switch between multi-input sources. Compared to all the independent
DC-DC converters in the traditional structure, the multi-port DC-DC
8
C. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

converter has a more compact system structure, which has saved the
Refs.

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]
[72]
[73]
[74]
[75]
[76]
[77]

[78]
[79]
space; a substantially reduced number of circuit components, which
reduces the cost; and more flexible control [114].
Study [116] adopted a new type of tri-port converter with flyback-

PI control and distributed cooperative control

forward topology, which had improved the system power conversion

proportional and integral (PI) control and

Frequency dividing coordinated control

efficiency and reduced the power loss of the traditional topology. The
tri-port converter can be connected to the DC port or the AC port, which

Short-term power dispatch control

Distributed voltage-based control
was different from the power flow characteristics of the traditional

PI control and droop control

converter. Study [117] compared the tri-port converter to the cascaded
converter, analyzed the power flow of the converter, and proposed the

Individual power control

tri-port converter power supply decoupling, which avoided the problem
Distributed control

decoupling control

of a power rush to various types of ports. Study [118] adopted an in-

Control strategy

tegrated magnetic technique to reduce the port output current ripple in

PI control

PI control

PI control

PI control
the multi-port converter, which improved the converter power density.
Study [119] proposed a type of tri-port converter with a boost bidir-
ectional buck topology and discussed the power flow and the three
domain control method. The designed converter was applied in the
Rated power

solar energy-battery energy storage hybrid power supply system and

2.2 kW

had achieved good experimental results. We compared the main char-

450 W

220 W

500 W

200 W

600 W
10 kW

15 kW
20 W

84 W
5 kW

4 kW

acteristics of different multi-port DC-DC converter topologies, as shown

in Table 8. It is noteworthy that each topological structural revolution
Voltage level

of the power converter is closely related to the upgrading of devices,

and the emergence of the large energy gap power electronic devices will
1400 V
120 V

380 V

650 V

150 V
640 V

145 V
540 V
18 V

50 V

50 V

promote the birth of the new generation topological structure of the

6V

battery energy storage converter.

Device type/switching frequency

Intelligent power module (IPM)/

4.2. Power electronic modeling and non-linear analysis

4.2.1. Mathematic model of the DC-DC converter

The power electronic converter is the core technology of battery
OptiMOS/10 kHz

energy storage, and almost all the quadratic transformation power

IGBT/2.5 kHz
IGBT/10 kHz

IGBT/20 kHz
IGBT/10 kHz
IGBT/20 kHz

IGBT/10 kHz
IGBT/20 kHz

IGBT/10 kHz
IGBT/5 kHz

supplies are constituted by it. The only operating mode of the power
MOSFET

electronic converter is the switching operation, which renders the non-

20 kHz

linear dynamic process with continuous changes as well as the discrete

variables in the type of system containing power electronic converter;
Asymmetric cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter

this is a type of typical hybrid system-switched linear system, which is

Three-phase three-level neutral-point-clamped

made up of interactions between the continuous sub-system and the

Multiple bidirectional buck-boost type dc-dc
Synchronous bidirectional dc/dc converter

discrete sub-system [138].

H-bridge cascaded boost-multilevel dc-dc

The control mechanism of the existing power electronic converter,

Modular multilevel converter (MMC)

such as state-space averaging method [139], mostly controls the con-

H-bridge cascaded dc-dc converter

Bidirectional buck-boost converter

tinuous variable and the discrete variable separately. First, it is neces-

sary to simplify the discrete characteristics, treat all system variables as
Module DC-DC converter

H-bridge dc-dc converter

continuous variables, approximately depict the major control relations

(averaging model), adopt the control technology of the continuous
Z-source topology

DC-AC converter

system, and deem it to be the control signal of the power electronic

Circuit topology

(NPC) inverter

converter in accordance with the continuous model design control law.

converter

converter

Study [140] proposed a bi-directional switch modeling method, which

can describe the continuous conduction mode (CCM) and discontinuous
conduction mode (DCM) of the DC-DC converter as a uniform bi-di-
Parameters comparison of different power condition systems.

rectional switch mode, which is different from the state-space averaging

method and the switch logic method, which takes continuity and dis-
Ultracapacitor-battery hybrid energy storage system

creteness into consideration, respectively. The constructed model is

Integrated distributed battery energy storage and

PV and wind hybrid energy management system

Solar PV and battery storage integration system

simple and accurate. Study [141] took the power loss during the
Reconfigurable battery energy storage system

switching process into consideration and constructed large-signal and

small-signal mathematical models for the bi-directional DC-DC con-
Hybrid battery energy storage system

verter. For converters, such problems as increasing the input phase,

Dual-battery energy storage system
Integrated battery energy storage

inductance and parasitic circuit parameters will introduce difficulties to

Hybrid battery storage system

Battery energy storage system

Battery energy storage system

the modeling. Study [142] made full use of the circuit differential
Active ripple energy storage

equation, identified the relationship between the average state variable

management system

and switch duty cycle, and constructed the DC-DC generalized model.
Study [143] took the parasitic circuit parameters into consideration and
constructed the uniform DC-DC steady, small-signal circuit models.
CPS system

Study [144] modified the effects of the circuit parameter changes on the
model so that the constructed model analysis could enable better dy-
Table 5

namic performance. More accurate mathematic models should be

constructed to obtain better DC-DC control performance. Study [145]

9
C. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 6
Comparison of key parameters for different power electronic devices [93-98].

Device parameters Si IGBT SiC MOSFET SiC IGBT SiC GTO SiC JFET SiC BJT

Maximum junction temperature (°C) 175 135 150 190 180 180
Specific on-resistance (mΩ cm2) 40 20 15 10 6.2 10
Turn-off voltage (V) 600 600 600 600 600 600
Conduction current (A) 20 20 20 20 20 20
Turn-on delay time (s) 1e − 7 1.3e − 8 3e − 8 3.5e − 8 3.5e − 8 2e − 8
Turn-off delay time (s) 1.1e − 7 2.4e − 8 4e − 8 6e − 8 4.5e − 8 3.5e − 8
Voltage fall time (s) 1e − 7 6e − 8 1e − 7 5.2e − 8 4.4e − 8 4e − 8
Voltage rise time (s) 2e − 7 2.8e − 8 3.6e − 8 4e − 8 3.7e − 8 2.3e − 8
Voltage drop across drain to source (V) 4 2.2 2.5 3.2 3.5 2
Turn-on energy (J) 2e − 3 3.2e − 4 5e − 4 5e − 4 4.1e − 4 5.2e − 4
Turn-off energy (J) 1.4e − 3 2.9e − 4 3e − 4 1e − 3 2e − 4 5e − 4

