Wollega University

Department of Informatics
Data Communication and Computer Networking

March 2016
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Chapter Two
Introduction to Computer
Networks
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Introduction
• In 1977, Apple Computer popularized personal computing.
• Computers became so economical that people could buy them
for their own personal or business use.
• In 1981, IBM introduced the IBM Personal Computer.
• This quickly legitimized personal computing in business,
industry and government organizations.
• These computers were “standalone” units.
• people transported disks back and forth between them to
share information (often called “sneakernet”).
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Cont’d…
• Explosive Internet growth in the late 1990s dramatically
affected the evolution of computer networking.
• High-speed home networking struggled to get off the ground
in 1997 and 1998.
• Cable modem was the first broadband option available to
many, but only a few hundred thousand subscribed to Internet
cable in that first year.
• It took until 2001 for home broadband to enter mainstream
usage and begin growing at a faster rate than Internet dial-
up services. 4
Computer Network
• A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable
of communication.
• A device can be:
a host such as a large computer, desktop, laptop, workstation,
cellular phone, or security system.
a connecting device such as a router, which connects the network
to other networks, a switch, which connects devices together, a
modem (modulator-demodulator), which changes the form of data,
and so on.
• These devices in a network are connected using wired or
wireless transmission media such as cable or air.
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 Router/Firewall
Smart Phone
Modem

Switch

Wi-Fi
Laptop
iMac

iPad
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Network Criteria
• A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.
• The most important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance
• Can be measured in terms of transit time and response time.
Transit time: the amount of time required for a message to travel from
one device to another.
Response time: the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
• The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including
the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
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Cont’d...
• Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
throughput and delay.
• If we try to send more data to the network, we may increase
throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic
congestion in the network.
Reliability
• Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the
time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network’s
robustness in a catastrophe.

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Cont’d...
Security
• Network security issues include protecting data from
unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses.

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Type of Connection
• A network is two or more devices connected through links.
• A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to
another.
• There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point
• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices.

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Cont’d…
Multipoint
• A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single link.

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Advantages of Computer Network
• File Sharing: Networks offer a quick and easy way to share files
directly.
• Resource Sharing: All computers in the network can share resources
such as printers, fax machines, modems and scanners.
• Communication: Those on the network can communicate with each
other via e-mail, instant messages etc.
• Flexible Access: Networks allow their users to access files from
computers throughout the network.
• Sharing of Information: Computer networks enable us to share data
and information with the computers that are located geographically
large distance apart.

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Applications of Computer Network
• E-mail
• Searchable Data (Web Sites)
• E-Commerce
• News Groups
• Internet Telephony (VoIP)
• Video Conferencing
• Chat Groups
• Instant Messengers
• Internet Radio

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Types of Computer Networks
• A network can be as small as distance between your mobile phone and
its Bluetooth headphone and as large as the internet itself, covering the
whole geographical world.
• Networks are distinguished based on:
1. their geographical span.
 Personal Area Network
 Local Area Network
 Metropolitan Area Network
 Wide Area Network
2. how they share information
 Peer-to-peer Network
 Client Server Network
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Personal Area Network
• A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a
user.
• This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices.
• PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters.
• PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled
headphones, wireless printers, and TV remotes.

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Local Area Network
• A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single
administrative system.
• Usually, LAN covers an organization offices, schools, colleges or universities.
• Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from as least as two to as much as 16
million.
• LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users.
• The resources such as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable
among computers.
• LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment.
• It may contains local servers serving file storage and other locally shared applications.
• It mostly operates on private IP addresses and does not involve heavy routing.
• LAN works under its own local domain and controlled centrally.
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Cont’d…
• LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology.
• Ethernet is most widely employed LAN technology and uses Star topology, while
Token-ring is rarely seen.
• LAN can be wired, wireless, or in both forms at once.

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Metropolitan Area Network
• The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout
a city such as cable TV network.
• It can be in the form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).
• Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs.
• This service enables its users to expand their Local Area Networks.
For example, MAN can help an organization to connect all of its
offices in a city.
• Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics.

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Cont’d…
• MAN works in between Local Area Network and Wide Area Network.
• MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs or internet.

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Wide Area Network
• The Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which may span
across provinces and even a whole country.
• Generally, telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network.
• These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs.
• Since they are equipped with very high speed backbone, WANs use
very expensive network equipment.
• WAN may be managed by multiple administration.

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Cont’d…
• WANs use specifically designed network devices to make the interconnections between
LANs.
• Because of the importance of these devices to the network, configuring, installing and
maintaining these devices are skills that are integral to the function of an organization's
network.

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Peer-to-Peer Network
• P2P network is the sharing of computer resources and services by
direct exchange between systems.
• In the P2P model, all end systems have equivalent capabilities and
responsibilities and either party can initiate a communication session.
• Thus, the participants are both resource providers and resource
requestors and use similar networking programs to connect with each
other

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Client Server Network
• Only one computer called the server shares its resources with all other
computers called clients.
• A client is a device that makes use of the available services.
• In a client/server network, the clients use the server’s services.
• A server generally stores all data files, many applications, and control
over peripherals and resources.
• Some networks contain one server, and others may contain multiple
servers.
• The number of servers depends on the number of clients and the
number of services offered.
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Client Server Network
• A client/server network, depending on the hardware, services
offered, and the network operating system, can serve anywhere from
10 to 150 or so clients
Server

Client Client
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Client
Computer Network Topologies
• The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network
is laid out physically.
• Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology.
• The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called
nodes) to one another.
• There are six basic topologies: star, bus, mesh, ring, Tree and
Hybrid.
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Star Topology
• In a star network, each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) is
connected to a central device called a hub.
• The hub takes a signal that comes from any node and passes it along to all the
other nodes in the network.
• Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before
continuing to its destination.
• The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the
network.
• The star topology reduces the chance of network failure by connecting all of the
systems to a central node.
• In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any
number of others.
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Star Topology

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Cont’d…
Advantages of Star Topology
• Easy to manage
• Easy to locate problems (cable/workstations)
• Easier to expand than a bus or ring topology.
• Easy to install and wire.
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
• Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
• If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
• More expensive because of the cost of the concentrators.
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Bus Topology
• A bus topology is multipoint connection.
• One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a
network.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
• A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main
cable.
• A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures
the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
• As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it
travels farther and farther.
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• For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can
support and on the distance between those taps.

