Ml 1.2. 13. 14. 1s. 16. WW. 18. 19. 1.10. LM. 1.12 1.13. 1.14. 1.15. 1.16. a7. 1.18. 119. 1.20, 1.21. 1.22. 1.23. 1.24. 1.25. Modern Electron Theory Nature of Electricity Unit of Charge Free Electrons Electric Current Electric Potential Potential Difference Maintaining Potential Difference Concept of E.M.F. and Potential Difference Potential Rise and Potential Diop Resistance Factors upon which Resistance Depends Specific Resistance or Resistivity Conductance Effect of Resistance Temperature Co-efficient of Resistance Graphical Determination of « Temperature Co-Efficient at Various Temperatures Summary of Temperature Co- Efficient Relations Ohm's Law Electric Power Electrical Eneray Use of Power and Energy Formulas: Carbon Resistors Power Rating of a Resistor Temperature on Fundamentals of Current Electricity INTRODUCTION he study of nature of electricity has been attract- l ing the attention of scientists for hundreds of years. Several theories about electricity were developed through experiments and by observation of, its behaviour. The only theory that has survived over the years to explain the nature of electricity is the fern Bl This theory has been the result of research work conducted by scientists like Sir William Crooks, J.J. Thomson, Robert A. Millikan, Sir Eamest Rutherford and Neils Bohr. In this chapter, we shall deal with some basic concepts concerning electricity. MODERN ELECTRON THEORY The nature of electricity can be beautifully explained on the basis of ‘Modern Electron Theory of Matter. According to this theory, all matter whether solid, liquid or gas is composed of minute particles called cule A molecule is in turn made up of atoms. Those substances whose molecules consist of ‘When this theory was stated, it was believed that all at- mis were made up of electrons and protons. Hence, the name electron theory. Although it is well known today that an atom contains a number of other particles such 8 neutrons, mesons, positrons ete. yet the term electron theory has been retained.| | j 2 © Principles of Electrical Engineering and Electronics ne ae Late ‘toms are called “cleinemts while those whose molecules consist of atoms of different ids are called « vnyyounds, The number of known stable elements is 105 while the number of compounds is unlimited Atoms are the building blocks of all matter. An atom consists of a central part called :ucfeus and around the nucleus (called -vrru nicer), there are a number of electrons revolving in different paths ‘or orbits. The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom. The diameter of an atom is of the order of 10°" metre compared to the diameter of the nucleus of the order of 10-18 metre. Thus. there is vast empty space existing in an atom. . _ 1. Nucleus, It is the central part of an stom and contains protons and newirons. A proton is a | Positively charged particle having mass 1837 times that of an electron. A neutron has the same mass a8 proton but no charge. Obviously, the nucleus ofan atom bears a positive charge. Since the mass of | an electron is very small as compared to that ofa proton or neutron, the nucleus of an atom constitutes the entire weight of atom ie, Atomic Weight = No. of protons + No. of neutrons 2. Extra-nucleus. Itis the outer part of an atom and contains electrons only. An electron is a negatively charged particle having negative charge equal to the positive charge on a proton. The electrons move around the nucleus indifferent paths or orbits obeying the following rules: j (i) The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in an orbit is given by 2n? Where nis the namber of orbit. Thus, the first orbit can accommodate 2 x 1° = 2 electrons; the second orbit 2 x 22 = 8 electrons ; third orbit 2 x 3? = 18 electrons and so on. (ii) ‘The last orbit cannot accommodate more than 8 electrons. (iii) The last but one orbit cannot accommodate more than 18 electrons. Under normal conditions, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons in an atom, Therefore, an atom is neutral as a whole ; the negative charge on the electrons cancelling the positive charge on the protons. The number of protons or electrons in an atom is called atomic number iv. ‘Atomic number = No. of protons or electrons in an atom Fig. 1.1 (i) shows the structure of a copper atom. The atomic weight and atomic number of copper are 64 and 29 respectively. Therefore, a copper atom has 29 protons, 29 electrons and 35 neutrons. The 29 electrons are distributed among the various orbits as : first orbit will have 2 elec- trons : second 8 electrons, 3rd 18 electrons and fourth orbit I electron. Fig. 1.1 (ii) shows the structure ‘of an aluminium atom. Tt has 13 electrons which are distributed in the first, second and third orbits as 2, 8 and 3 electrons respectively. ‘ aoe : . sb 8% . . 