adopted the fractional order computational method, constructed the
DC-DC state-space averaging model, took the switching period, duty
cycle, inductance and parasitic circuit parameters into consideration
and was able to analyze the low frequency characteristic of the DC-DC
converter. Study [146] constructed the DC-DC Hammerstein model to
design the DC-DC robust controller, and the model could obtain better
control performance under the conditions of uncertain circuit para-
meters and load fluctuation. Study [147] constructed the state-average
model of the modular multilevel converter and verified the universality
of the modeling method on the new topology.
4.2.2. Non-linear analysis on the DC-DC converter
The major reasons for the non-linearity in the DC-DC converter include
the following: first, the on-and-off function of power electronic devices
correspond to the circuit topological changes; second, the on-and-off duty
cycle that is related to the instantaneous value of the circuit state variables;
third, the effect of the parasitic circuit non-linearity, i.e., the non-linear V-I
characteristic of the switch element, non-linear inductance and capacitance,
and the electromagnetic coupling characteristic between components. These
non-linear characteristics of the DC-DC converter frequently manifest as
abnormal or irregular phenomena in practical operation, such as a sudden
operational collapse, unknown electromagnetic noise, intermittent oscilla-
tion of the control system, fluctuation of system operation, or being unable
to operate as required. The present research indicates that the abnormal
phenomenon in the power electronic converter is the typical chaos phe-
nomenon of period doubling bifurcation and Hopf bifurcation [148], which
has attracted attention from numerous scholars in recent years.
Study [149] adopted the Floquet theory to conduct a modeling and
stability analysis on the DC-DC converter to control non-linear pro-
blems, such as sub-harmonic oscillation in the converter. Study [150]
analyzed the bifurcation and chaos phenomena in the DC-DC converter
through the numerical analysis and circuit parameter variation analysis
and adopted the Lyapunov method to design the ramp compensation
controller to inhibit the chaos phenomenon. Study [151] adopted the
iterative method to construct the single-phase sine-wave pulse-width
modulation (SPWM) inverter discrete model and applied the
stroboscopic map, fold map and the bifurcation diagram to describe the
chaos phenomena of the system, such as period doubling bifurcation
and border collision bifurcation. Study [152] adopted the simulation
means to analyze the non-linear kinetic behavior of the single-phase
half-bridge inverter in the voltage mode, and the bifurcation diagram
demonstrated that the system showed sporadic chaos behavior. The
non-linear analysis process of the DC-AC converter is relatively tedious
since the given reference value is a transient variable. The multi-level
converter can describe more than one group of the differential equation
of its non-linear mathematical model within a switching period, which
is different from the single-phase PWM converter. This experiment team
proposed a virtual traversal method to construct the multi-level con-
verter mathematical model, as is shown in Fig. 9. The traverse hy-
pothesized that all the switching modes of the converter could act on
the converter within a switching period, respectively. Through this
method, we were able to obtain the model that could describe the
multi-level converter discrete mapping, analyze the chaos phenomenon
in it, and adopt the non-linear control method to investigate how to
inhibit or eliminate the chaos and achieve the objective of improving
the reliability of the multi-level power electronic converter.
4.2.3. Non-linear control of the DC-DC converter
Regarding the link connecting the new battery power generation
system and the load, the advantages and disadvantages of the DC-DC
converter performance depend on the topological hardware design;
however, the reliability of its control algorithms is also of essential
importance. The closed loop feedback control should be designed to
enable the required system stability. Study [153] investigated the
problems of the effects of circuit parameter uncertainty on the output
feedback control of the sampled data and designed the Robust con-
troller to control the DC-DC converter. Study [154] did not require
conducting the current detection of the circuit or consideration of the
integral term in the control circuit. The second-order sliding mode
controller, which was applicable to the transient response of the load
and the start, improved the robust performance of the controller on the
parameter uncertainty.

Table 7
Advantages and disadvantages of different power electronic devices.

Wide bandgap Advantages Disadvantages Application area Refs.

semiconductor

Si IGBT Mature technology, reliable and low cost Switching losses and heat issues Traditional power electronics field [99,100]
SiC MOSFET Low on-resistance, fast switching speed and high Reliability issues Pulsed power modulators and hard- [97,101]
temperature capability switched power electronics
SiC IGBT Driving simple, high current switching capability Process limitations and Solid-state transformer and medium- [102,103]
reliability issues voltage grid connection
SiC GTO High temperature performance High switching frequency Pulsed power modulators [104]
SiC JFET Low switching losses, high switching frequency and High-frequency characteristics Inverters and solid state circuit breaker [105,106]
high temperature performance
SiC BJT Low conduction losses, fast switching and high Drive loss Inverters and boost converter [107]
current density