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Cont’d…
Advantages of Bus Topology
• It is Cheap, easy to handle and implement.
• Require less cable
• It is best suited for small networks.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
• The cable length is limited. This limits the number of stations
that can be connected.
• This network topology can perform well only for a limited
number of nodes.
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Ring Topology
• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point
connection with only the two devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from
device to device, until it reaches its destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
• When a device receives a signal intended for another device,
its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
• Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either
physically or logically).

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• To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections.
• The only constraints are media and traffic considerations
(maximum ring length and number of devices).

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Cont’d…
Advantage of Ring Topology
• Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit.
• Easier to Mange than a Bus Network
• Good Communication over long distances
• Handles high volume of traffic
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• The failure of a single node of the network can cause the entire network to
fail.
• The movement or changes made to network nodes affects the performance
of the entire network
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Mesh Topology
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device.
• The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices
it connects.
• To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n – 1
input/output (I/O) ports to be connected to the other n – 1 stations.

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Cont’d…
Advantage of Mesh Topology
• No traffic problem as there are dedicated links.
• It has multiple links, so if one route is blocked then other routes can be used
for data communication.
• Points to point links make fault identification easy.
Disadvantage of Mesh Topology
• There is mesh of wiring which can be difficult to manage.
• Installation is complex as each node is connected to every node.
• Cabling cost is high.

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Tree Topology
• A tree topology (hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a collection
of star networks arranged in a hierarchy.
• This tree has individual peripheral nodes which are required to
transmit to and receive from one other only and are not required to act
as repeaters or regenerators.
• The tree topology arranges links and nodes into distinct hierarchies in
order to allow greater control and easier troubleshooting.
• This is particularly helpful for colleges, universities and schools so
that each of the connect to the big network in some way.

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Tree Topology

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Cont’d…
Advantages of a Tree Topology
• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
• Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
• All the computers have access to the larger and their immediate
networks.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
• Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

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Hybrid Topology
• A combination of any two or more network
topologies.
• A hybrid topology always accrues when two different
basic network topologies are connected.
• It is a mixture of above mentioned topologies.
Usually, a central computer is attached with sub-
controllers which in turn participate in a variety of
topologies
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Hybrid Topology

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Cont’d…
Advantages of a Hybrid Topology
• It is extremely flexible.
• It is very reliable.
Disadvantages of a Hybrid Topology
• Expensive

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Computer Network Components
The components of a network are:
• Computer systems with network cards
• Communications software
• Networking and Internetworking devices
• Data / Information
• Networked / shared resources
• Users / Applications

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Network Interface Card
• A network interface card (NIC) is a device that plugs into a motherboard
and provides ports for the network media connections.
• It is the component that interfaces with the local-area network (LAN).
• The following things are important to consider when selecting a NIC:

The type of network

The type of media
The type of system bus

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Networking and Internetworking devices

Hub Bridge Modem

Router Switch

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Data Communication & Transmission Medias
• A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry
information from a source to a destination.
• The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic
cable.
• The information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data from
another form.

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Cont’d…
• In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad
categories: guided and unguided.
• Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
• Unguided medium is free space.

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Twisted-Pair Cable
• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted together.

• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only
as a ground reference.
• Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external
influences (noise or crosstalk).
• Two types:
Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable (UTP)
Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable (STP) 48
UTP Vs STP
• STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of
insulated conductors.
• Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration
of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.

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Categories of UTP Cable

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UTP Cable Connectors
• The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack).
• The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only one
way.

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Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted
pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently.
• Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire
(usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer
conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
• The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor, which completes the circuit.
• This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is
protected by a plastic cover

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Cont’d…

• Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG) ratings.

• Each RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the
wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the
construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing.

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Coaxial Cable Connectors
• To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors.
• The most common type of connector used today is the Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC)
connector.

• The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as a
TV set.
• The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a connection to a
computer or other device.
• The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.
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Fiber-Optic Cable
• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
• Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
• A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
• The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving
through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it.

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Cont’d…
• Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the diameter
of their cladding, both expressed in micrometers.

• Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable.
• The performance is such that we need fewer (actually one tenth as many) repeaters
when we use fiber-optic cable.

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Fiber-Optic Cable Connectors
• There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables.
• The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV.
• It uses a push/pull locking system.
• The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to networking devices.
• It uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC.
• MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45.

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Unguided Media: Wireless
• Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor.
• This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
• Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to
anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
• Unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination in several
ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation.
• We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups: radio waves,
microwaves, and infrared waves.

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Radio Waves
• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are
normally called radio waves.
• Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional.
• When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions.
• A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
• The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by
another antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or band.
• Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel
long distances.
• This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as
AM radio.
• Good for AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and
paging……. 59
Microwaves
• Waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
• Microwaves are unidirectional.
• When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly focused.
• This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
• Microwave propagation is line-of-sight.
• Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls.
• Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when
unicast (one-to-one) communication is needed between the sender and the
receiver.
• They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
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Infrared
• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wave lengths
from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication.
• Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
• We cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun’s rays
contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.
• When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use
of the remote by our neighbors.
• However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless for long-
range communication.

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