9 i « 399) $¢) (asa) ed ee Le ° ‘ ‘ a eet we fF, ee . . é . COPPER ATOM a aaa ATOM ii Fig. Li For example, oxygen is an element and its molecule has ty rt he other cule has two atoms of the same kind. On Water is a compound and its molecule contains two atoms of hydro meee Copper and aluminium have been intentionally chosen because these electrical engineering. and one ators of oxygen. two elements are widely used inFundamentals of Current Electricity m= 3 Co the following points carefully + ti) Every matter is electri ticles of electricity viz. lectrical in nia ei conta ee al in nature i.e., it contains partic ity viz., protons and si The reader may note (i) An the normal state, the num aie her of electrons is equal to the number of prot an protons in an atom, atom is neutral as ple. Thi charge under ordinary conditions. eae eee (iii) One substance ditfers ‘crs from another in the number and arrangement of particles of atom viz. protons, neutrons and elec Suet ne ‘Thus the number of these particles for copper and alurninium 12. NATURE OF ELBE, ig. 1.1). Hence, the two substances are different. .2. NA 5 OF ELECTRICITY The above discussion shows is fry vic protons and eee a dae matter is peri in nature i.e., it contains particles of electric- y a s er a given hibits i s cae eu Evenunne oie iar eee eubie electricity (i.e., charge) or not depends (i) Heth number is fe it cae of Protons is equal to the number of electrons in a body, the resultant charge is zero ae ae lectrically neutral. Thus, the paper of this book is electrically neutral (i. an i its no charge) because it has the same number of protons and electrons. || hiome neutral body, some “electrons are removed, there occurs a deficit of electrons in ‘ ly. Consequently, the body attains a positive charge. if) If @ neutral body is supplied with electrons, there occurs an excess of electrons. Conse- quently, the body attains a negative charge. UNIT OF CHARGE ‘The charge on an electron is so small that its not conveneient to selectitas the unit of charge. In practice, cow/onib is used as the unit of charge. One coulomb of charge is equal to the charge on 625 x 10!° electrons i.e., 3. 1 coulomb = Charge on 625 x 10'S electrons Thus, when we say that a body has a positive charge of I coulomb, it means that 625 x 10" electrons, Note. Charge on one electron (i.e. number of coulombs per electron) is given by; has a deficit of Leoulom 1.610" 625 x 10" electrons Charge on electron, 1.4. FREE ELECTRONS It has been shown above that electrons move around the nucleus of an atom in different orbits. (ie, orbits close to the nucleus) are tightly bound to the nucleus. As this binding goes on decreasing so that electrons in the last orbit loosely bound to the nucleus. In certain substances, especially ), the valence electrons are so weakly attached to their nuctei that iched. Such electrons are called free electrons. attached to the nucleus of an atom are called ‘The electrons in the inner or we move away from the nucleus, (called valence electrons) are quit metals (e,¢., copper, aluminium ere. they can be easily removed or deta Those valence electrons which are very loosely free electrons. The free electrons m loosely attached that they valence electrons in a metal are not provide at the most one free electron, Since a small piece of metal Except a very large number of free electrons in metals. For instance, has about 8.5 5.10" free electrons at room temperature jove at random from one atom to another in the material. In fact, they are SO do not know the atom to which they belong. It may be noted here that all fiee electrons. It has been found that one atom of a metal can I has billions of atoms. one 4M cone cubic centimetre of copper mobile than protons. On the other hand, d or detached. A Hee eee Electrons have very small