10
C. Zhang et al.
Under the strong non-linear conditions manifested by the DC-DC
converter, the applicability of the methods, which are extensively ap-
plied in the traditional power electronic stability analysis in the non-
system, remains to be further investigated and demonstrated. Study
[155] considered global stability in the case of parameter variation and
proposed the control Lyapunov criterion, which was suitable for the
DC-DC converter for the battery energy storage. The fractional order
model may more accurately describe the non-linearity of the DC-DC
converter. Study [156] proposed the Mittag-Leffler stability of
fractionalorder system, which had taken the control system design of
the fractional order model into consideration.
The model predictive control (MPC) algorithm has the advantage of
being able to solve the problem of multi-variable optimization, which
has been extensively used in the complicated process industry in recent
years. Study [157] directly designed the model predictive controller in
the voltage mode, which did not require designing the current control
circuit, and enabled voltage feedback control. Study [158] adopted the
model predictive control to solve the problem of capacitor voltage
balance in the modularized cascade DC-DC converter.
However, the model predictive algorithm itself required a large
amount of online rolling optimization computation, which had re-
stricted the application of the algorithm in the rapidly controlled ob-
jects, as shown in Fig. 10. Study [159] proposed the MPC minimum cost
function of each time step in the rolling time domain method rather
than obtaining the corresponding optimal solution through the pre-
defined function of the numerical algorithm, thus satisfying the control
requirement of the rapid process and object. Study [160] adopted the
model predictive algorithm to control and optimize the power flow
between cascade DC-DC converters in the energy storage system and
achieved the ideal effects.
PQ control is usually adopted when energy storage system grid-
connected is under operation. The control objective is to fast response
to the active power reference instructions issued by upper control
center. Its specific applications include restraining the fluctuation of
renewable energy output power, shifting peak-load, as well as enhan-
cing the stability of the power system. In the process of multi-energy
storage inverters running in parallel in micro-grid, the frequency and
voltage amplitude of energy storage inverter, according to the output
active power and reactive power, are artificially adjusted at certain
proportion through simulating the operation features of traditional
synchronous generators, which is used to make the various energy
storage inverters distribute active and reactive power load based on
their capacity. With the increase of energy storage capacity and the
deepening of the relevant theoretical research, the efficient and prac-
tical control strategy of energy storage system will make it play a more
crucial role in the future power grid.
5. Conclusions
A great selection in the new battery energy storage technology is
being developed. Using the point of view of the abundance, the alu-
minum-ion battery will have the necessary requirements as the battery
11
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Fig. 8. The typical schematic structure of multi-port DC-DC con-
verter [115].
consists of aluminum, carbon (graphite), and hydrocarbon-based elec-
trolyte. Its development can be derived from the components of the Li-
ion battery, which adopts the inexpensive aluminum to replace lithium
and thus reduces the energy storage cost of the battery system. Also,
this can provide better solutions regarding the safety issue that resulted
from using lithium (e.g., Li-ion battery) or sodium (e.g., sodium-sulfur
battery) as active materials. It is estimated to achieve excellent prospect
in the large-scale battery energy storage application of the power grid.
Following the commercialization of SiC diodes in 2001, the max-
imum operating current exceeded 180 A, and the maximum turn-off
voltage exceeded 20 kV. SiC-MOSFETs have been commercialized at a
high temperature (200 °C), high current (800 A) and high voltage
(10 kV). SiC-JFETs exhibit a high current turn-off capability for high-
power, bi-directional, solid-state circuit breakers. The SiC-BJTs are used
in a boost converter at a turn-off voltage of 1200 V. SiC-JFETs have the
lowest switching losses but high conduction losses, greatly reducing the
overall efficiency. SiC-JFETs are advantageous for frequencies below
500 kHz. SiC-BJTs can be used at switching frequencies above 500 kHz.
SiC-IGBTs have advantages in applications where the turn-off voltage is
greater than 10 kV. SiC-GTOs have the advantage of higher voltage and
higher current applications.
The multi-port DC-DC converter is generally superior to the tradi-
tional two-stage architecture of the energy storage system in terms of
efficiency, power density, size, and cost. It was found that the multi-
port converter exhibited an efficiency increase of approximately 1.2%
compared to the traditional converter under the same load conditions.
A different switching frequency is used to compare the size and weight
of the converters. The 100 kHz multi-port SiC converter was approxi-
mately 5 L smaller than the 20 kHz Si converter and was 4 kg lighter
while still maintaining a higher power transfer efficiency of 0.14%. The
new DC-DC converter topology with the new generation wide band-gap
semiconductors will greatly enhance the overall performance of the
energy storage system. However, the existing topological studies have
shown that none of the new topologies can encompass all the desirable
advantages of the converter. Future research should be studied based on
the materials, topologies, control strategies and other aspects to im-
prove the power electronic converter performance in energy storage
systems.
The use of electric vehicles, smart grids, energy Internet are popu-
larly affecting the development of the human society, and part of the
widely used resources in energy production, acquisition, consumption,
where energy storage technology is a key supporting technology. The
various factors, such as energy storage cost, life, efficiency, response
rate, scale, safety, reliability, easy maintenance, and environmental
protection should be considered in the energy storage system applica-
tion. Also, the wide applications determine the different forms of the
energy storage. Currently, there is no other kind of energy storage
technology in the lead in all aspects. The long-dated development di-
rection of the battery is an advanced battery, which includes an all-
solid-state Li-ion battery, Li-sulfur battery, Li-air battery, aluminum-,
magnesium-, and zinc-based batteries. At the same time, an advanced
battery for energy storage should be featured by low cost and long cycle
C. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 8
Comparison of different DC-DC converter topologies.

Converter type Circuit configuration Advantages Applications Refs.

Non-isolated Buck Only buck, the input and output DC power supply [120,121]
DC-DC polarity is the same, simple
converter structure and low cost

Boost Only boost, the input and output DC motor drive [122,123]
polarity is the same, simple and power factor
structure and low cost correction

Buck/boost Buck or boost, input and output Reverse switching [124,125]

polarity opposite, can not work power supply
without load and simple
structure

Cuk Buck or boost, input and output Reverse switching [126,127]

polarity opposite, can not work power supply
without load, small input and
output current ripple

Sepic Buck or boost, the input and Power factor [128,129]

output polarity is the same, can correction
not work without load, input
ripple small output ripple large

Zeta Buck or boost, the input and Buck-boost [130,131]

output polarity is the same, can switching power
not work without load, input supply
ripple large output ripple small

Isolated DC-DC Dual Simple structure and low cost Small power [116,132]
converter flyback application
topology
(continued on next page)

12
C. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 8 (continued)

Converter type Circuit configuration Advantages Applications Refs.

Double Simple structure, but exists Medium and low [133]

push-pull switching voltage peaks voltage
topology application

Dual half- No input transformer center tap, Medium-power [134,135]

bridge relatively simple processing high-voltage
topology application

Duplex Small current and voltage stress High power [136,137]

bridge on the power devices, higher application
topology transfer power of the same
capacity device, high utilization
of devices and transformer

Fig. 9. Multi-level converter mathematical model based on virtual traversal method.

Fig. 10. Optimized switching sequence of three-level topology.

13
C. Zhang et al.
life. It is expected that energy storage battery cost is less than USD
0.15/W h with cycle life up to 10,000 cycles or more, and more than 20
years service life can be expected. The advanced battery using an ef-
fective BMS ensures that each battery has high consistency and provides
stable battery power output. The use of wide band gap semiconductor,
when used in a power electronic converter, enhances the capacity and
power conversion efficiency of the existing PCS. The energy storage
system that consists of a new generation of multiple ports, large capa-
city, high density of SiC matrix converter using a new type of energy
storage battery can store twice electricity with will the half area. The
future battery energy storage system should not be a large scale but
needs large capacity. The combination of advanced battery with a large
capacity of PCS is essential for creating an MW-level or GW-level energy
storage system.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the financial support from Shandong
Provincial Natural Science Foundation, China (ZR2016EEP10) and
Scientific Research Foundation of Shandong University of Science and
Technology (2015RCJJ073)for Recruited Talents. M.-C. L. acknowl-
edges support from the Taishan Scholar Project of Shandong Province
of China (No. tsqn20161025).
References
[1] Strauss, Kulp Scott, Levermann Anders. Mapping choices: carbon, climate, and
rising seas – our global legacy. 2015.
[2] Liu J, Zeng D, Liang T, Gao M, Wei W, Niu Y, et al. Control strategy for operating
flexibility of coal-fired power plants in alternate electrical power systems. Proc
Chin Soc Electr Eng 2015;35:5385–94.
[3] S HW. Flexible operation of coal-fired power plants in Germany under the re-
newable energy background. Cornerstone 2014;2:26–31.
[4] Barton JP, Infield DG. Energy storage and its use with intermittent renewable
energy. IEEE Trans Energy Convers 2004;19:441–8.
[5] Sharma SS, Kumar V, Joshi RR. An overview on energy storage options for re-
newable energy systems. Int J Eng Sci Res Technol 2014:3.
[6] Wang S, Lai X, Cheng S. An analysis of prospects for application of large-scale
energy storage technology in power systems. Autom Electr Power Syst
2013;37:3–8.
[7] Xiao X. Basic problems of the new complex AC-DC power grid with multiple energy
resources and multiple conversions. Trans China Electrotech Soc 2015;30:1–14.
[8] Hao U. Introduction of NEDO battery road map 2013. J Inst Electr Install Eng Jpn
2014;34:533–6.
[9] U.S. Department of Energy. Overview of the DOE Advanced Battery R&D Program;
2014.
[10] Geth F, Brijs T, Kathan J, Driesen J, Belmans R. An overview of large-scale sta-
tionary electricity storage plants in Europe: current status and new developments.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;52:1212–27.
[11] U.S. Department of Energy. DOE International Energy Storage Database; 2016.
[12] Hwangbo SW, Kim BJ, Kim JH. Application of economic operation strategy on
battery energy storage system at Jeju. Innov Smart Grid Technol Lat Am 2013:1–8.
[13] Yang X, Zhang R, Xie Q, Hao S, Wei LI, Gao W, et al. Application of lithium battery
with mobile container energy system. Energy Storage Sci Technol 2014.
[14] Rahimi-Eichi H, Ojha U, Baronti F, Chow MY. Battery management system: an
overview of its application in the smart grid and electric vehicles. IEEE Ind
Electron Mag 2013;7:4–16.
[15] Cheng KWE, Divakar BP, Wu H, Ding K, Ho HF. Battery-management system
(BMS) and SOC development for electrical vehicles. IEEE Trans Veh Technol
2011;60:76–88.
[16] Kaiser R. Optimized battery-management system to improve storage lifetime in
renewable energy systems. J Power Sources 2007;168:58–65.
[17] Bonfiglio C, Roessler W. A cost optimized battery management system with active
cell balancing for lithium ion battery stacks. In: Proceedings of the vehicle power
and propulsion conference, 2009 VPPC'09. IEEE; {C}2009{C}, p. 304–9.
[18] Yarlagadda S, Hartley TT, Husain I. A battery management system using an active
charge equalization technique based on a DC/DC converter topology. IEEE Trans
Ind Appl 2013;49:2720–9.
[19] HHG Limited. Global new energy development report. 2016.
[20] {C}GTM {C}Research{C}. U. S. Energy Storage Monitor: 2016 Year in Review and
Q1 2017 Executive Summary; {C}2017.
[21] {C}Alliance CES.{C} US energy storage market dynamics; {C}2017{C}.
[22] PV MAGAZINE. Frequency response storage heating up in the UK; {C}2016.
[23] Wind power engineering & development. Kokam to develop 36-MW energy storage
system for KEPCO; {C}2016{C}.
[24] Larcher D, Tarascon JM. Towards greener and more sustainable batteries for
electrical energy storage. Nat Chem 2015;7:19–29.
[25] Hammond GP, Hazeldine T. Indicative energy technology assessment of advanced
14
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
rechargeable batteries. Appl Energy 2015;138:559–71.
[26] Manwell JF, Mcgowan JG. Lead acid battery storage model for hybrid energy
systems. Sol Energy 1993;50:399–405.
[27] Spanos C, Turney DE, Fthenakis V. Life-cycle analysis of flow-assisted nickel zinc-,
manganese dioxide-, and valve-regulated lead-acid batteries designed for demand-
charge reduction. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;43:478–94.
[28] Moseley PT, Rand DAJ, Peters K. Enhancing the performance of lead–acid batteries
with carbon – in pursuit of an understanding. J Power Sources 2015;295:268–74.
[29] Furukawa J, Takada T, Monma D, Lam LT. Further demonstration of the VRLA-
type UltraBattery under medium-HEV duty and development of the flooded-type
UltraBattery for micro-HEV applications. J Power Sources 2010;195:1241–5.
[30] Lam LT, Louey R, Haigh NP, Lim OV, Vella DG, Phyland CG, et al. VRLA
Ultrabattery for high-rate partial-state-of-charge operation. J Power Sources
2007;174:16–29.
[31] Kirchev A, Serra L, Dumenil S, Brichard G, Alias M, Jammet B, et al. Carbon
honeycomb grids for advanced lead-acid batteries. Part III: technology scale-up. J
Power Sources 2015;299:324–33.
[32] Wang Feng, Chen, Zhou, Kangli, Wang, et al. Research progresses of cathodic