mass and, therefore, are much more protons are powerfully held in the nucleus and cannot be removesB 4 ®@ Principles of Electrical Engineering and Electronics. (i) A substance which has a large number of free clectrons at room temperature is called conductor of electricity +g. all metals. If a voltage source (6.8. & cell) is applied across the | Wire of a conductor materia, free electrons readily low through the wire, thus constituting Clectrc current, The best conductors are silver, copper and gold in that order. Since copper isthe ‘tis widely used in electrical and electronic industries, rons is called an insulator of electricity. If insulator material, practically no current flows, through the wire, Most substances including plastics, ceramics, rubber, paper and most liquids) vatepory. OF course, there are many practical uses for insulators in the | ncluding wire coatings, safety enclosures and power } called semiconductors. As their name implies, they are, ‘ese substances have crystalline structure and contain) “Therefore, at room temperature, a semiconduc- tor practically behaves as an insulator. However, if suitable controlled impurity is imparted} eee veonducto,it i possible to provide controlled conductivity. Most common semi) vendactors are silicon, germanium, carbon etc. However, silicon is the principal material | sed is widely used in the manufacture of electronic devices (e.g. erystal diodes, ansistors) tc.) and integrated circuits. j ELECTRIC CURRENT | 1 flow of free electrons is called i fully explained by referring to Fig. 1.2. The copper strip electric pressure or voltage is applied, then free electrons, towards the positive terminal around the circuit as shown electrons is called vlecirie eurrent. least expensive out of these materials ii) A substance which has very few free elect voltage source is applied across the wire of and gases fall in this electrical and electronic industries i line insulators. iii) There isa third class of substances, neither conductors nor insulators. Th very few free electrons at room temperature. 1 electric curreif The flow of electric current can be beauti- has a large number of free electrons. When being negatively charged, will start moving | in Fig. 1.2. This directed flow of free) COPPER STRIP Ze FREE ELECTRONS | | — | | | | + CONVENTIONAL CURRENT q ange it . <_— _— Fig. 1.2 The actual direction of current (i.., flow of electrons) is from negative terminal to the positive | terminal through that part of the circuit extemal to the cell. However, prior to Electron Theory, it was | ‘assumed that current flowed from positive terminal to the negative terminal of the cell via the circuit. This convention’ is so firmly established that it is still in use. This assumed direction is now called iventiontl Curent (pit of Current. The strength of electric current / is the rate of flow of electrons ie., charge flowing per second ‘This convention was adopted decaase prior to leciron theory. it was believed that electric current was the movement of positive electricity from the positive to the negative terminal. Now, it is well established that electric current is the movement of frec electrons which bear negative charge.Fundamentals of Curent Electicity ™ 5 Curent, 1 = 2 c charge (is measure 1 Lib ’ ee measured im coulombs and time 1 in seconds. Therefore, the unit of electric ur mbisee or ampere. WQ= Leoulomb, 1 I sec, then /= Il = 1 ampere. Vere of is my re on one coulomb of charge rent Ws said to flow through a w 7 if at any sectio lomb of char Thus. if § amperes current is flowin pastany section of the wire, through a wire, it means that 5 coulombs per second flow Note, Iris the numberof clectrons passing through any section of the wire, then, Curent = & ME where 6 = 1.6% 10-9 Example 1.1. How much current is ut is flowing through a conductor if 625 x 10! electrons pass through any cross-section in Is? cee : a Solution. Current, I ‘4 ie eee 1 Example 1.2°How much current is flowing in a circuit where 1.27 x 10" electrons move past a given point in 100 ms? (625.109) x0.610-") _ yg Solution, Current, ao Example 1.3. How long does it take 50 UC of charge to pass a point in a circuit if the current flow is:15 mA? Solution. Time, Ei (i) Find the total charge in coulombs that passes through the conductor in 1.5 