hydrogen evolution in advanced lead–acid batteries. Sci Bull 2016;61:451–8.
[33] Tong P, Zhao R, Zhang R, Yi F, Shi G, Li A, et al. Characterization of lead(II)-
containing activated carbon and its excellent performance of extending lead-acid
battery cycle life for high-rate partial-state-of-charge operation. J Power Sources
2015;286:91–102.
[34] Koenig GM, Belharouak I, Deng H, Sun YK, Amine K. Composition-tailored
synthesis of gradient transition metal precursor particles for lithium-ion battery
cathode materials. Chem Mater 2016;23:2863–70.
[35] Xu J, Chen G, Zhang H, Zheng W, Li Y. Electrochemical performance of Zr-doped
LiV(PO)/C composite cathode materials for lithium ion batteries. J Appl
Electrochem 2015;45:123–30.
[36] Tarascon JM, Armand M. Issues and challenges facing rechargeable lithium bat-
teries. Nature 2001;414:359–67.
[37] Guo R, Li Z, Yue W. Assembly of core–shell structured porous carbon–graphene
composites as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. Electrochim Acta
2015;152:338–44.
[38] Wang Q, Sun J, Wang Q, Zhang D, Xing L, Xue X. Electrochemical performance of
α-MoO3–In2O3 core–shell nanorods as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. J
Mater Chem A 2015;3:5083–91.
[39] Li W, Yang Y, Zhang G, Zhang YW. Ultrafast and directional diffusion of lithium in
phosphorene for high-performance lithium-ion battery. Nano Lett 2015:15.
[40] Chen JZ, Liao WY, Hsieh WY, Hsu CC, Chen YS. All-vanadium redox flow batteries
with graphite felt electrodes treated by atmospheric pressure plasma jets. J Power
Sources 2015;274:894–8.
[41] Walsh FC{C}, Berlouis L, {C}Nikiforidis G{C}, Arenas-Martínez LF{C}, {C}
Hodgson D,{C} {C}Hall D. The development of Zn–Ce hybrid redox flow batteries
for energy storage.
[42] Zeng YK, Zhou XL, An L, Wei L, Zhao TS. A high-performance flow-field structured
iron-chromium redox flow battery. J Power Sources 2016;324:738–44.
[43] Rajarathnam GP, Schneider M, Sun X, Vassallo AM. The influence of supporting
electrolytes on zinc half-cell performance in zinc/bromine flow batteries. J
Electrochem Soc 2016:163.
[44] Dunn B, Kamath H, Tarascon JM. Electrical energy storage for the grid: a battery of
choices. Science 2011;334:928–35.
[45] Li B, Nie Z, Vijayakumar M, Li G, Liu J, Sprenkle V, et al. Ambipolar zinc-poly-
iodide electrolyte for a high-energy density aqueous redox flow battery. Nat
Commun 2011:6.
[46] Pour N, Kwabi DG, Carney TJ, Darling RM, Perry ML, Yang SH. Influence of edge-
and basal-plane sites on the vanadium redox kinetics for flow batteries. J Phys
Chem C 2015;119:5311–8.
[47] Yang XG, Ye Q, Cheng P, Zhao TS. Effects of the electric field on ion crossover in
vanadium redox flow batteries. Appl Energy 2015;145:306–19.
[48] Schweiss R. Influence of bulk fibre properties of PAN-based carbon felts on their
performance in vanadium redox flow batteries. J Power Sources 2015;278:308–13.
[49] Mohamed MR, Leung PK, Sulaiman MH. Performance characterization of a va-
nadium redox flow battery at different operating parameters under a standardized
test-bed system. Appl Energy 2015;137:402–12.
[50] Manthiram A, Yu X. Ambient temperature sodium–sulfur batteries. Small
2015;11:2108–14.
[51] Min JK, Stackpool M, Shin CH, Lee CH. Cell safety analysis of a molten so-
dium–sulfur battery under failure mode from a fracture in the solid electrolyte. J
Power Sources 2015;293:835–45.
[52] Chen YM, Liang W, Li S, Zou F, Bhaway SM, Qiang Z, et al. Nitrogen doped car-
bonized metal organic framework for high stability room temperature sodium-
sulfur battery. J Mater Chem A 2016.
[53] Wei S, Xu S, Agrawral A, Choudhury S, Lu Y, Tu Z, et al. A stable room-tem-
perature sodium–sulfur battery. Nat Commun 2016:7.
[54] Xin S, Yin YX, Guo YG, Wan LJ. Batteries: a high-energy room-temperature so-
dium-sulfur battery. Adv Mater 2014;26:1308.
[55] Yu X, Manthiram A. Na2S-carbon nanotube fabric electrodes for room-temperature
sodium-sulfur batteries. Chem – A Eur J 2015;21:4233–7.
[56] Lin MC, Gong M, Lu B, Wu Y, Wang DY, Guan M, et al. An ultrafast rechargeable
aluminium-ion battery. Nature 2015;520:325–8.
[57] Jung SC, Kang YJ, Yoo DJ, Choi JW, Han YK. Flexible few-layered graphene for the
ultrafast rechargeable aluminum-ion battery. J Phys Chem C 2016.
[58] Wu MS, Xu B, Chen LQ, Ouyang CY. Geometry and fast diffusion of AlCl4 cluster
intercalated in graphite. Electrochim Acta 2016;195:158–65.
[59] Yu X, Wang B, Gong D, Xu Z, Lu B. Graphene nanoribbons on highly porous 3D
C. Zhang et al.
graphene for high‐capacity and ultrastable Al‐ion batteries. Adv Mater 2017:29.
[60] Jiao H, Wang C, Tu J, Tian D, Jiao S. A rechargeable Al-ion battery: Al/
moltenAlCl3‐AlCl3-urea/graphite. Chem Commun 2017;53:2331–4.
[61] Angell M, Pan CJ, Rong Y, Yuan C, Lin MC, Hwang BJ, et al. High Coulombic
efficiency aluminum-ion battery using an AlCl3-urea ionic liquid analog electro-
lyte. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2017;114:834.
[62] Ye D, Luo B, Lu GM, Wang L. Will new aluminum-ion battery be a game changer?
Sci Bull 2015;60:1–3.
[63] Prentis EL. Reconstructing renewable energy: making wind and solar power dis-
patchable, reliable and efficient. Int J Energy Econ Policy 2016.
[64] Poullikkas A. A comparative overview of large-scale battery systems for electricity
storage. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;27:778–88.
[65] Ma T, Yang H, Lin L. A feasibility study of a stand-alone hybrid solar–wind–battery
system for a remote island. Appl Energy 2014;121:149–58.
[66] Sun F, Xiong R, He H. A systematic state-of-charge estimation framework for multi-
cell battery pack in electric vehicles using bias correction technique. Appl Energy
2014:162.
[67] Ghenaatian HR, Mousavi MF, Rahmanifar MS. High performance batter-
y–supercapacitor hybrid energy storage system based on self-doped polyaniline
nanofibers. Synth Met 2017;161:2017–23.
[68] Mukherjee N, Strickland D. Control of second-life hybrid battery energy storage
system based on modular boost-multilevel buck converter. IEEE Trans Ind Electron
2015;62:1.
[69] Li Y, Han Y. A module-integrated distributed battery energy storage and man-
agement system. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2016;31:8260–70.
[70] Preethi, Rani R. Solar pv and battery storage integration using three level npc
inverter; {C}2014{C}.
[71] Hu S, Liang Z, He X. Ultracapacitor-battery hybrid energy storage system based on
the asymmetric bidirectional Z-source topology for EV. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2016;31:7489–98.
[72] Morstyn T, Momayyezan M, Hredzak B, Agelidis VG. Distributed control for state-
of-charge balancing between the modules of a reconfigurable battery energy sto-
rage system. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2015;31:1.
[73] Serban I, Marinescu C. Control strategy of three-phase battery energy storage
systems for frequency support in microgrids and with uninterrupted supply of local
loads. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2014;29:5010–20.
[74] Simões MG, Busarello TDC, Bubshait AS, Harichi F, Pomilio JA, Blaabjerg F.
Interactive smart battery storage for a PV and wind hybrid energy management
control based on conservative power theory. Int J Control 2015:1–50.
[75] Mukherjee N, Strickland D. Control of cascaded DC–DC converter-based hybrid
battery energy storage systems-Part I: stability issue. IEEE Trans Ind Electron
2015;63:2340–9.
[76] Vasiladiotis M, Rufer A. Analysis and control of modular multilevel converters
with integrated battery energy storage. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2015;30:163–75.
[77] Lo KY, Chen YM, Chang YR. Bi-directional single-stage grid-connected inverter for
battery energy storage system. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2016:1.
[78] Nguyen CL, Lee HH. A novel dual-battery energy storage system for wind power
applications. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2016.
[79] Wang R, Wang F, Boroyevich D, Burgos R, Lai R, Ning P, et al. A high power
density single-phase PWM rectifier with active ripple energy storage. IEEE Trans
Power Electron 2011;26:1430–43.
[80] Jahdi S, Alatise O, Ortiz Gonzalez JA, Bonyadi R. Temperature and switching rate
dependence of crosstalk in Si-IGBT and SiC power modules. IEEE Trans Ind
Electron 2015;63:1.
[81] Zhao B, Song Q, Liu W. Experimental comparison of isolated bidirectional DC–DC
converters based on all-Si and all-SiC power devices for next-generation power
conversion application. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2014;61:1389–93.
[82] Bhatnagar M, Baliga BJ. Comparison of 6H-SiC, 3C-SiC, and Si for power devices.
IEEE Trans Electron Devices 1993;40:645–55.
[83] Mirzaee H, De A, Tripathi A, Bhattacharya S. Design comparison of high power
medium-voltage converters based on 6.5 kV Si-IGBT/Si-PiN diode, 6.5 kV Si-IGBT/
SiC-JBS diode, and 10 kV SiC MOSFET/SiC-JBS diode. IEEE Trans Ind Appl
2011;50:2421–8.
[84] Kraus R, Castellazzi A. A physics-based compact model of SiC power MOSFETs.
IEEE Trans Power Electron 2016;31:5863–70.
[85] Bellone S, Benedetto LD. A model of the characteristics of normally OFF 4H-SiC
bipolar JFETs. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2014;29:514–21.
[86] Fu R, Grekov A, Peng K, Santi E. Parameter extraction procedure for a physics-
based power SiC Schottky diode model. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2014;50:3558–68.
[87] Arribas AP, Shang F, Krishnamurthy M, Shenai K. Simple and accurate circuit si-
mulation model for SiC power MOSFETs. IEEE Trans Electron Devices 2015;62:1.
[88] Johannesson D, Nawaz M. Development of a simple analytical PSpice model for
SiC based BJT power modules. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2015;31:1.
[89] Johannesson D, Nawaz M. Analytical PSpice model for SiC MOSFET based high
power modules. Mater Sci Forum 2016;858:167–76.
[90] {C}Li G, {C}Gao {C}Q{C}, {C}Jin {C}M{C}, Kou J. An improved MATLAB/si-
mulink model of SiC power MOSFETs. In: Proceedings of the IEEE international
power electronics and motion control conference; {C}2016{C}.
[91] Akagi H, Yamagishi T, Tan NML, Kinouchi SI. Power-loss breakdown of a 750-V
100-kW 20-kHz bidirectional isolated DC–DC converter using SiC-MOSFET/SBD
dual modules. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2015;51:420–8.
[92] Zhong X, Wu X, Zhou W, Sheng K. An all-SiC high frequency boost DC-DC con-
verter operating at 320 °C junction temperature. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2014;29:1.
[93] Chen Z, Yao Y, Boroyevich D, Ngo KDT, Mattavelli P, Rajashekara K. A 1200-V, 60-
15
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
A SiC MOSFET multichip phase-leg module for high-temperature, high-frequency
applications. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2014;29:2307–20.
[94] Gao Y, Huang AQ, Krishnaswami S, Richmond J. Comparison of static and
switching characteristics of 1200 V 4H-SiC BJT and 1200 V Si-IGBT. IEEE Trans
Ind Appl 2008;44:887–93.
[95] Madhusoodhanan S, Hatua K, Bhattacharya S, Leslie S, Ryu SH, Das M, et al.
Comparison study of 12 kV n-type SiC IGBT with 10 kV SiC MOSFET and 6.5 kV Si
IGBT based on 3L-NPC VSC applications. Energy Convers Congr Expo 2012:310–7.
[96] Schafmeister {C}F{C}{C}, Herold S{C}, {C}Kolar JW.{C} Evaluation of 1200 V-Si-
IGBTs and 1300 V-SiC-JFETs for application in three-phase very sparse matrix AC-
AC converter systems. In: Proceedings of the applied power electronics conference
and exposition Apec'03 eighteenth. IEEE; 2003, p. 241–55.
[97] Schrock JA, Ray WB, Lawson K, Bilbao A, Bayne SB, Holt SL, et al. High-mobility
stable 1200 V, 150 A 4H-SiC DMOSFET long-term reliability analysis under high
current density transient conditions. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2014:1–5.
[98] Hazra S, De A, Bhattacharya S, Lin C. High switching performance of 1.7 kV, 50 A
SiC power MOSFET over Si IGBT for advanced power conversion applications. In:
Proceedings of the power electronic Conference; 2014, p. 3447–54.
[99] Dujic D, Steinke GK, Bellini M, Rahimo M, Storasta L, Steinke JK. Characterization