s, (ii) Find the total number of electrons that pass through the conductor in that time. nple 1.4. The current in a certain conductor is 40 mA. Solution. = (40x 107) x (1.5) = 60x 107 C= 60 mC w 3 7 ra $0107 _ 3.745 « 10" electrons 16x10” Oxygen | [+ hyerogen Filament — Glass bub cL Inert gas —— i dilute ——+} |} sulphuric acid positive —_| = -neoative electrode electrode flow of s = _J electrons Electric Current—.6 © Principtes of Electrical Engineering and Electronics % BSE Sy TUTORIAL PROBLEMS HS Ry 1 ET Find the current in a conductor when 10'7 electrons pass through it in 50 ms. (0.3204 ay 2. How much charge will be delivered per minute by a current flow of 375 mA? [22.5 C] 3. How long will it take a battery to deliver a 0.5C charge if current flow is 10mA? [5 ms] 1.6. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL When a body is charged, work is done in charging it. This work done is stored in the body in the form of potential energy. The charged body has the capacity to do work by moving other charges either by attraction or repulsion. {The ability of the charged body to do work is called electric potential, The capacity of a charged body to do work is called electric potential. The greater the capacity of a charged body to do work, the greater is its electric potential. Obvi- ously, the work done to charge a body to 1 coulomb will be a measure of its electric potential ie. Work done _ W. Charge ‘The work done is measured in joules and charge in coulombs. Therefore, the unit of electric potential will be joule/coulomb or volt. If W= 1 joule, Q = | coulomb, then, V= /1 = 1 volt. Hence a body is said to have an electric potential of \ volt if | joule of work is done to give ita charge of 1 coulomb. Electric potential, Ve ‘Thus, when we say that a body has an electric potential of 5 volts, it means that 5 joules of work has been done to charge the body to 1 coulomb. The greater the joules/coulomb on a charged body, the greater is its electric potential. 1.7. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called potential difference. If two bodies have different electric potentials, a potential difference exists between the bodies. Consider two bodies A and B having potentials of 5 volts and 3 volts respectively as shown in Fig. 1.3 (i). Each coulomb of charge on body A has an energy of 5 joules while each coulomb of charge on body B has an energy of 3 joules. Clearly, body A is at higher potential than the body B. If the two bodies are joined through a conductor [See Fig. 1.2 (ii)], then electrons will “flow from body B to body A. When the two bodies attain the same potential, the flow of current stops. Therefore, we arrrive at a very important conclustion that current will flow in a circuit if potential difference exists. No potential difference, no current flow. It may be noted that potential difference is sometimes called voltage Unit. Since the unit of electric potential is volt, one can expect that unit of potential difference will also be volt, It is defined as under : The potential difference benveen two points is 1 volt if one joule of work is ** done in transfer- ring I coulomb of charge from one point to the other. + “The conventional current flow will be in the opposite direction i.e. from body A to body B. ** | joule of work will be done in this case if 1 coulomb is tranferred from point of lower potential to that of higher potential, However, | joule of work will be released (as heat) if | coulomb of charge moves from a point of higher potential to a point of lower potentialFundamentals of Current Electricity m 7 1.8. MAINTAINING POTENTIAL, DIFFERENCE A device that maintains potential difference hetween two Points is said to develop electromo- tive Force (6.10). A simple example is that of a cell. Fig. 14 shows the familiar voltaic cell, heon sists of 4 copper plate (called anode) and a rod (called cathode) im, dine mmersed in dilute H,S0, ‘The chemical action taking place in the cell removes electrons from copper plate and transfers them tothe zine rod. Ths transference of leconees takesplace through the agency of di H.SO, (called 'ntly, the copper plate attains a positive charge of +9 coulombs and zine rod charge of -Q coulombs, The chemical action of the cellhas done a certain amount of work (say W joules to do so. Clearly, the