of 6.5 kV IGBTs for high-power medium-frequency soft-switched applications.
IEEE Trans Power Electron 2014;29:906–19.
[100] Guzman H, Barrero F, Duran MJ. IGBT-gating failure effect on a fault-tolerant
predictive current controlled 5-phase induction motor drive. IEEE Trans Ind
Electron 2015;62:15–20.
[101] Grider D, Das M, Agarwal A, Palmour J, Leslie S, Ostop J, et al. 10 kV/120 A SiC
DMOSFET half H-bridge power modules for 1 MVA solid state power substation.
In: Proceedings of the electric ship technologies symposium (ESTS). IEEE; 2011, p.
131–4.
[102] Madhusoodhanan S, Tripathi A, Patel D, Mainali K. Solid-state transformer and
MV grid tie applications enabled by 15 kV SiC IGBTs and 10 kV SiC MOSFETs
based multilevel converters. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2014;51:3343–60.
[103] Hatua K, Dutta S, Tripathi A, Baek S, Karimi G, Bhattacharya S. Transformer less
intelligent power substation design with 15 kV SiC IGBT for grid interconnection.
In: Proceedings of the energy conversion congress and exposition (ECCE). IEEE;
2011, p. 4225–32.
[104] Zhang Q, Agarwal A, Capell C, Cheng L. SiC super GTO thyristor technology de-
velopment. Present Status Future Perspect 2011:1530–5.
[105] Lawson K, Alvarez G, Bayne SB, Veliadis V, Ha HC, Urciuoli D, et al. Hard-switch
stressing of vertical-channel implanted-gate SiC JFETs. IEEE Electron Device Lett
2012;33:86–8.
[106] Risaletto D, Bergogne D, Dubois F, Morel H, Allard B, Meuret R. A 200 °C safety
system at power-up of normally on SiC JFETs inverters. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2014;29:2338–44.
[107] Sarnago H, Lucia O, Mediano A, Burdio JM. Improved operation of SiC-BJT-based
series resonant inverter with optimized base drive circuit. IEEE Trans Power
Electron 2014;29:1.
[108] Han D, Noppakunkajorn J, Sarlioglu B. Comprehensive efficiency, weight, and
volume comparison of SiC- and Si-based bidirectional DC–DC converters for hy-
brid electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Veh Technol 2014;63:3001–10.
[109] Tripathi AK, Mainali K, Patel DC, Kadavelugu A. Design considerations of a 15-kV
SiC IGBT-based medium-voltage high-frequency isolated DC–DC converter. IEEE
Trans Ind Appl 2015;51:1.
[110] Femina JK, Mangaiyarkarasi J. Reduction of switching losses and current ringing
effects in SiC JFET-Si MOSFET cascode switch using an enhanced gate driver. Digit
Signal Process 2014.
[111] Nakakohara Y, Otake H, Evans TM, Yoshida T. Three-phase LLC series resonant
DC/DC converter using SiC MOSFETs to realize high-voltage and high-frequency
operation. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2016;63:2103–10.
[112] Taghvaee MH, Radzi MAM, Moosavain SM, Hizam H, Marhaban MH. A current
and future study on non-isolated DC–DC converters for photovoltaic applications.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;17:216–27.
[113] Zhang N, Sutanto D, Muttaqi KM. A review of topologies of three-port DC–DC
converters for the integration of renewable energy and energy storage system.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;56:388–401.
[114] Rehman Z, Al-Bahadly I, Mukhopadhyay S. Multiinput DC–DC converters in re-
newable energy applications – an overview. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2015;41:521–39.
[115] Zeng J, Qiao W, Qu L. An isolated three-port bidirectional DC-DC converter for
photovoltaic systems with energy storage. IEEE Trans Ind Appl
2015;51:3493–503.
[116] Hu Y, Xiao W, Cao W, Ji B, Morrow DJ. Three-port DC-DC converter for stand-
alone photovoltaic systems. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2015;30:3068–76.
[117] Cai W, Jiang L, Liu B, Duan S, Zou C. A power decoupling methodbased on four-
switch three-port DC/DC/AC converter in DC microgrid. IEEE Trans Ind Appl
2014;51:336–43.
[118] Zhu H, Zhang D, Qing L, Zhicheng Z. Three-port DC/DC converter with all ports
current ripple cancellation using integrated magnetic technique. IEEE Trans Power
Electron 2015:1.
[119] Zhu H, Zhang D, Zhang B, Zhou Z. A non-isolated three-port DC-DC converter and
three domain control method for PV-battery power systems. IEEE Trans Ind
Electron 2015;62:1.
[120] Papafotiou GA, Margaris NI. Calculation and stability investigation of periodic
steady states of the voltage controlled buck DC-DC converter. IEEE Trans Power
Electron 2004;19:959–70.
[121] Wu H, Sun K, Ding S, Xing Y. Topology derivation of nonisolated three-port DC–DC
converters from DIC and DOC. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2013;28:3297–307.
C. Zhang et al.
[122] Beccuti AG, Papafotiou G, Morari M. Optimal control of the boost dc-dc converter.
In: Proceedings of the 44th IEEE conference on decision and control; 2005, p.
4457–62.
[123] Chien LJ, Chen CC, Chen JF, Hsieh YP. Novel three-port converter with high-
voltage gain. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2014;29:4693–703.
[124] Babaei E, Mahmoodieh MES, Mahery HM. Operational modes and output-voltage-
ripple analysis and design considerations of buck–boost DC–DC converters. IEEE
Trans Ind Electron 2012;59:381–91.
[125] Chen Y, Wen G, Peng L, Kang Y. A family of cost-efficient non-isaolated single-
inductor three-port converters for low power stand-alone renewable power ap-
plications, Vol. 331; 2013, p. 1083–8.
[126] Souza JPd, Oliveira Pd, Gules R, Romaneli EFR, Badin AA. A high static gain CUK
DC-DC converter. In: Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 13th Brazilian power elec-
tronics conference and 1st southern power electronics conference (COBEP/SPEC);
2015, p. 1–6.
[127] Biswas S, Dhople S, Mohan N. A three-port bidirectional DC-DC converter with
zero-ripple terminal currents for PV/microgrid applications. In: Proceedings of the
industrial electronics society, IECON 2013-conference of the IEEE; 2013, p. 340–5.
[128] Moussa WM. Modeling and performance evaluation of a DC/DC SEPIC converter.
In: Applied power electronics conference and exposition, 1995 APEC'95 con-
ference proceedings, tenth annual, Vol. 2; {C}1995{C}, p. 702–6.