potential difference betwee, the two plates will be W/ volts. Ifthe two plates are joined through a wire, some electrons from vine sod willbe atracted through the wire to copper pate, The chemical action of the cell now tranctirs wg equal amount of electrons from copper plate to zine rod internally through the cell to maintain original Fig. 4 potential difference (i.e.. W/Q), This process con- iat tinues So long asthe circuit is complete or so long as there is chemical energy. The flow of electrons through the external wire from zine rod to copper plate is the electric curmene ‘Thus potential difference causes current to flow while an e.m.f. maintains the potential difference, Although both e.m4. and p.d. are measured in vols, they do not mean exectly the same thing, 1.9. CONCEPT OF E.M.F. AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE ‘There is a distinet difference between e.m,f. and potential difference, The emf. of a device, say a batery, is « measure of the energy the battery gives to each coulomb of charge. Thus if a battery supplies 4 joules of energy per coulomb, we say that it has an e-m.. of 4 volts, The energy given to each coulomb in a battery is due 1 the chemical action. The potential difference between two points, say A and B, isa measure of the energy used by one coulomb in moving from A to B. Thus if potential difference between points A and B is 2 volts. it ‘means that each coulomb will give up an energy of 2 joules in moving from A to B. va pee { 29 20 | | uA Y i foe bee iyt_ : E=4VOLTS Fig. 15tS 8 © Principles of Electrical Engineering and Electronics 7 Alustration, The difference between e.m-f and p.d. can be made more illustrative by referring to ig 1S Here battery has an emf. of 4 volts, [means that battery supplies 4 joules of energy to each coulomb continuously As each coulomb travels from the positive terminal of the battery, it gives up | -ase) and remaining to connecting wires. When it | its Most of energy to resistances (20 and 2Q in thi returns to the negative terminal, it has lost all its energy originally supplied by the battery. The battery how supplies fresh energy to each coulomb (4 joules in the present case) to start the journey once again The p.d. beiween any two points in the circuit is the energy used by one coulomb in moving from p.d, between A and B is 2 volts. It means that | coulomb will ‘This energy will be released as heat from the part ‘one point to another. Thus in Fig. give up an energy of 2 joules in moving from A to B. AB of the circuit The following points may be noted carefully : The name e.m-f. at first sight implies that it is a force that causes current to flow. This is not correct because it is not a force but energy supplied to charge by some active device such as, a battery. ji) Electromotive force (e.m4.) maintains potential difference while p.d. causes current to flow. 1.10. POTENTIAL RISE AND POTENTL Fig. 1.6 shows a circuit with a cell and a resistor. The cell provides a potential difference of 1.5 V. Since itis an energy source, there is a. in potential associ r ated with a cell. The cell's potential difference repre- | sents an emf. so that symbol E could be used. The i resistor is also associated with a potential difference. ise - Since it is a consumer (converter) of energy, there is a ] in potential across the resistor. We can combine | the idea of potential rise or drop with the popular term 7 “voltage”. It is customary to refer to the potential dif- ference across the cell as a y fie ise and to the po- : Fig. 16 tential difference across the resistor as a li L DROP Note. The term voltage refers to a potential difference across two points. There is no such thing as a voltage at ‘one point, In cases where a single point is specified, some reference must be used as the other point. Unless the ground or common point in any circuit is the reference when specifying a voltage at some stated otherwi other point. 1.5. A charge of 4 coulombs is flowing between points A and B of a circuit. If the potential difference between A and B is 2 volts, how many joules will be released by part AB of the circuit? Solution. The p.d. of 2 volts between points A and B means that each coulomb of charge will | give up an energy of 2 joules in moving from A to B. As the charge flowing is 4 coulombs, therefore, total energy released by part AB of the circuit is =4x2=8 joules Fanple 14 Calculate the potential difference of an energy source that provides 50 mJ of energy for every microcoulomb of charge that flows wW _ 50x10" Solution. Potential difference, V O 50 10° voltsFundamentals of Current Electicity = g f Jay tH anti of charge must be delivered by a battery with a potential difference of 100.V 10-de S004 of work? Feampte 1 Solution. Total charge, Q Vv 100 Foampte U8: How much work will be done by ence of 34V that delivers «an electric energy source with a potential differ- current of IA for I minute? Sthution We Know that 14 of current represents a charge transfer rate of IC/. Therefore, the total charge 10" period of | minute is Q-= = 1x 60 =60C. Total work done, W=QxV = 60x (3x10) = 180 x10? J =180 kJ & TUTORIAL PROBLEMS ” '. Calculate the potential difference of an energy source that provides 6.8 J for every mi coulomb of charge that it delivers, (6.8 kV] ‘The potential difference across a battery is 9V. How much charge must it deliver to do 50 J of work? 56 C] A300V energy source delivers $00 mA for | hour. How much energy does this represent? (540 kJ) Ll, RESISTANCE he opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current is called resistance’ Since curentis the flow of free electrons, resistance isthe opposition offered by te substance to the flow of free electrons. This opposition occurs because atoms and molecules of the substance obstruct the flow of these electrons. Certain substances (e.g, metals suchas silver, copper, aluminium at.) offer very litle opposition tothe low of electic current and are called conkluctore On the other hand, those substances which offer high opposition to the flow of electri electrons) are called insulators e.., glass, rubber, mica, dry wood ete, I may be noted here that resistance is the electric friction offered by the substance and causes Prodetion of heat with the flow of electric curren, The moving electrons collide with atome 2. Imoecules ofthe substance each collision resulting in the liberation of minute quantity of heat Unit of resistane is defined as under ic current (i.e., flow of free ‘The practical unit of resistance is ohm and is represented by the symbol ©. It A wire is said have a resistance of 1 oi ifa pd. of 1 vole across its ends causes 1 anpere of current to flow through it. 1.12. FACTORS UPON WHICH RESISTANCE DEPENDS Ae sistance R of a conductor is directly proportional to its length ()). (0) is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section (a). (iit) depends upon the nature of material, (i) changes with temperature, From the first three points (leaving temperature for the time being), we have, Rat a : =pliv “ Aa 4a | 10 © Principles of Electrical Engineering and Electronics Where p (Greek leter‘Rho’) is constant and is known as resistivity oF specific resistance of the ‘material. Its value depends upon the nature of material. i 1.13. SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OR RESISTIVITY | We have seen above that R apt If | =m, a= 1m’, then R=p Hence specific resistance of a material is the resistance offered by Im length of wire of material having an area of cross-section of 1 m* [See Fig. 1.7 (i) @ Fig. 1.7 , Specific resistance can also be defined in another way. Take a cube of the material having each side 1 m, Considering any two opposite faces, the area of cross-section is | m° and length is 1 m [See Fig. 1.7 (i) te. 1= 1m, a= 1m Hence specific resistance may be defined as the resistance between the opposite faces of a metre cube of the material. Unit of resistivity We know or pa In SI units, length is measured in metres and area of x-section in m? so that the unit of resistivity will be ohm-m, Unit of p = 2h Xm = hmm m 1.14. CONDUCTANCE Conductance (G) is the reciprocal of resistance” We know . 