[129] Ding S{C}, {C}Wu {C}H, Xing {C}Y, {C}Fang Y{C}, Ma X. Topology and control of
a family of non-isolated three-port DC-DC converters with a bidirectional cell. In:
Proceedings of the applied power electronics conference and exposition; {C}
2013{C}, p. 1089–1089.
[130] {C}Peres A{C}, {C}Martins {C}DC, Barbi {C}I. ZETA converter applied in power
factor correction. In: Proceedings of the power electronics specialists conference,
PESC'94 record, Vol. 2. 25th annual IEEE; 1994, p. 1152–7.
[131] Venmathi M, Ramaprabha R. Investigation on fuzzy logic based centralized control
in four-port SEPIC/ZETA bidirectional converter for photovoltaic applications.
Adv Electr Comput Eng 2016;16:53–60.
[132] Gang C, Yim-Shu L, Hui SYR, Dehong X, Yousheng W. Actively clamped bidirec-
tional flyback converter. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2000;47:770–9.
[133] Ryan MJ, Brumsickle WE, Divan DM, Lorenz RD. A new ZVS LCL-resonant push-
pull DC-DC converter topology. In: Proceedings of the industry applications con-
ference, 1997 thirty-second IAS annual meeting, IAS'97, conference record of the
1997, Vol. 2. IEEE; 1997, p. 1673–80.
[134] Kim J, Song HS, Nam K. Asymmetric duty control of a dual-half-bridge DC/DC
converter for single-phase distributed generators. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2011;26:973–82.
[135] Qian Z, Abdel-Rahman O, Al-Atrash H, Batarseh I. Modeling and control of three-
port DC/DC converter interface for satellite applications. IEEE Trans Power
Electron 2010;25:637–49.
[136] Twiname RP, Thrimawithana DJ, Madawala UK, Baguley CA. A dual-active bridge
topology with a tuned CLC network. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2015;30:6543–50.
[137] Wu H, Sun K, Chen R, Hu H, Xing Y. Full-bridge three-port converters with wide
input voltage range for renewable power systems. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2012;27:3965–74.
[138] Siewniak P, Grzesik B. A brief review of models of DC–DC power electronic con-
verters for analysis of their stability. Int J Electron 2014;101:1405–26.
[139] Mu Q, Liang J, Zhou X, Li Y, Zhang X. Improved ADC model of voltage-source
converters in DC grids. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2014;29:5738–48.
[140] Han J, Zhang B, Qiu D. Bi-switching status modeling method for DC-DC converters
in CCM and DCM operations. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2016:1.
[141] Zhang K, Shan Z, Jatskevich J. Large- and small-signal average value modeling of
16
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
dual-active-bridge DC–DC converter considering power losses. IEEE Trans Power
Electron 2016:1.
[142] Zhan D, Wei L, Zhang Y, Yao Y. A generalized model of nonisolated multiphase
DC–DC converter based on novel switching period averaging method. IEEE Trans
Power Electron 2015;30:5181–91.
[143] Qiu Y, Chen X, Zhong C, Qi C. Uniform models of PWM DC–DC converters for
discontinuous conduction mode considering parasitics. IEEE Trans Ind Electron
2014;61:6071–80.
[144] Kurokawa F, Yamanishi A, Hirotaki S. Reference modification model digitally
controlled DC-DC converter for improvement of transient response. IEEE Trans
Power Electron 2015;31:1.
[145] Wu C, Si G, Zhang Y, Yang N. The fractional-order state-space averaging modeling
of the buck–boost DC/DC converter in discontinuous conduction mode and the
performance analysis. Nonlinear Dyn 2014;79:689–703.
[146] Alonge F, Rabbeni R, Pucci M, Vitale G. Identification and robust control of a
quadratic DC/DC boost converter by Hammerstein model. IEEE Trans Ind Appl
2015;51:1.
[147] Xu J, Gole AM, Zhao C. The use of averaged-value model of modular multilevel
converter in DC grid. IEEE Trans Power Deliv 2015;30:519–28.
[148] Demirbaş Ş, Fidanboy H, Kurt E, Demirbaş Ş, Fidanboy H, Kurt E. Exploration of
the chaotic behaviour in a buck-boost converter depending on the converter and
load elements. J Electron Mater 2016;45:3889–99.
[149] Cortes J, Svikovic V, Alou P, Oliver JA, Cobos JA, Wisniewski R. Accurate analysis
of subharmonic oscillations of V2 and V2Ic and controls applied to buck converter.
IEEE Trans Power Electron 2014;30:1.
[150] Zamani N, Ataei M, Niroomand M. Analysis and control of chaotic behavior in
boost converter by ramp compensation based on Lyapunov exponents assignment:
theoretical and experimental investigation. Chaos Solitons Fractals 2015;81:20–9.
[151] Wang X, Zhang B, Qiu D. The quantitative characterization of symbolic series of a
boost converter. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2011;24:2101–5.
[152] W X, Z B. Mechanism of border-collision bifurcations and chaos in H-bridge direct
current copper. Proc Chin Soc Electr Eng 2009;29:22–7.
[153] Zhang C, Wang J, Li S, Wu B. Robust control for PWM-based DC–DC buck power
converters with uncertainty via sampled-data output feedback. IEEE Trans Power
Electron 2015;30:504–15.
[154] Ling R, Maksimovic D, Leyva R. Second-order sliding-mode controlled synchro-
nous buck DC-DC converter. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2015:1.
[155] Mukherjee N, Strickland D. Control of cascaded DC-DC converter based hybrid
battery energy storage systems – Part II: Lyapunov approach. IEEE Trans Ind
Electron 2015:63.
[156] Ke Y. Mittag–Leffler stability of fractional-order Lorenz and Lorenz-family systems.
Nonlinear Dyn 2015:1–10.
[157] Karamanakos P, Geyer T, Manias S. Direct voltage control of DC–DC boost con-
verters using enumeration-based model predictive control. IEEE Trans Power
Electron 2014;29:968–78.
[158] Wei Q, Wu B, Xu D, Zargari N. Model predictive control of capacitor voltage
balancing for cascaded modular DC-DC converters. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2016:1.
[159] Kim SK, Chang RP, Kim JS, Lee YI. A stabilizing model predictive controller for
voltage regulation of a DC/DC boost converter. IEEE Trans Control Syst Technol
2014;22:2016–23.
[160] Akter P, Uddin M, Mekhilef S, Tan NML, Akagi H. Model predictive control of
bidirectional isolated DC–DC converter for energy conversion system. Int J
Electron 2015;102:1–21.