3Fundamentals of Current Electricity m 44 G04 where (Greek letter ‘sigma’) is ¢ The unit of conductance is ihe ce ty Will be mhovm, Now. conductivity 1S Expressed as Stemen/metre. Example 1.91610 metre find the specitic resistance of alled the conductivit ‘ohm spelt backw: days, the siemen 'y oF specific conductance of the material, ‘ud. A little reflection shows that SI unit of | * (5) is used as the unit of conductance and comet 8 of manganin-wi the material, Solution. Length of wire, 7¢, 0.13 cm in diameter has a resistance of 34 ohms, 10 m= 1000em 0.13)" = 132.8 x 107 em? Area of wire, n Resistance of wire, Resistivity of wire, We know 1 R=pl Pa 4 ion p= Ra _ 34x 132.8 x10 1000 Example 1.10. Find the resistance of 1000 metres ofa copper wire 25 sq. mm in evoss-section The resistance of copper is 1/58 olun per meire length and 1 sq-nm cross-section, What will be the resistance of another wire of the same material, three tines as long and one-half the cross-sectional area? 45x10 Q em Solution. For the first case, a= na For the second case, R, =1/58Q; a, =1mm?; fy =1m R= pth fa): Ry =ptls/a,) «(Sos or For the third case, sa,=a,/2; 1=3h t}{Aroxese a 520 29 Example 1.1. A length of wire has a resistance of 4.5 ohms, Find the resistance of another wire of the same material three times as long and twice the cross-sectional area. Solution. For the first case, K-45 Q: h=ba =a For the second case, =?) =3i; a= 2a Noweee q eering and Electronics wire 100 metres long (ii) roieg Je resistance between opposite i ac 12 & Principles of Electrical Engin vn into a Pxample 1.12, 10 ce of copper are (i) tid th square sheet of 10. em side. Find the reistance of i cO-cm: the sheet if specific resistance af copper #8 lal im in this case, Solution, ci) As seen from Fig. 18 Ora ‘he volume _ 10. = 0.001 em’ Area of cross-section, a= Tength 10 Length of wire, . Resistance of wire, 10 em Je 10cm 0 © Fig. 18 (ui) As seen from Fig. 1.8 (i), in this case, Area of cross-section, a = 10 x 10 = 100 cm? Length (‘., thickness), = volume/area = 10/100 = 0.1. em -*. Resistance between opposite faces of square sheet is Rapbairxi x Ot 7x10" O Example 113A copper wire of diameter I cm had a resistance of 0.15 Q. It was drawn w pressure so that its diameter was reduced to 50%. What is the new resistance of the wire? Solution. Area of wire before drawing, a, = uu? = 0.785 cm? ‘Area of wite after drawing, a, = 70 5)* = 0,196 cm? As the volume of wire remains the same before and after drawing, ly oF by/h = a,/a, = 0.785/0.196 = 4 159; a, For the first case, .785 om*; = 1 For the second case, 4, =0.196 cm*; 1, = 41 Now anitFundamentals of Current Electricity @ 13 (8 xf = xe a [a fa, Pex =e or R= OR =16x01S= 240 Evan pe | 14 rectangular metal rip has the dimensions «= 10cm, y =05 em and =0.2em. Devenmne erate of the resisiaces Ry R, and R, between the respective pars of opposite faces, Solution. RRR, = PX. PY. pe oy Example 1.15. Calculate the re sistance of a copper tube 0.5 cm thick and 2 m long. The external diameter is 10 cm. Given thar resist ‘ance of copper wire Im long and Imm? in cross-section is 1/58 Qu Solution. External diameter, D= 10cm Internal diameter, d=10-2x05=9em f cross-secti y Area of cross-section, 5 [00 - 9" em =2 fag? — 06)? 2 =F 00? - @)*]<100 mm’ 2. Resistance of copper tube = BL engin melresie @ 58 © area of X-section in mm? el 2 =4 a F [wor - x 100 = 23.14 x10 Q = 23.14 pO Example 1.16. A copper wire is stretched so that its length is increased by 0.1%. What is the percentage change in its resistance? a aR 1 Solution, Rae] =140l ype Now ale BE x1 = 10011 As the volume remains the same, ai =a ~ 1.001 + £-(£) <(4) = a.009 x 4.000 =1.002 R-R_ es Qo = 0.002 Percentage increase = 100 = 0.002 x 100 = 0.2 % Example 1.17.A lead wire and an iron wire are connected in parallel. Their respective specific resistances are in the ratio 49 : 24. The former carries 80% more current than the latter and the latter 47% longer than the former. Determine the ratio of their cross-sectional areas.mg = N10 eH eee ee (ITH H f ( 14 © Principles of Electrical Engineering and Electronics | ___ Solution. Let us represent lead and iron by suffixes 1 and 2 respectively. Then as per the cong i tions of the problem, we have, i i 4 i | i ‘| Now j h j i A or e TUTORIAL PROBLEMS hg a 1. Calculate the resistance of 915 metres length of a wire having a uniform cross-sectional area of 0.77 cm? if the wire is made of copper having a resistivity of 1.7 x 10- Qem, (0.08 ay, 2. A wire of length 1 m has a resistance of 2 ohms, What is the resistance of second wire, whose specific resistance is double of the first, if the length of wire is 3 metres and the, diameter is double of the first? (3.0) 3. Arrectangular copper strip is 20 em long, 0.1 cm wide and 0.4 cm thick. Determine th resistance between (i) opposite ends (ii) opposite sides, The resistivity of copper i 1.7 «10° Qem, 10) 0.85 x 104 © Gi) 0.212 x 10% Q] x 4. A cube of a material of side 1 cm has a resistance of 0.001 Q between its opposite faces. the same material has a length of 9 cm and a uniform cross-sectional area 1 cm’, what will the resistance of this length? 10.009 Of 5. An aluminium wire 10 metres long and 2 mm in diameter is connected in parallel with | copper wire 6 metres long, A total current of 2 A is passed through the combination and itis found that current through the aluminium wire is 1,25 A. Calculate the diameter of cop, wire. Specific resistance of copper is 1.6 x 10-° Q em and that of aluminium is 2.6 10 Qem. 0.94 mm Hint. As the currents are inversely proportional to the resistances through which they flo | Resistance of copper = 3 Resistance of aluminium 1 1.15. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE i In general, the resistance of a material changes with the change in temperature. The effect of temperature upon resistance varies according to the type of material as discussed below j (The resistance of pure metals (¢.g., copper, aluminium) increases with the increase of temperature. The change in resistance is fairly regular for normal range of temperatures $0eee..." °° § Fundamentals of Current Electricity = 15 that temperature/resistance graph isa straight line as shown in Fig. 1.9 (for ‘ copper). Since the resistance of metals increases with the rise in temperature, they have positive temperature: Effie tot of resistance RESISTANCE (2) ACTUAL, ~234.5°C a _ 0 ec : TEMPERATURE (°C) gaan Fig. 19 (ii) ‘The resistance of electrolytes, insulators (e.g, glass, mica, rubber etc.) and semiconductors (c.g., germanium, silicon etc.) decreases with the increase in temperature. Hence these materials have negative femperature co-efficient of resistance ‘The resistance of alloys increases with the rise in temperature but this increase is very small and irregular. For some high resistance alloys (e.g., Eureka, manganin, constantan etc.), the change in resistance is practically negligible over a wide range of temperatures. (itis ‘The above behaviour of materials can be explained as follows. When the temperature of a sub- stance increases, the molecules vibrate more rapidly, impeding the movement of free electrons through the substance, This causes the resistance of the substance to rise. With the rise in temperature of a conductor (e.g., metals), there is no inerease in the number of free electrons and the sole effect of Temperature rise is (0 increase resistance due to the increased molecular vibration, On the other hand, a temperature rise in insulators and semiconductors creates many more free electrons than fxisted in the cooler state. Often this increase in the number of free electrons more than offsets the interference to the drift movement caused by the increased molecular activity. Hence, the reisistance cases with the increase in temperature. In case of alloys, these two effects at there is negligible increase in resistance due to rise in tempera- ‘of such materials de alomost cancel each other so th ture 1.16. TEMPERATURE CO-EFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE Consider a conducior having resistance Ry at O°C and R, at #C. It has been found that in the nonal range of temperatures, the increase in resistance (ie., R, ~ Ry) (i) is directly proportional to the initial resistance i.e, Re Ry= Ry ight line. 1 this line is extended 1.9 shows temperature/resistance graph for copper which is a sta ‘ual practice, the curve departs backward, it would cut the temperature axis at ~ 234.5° C. However, in at (point A) from the straight line path at very low temperatures. seer aes eee ea16 © Principles of Electrical Engineering and Electronics 4 ii) is directly proportional to the rise in temperature i, } A, - Rye | (iif) depends upon the nature of material. Combining the first two, we get, R-R= Rt or R,~ Ry =" ty Rot a where ct, is aconstant andis called ‘temperature co-efficient of resistance. at 0°C. Its value depends, upon the nature of material and temperature. (i Rearranging eq. (i), weget, R= & 1+!) Definition of dy. From eq. (), we gets i -ha% | 0 R xe oe | = Inerease in resistance/ohm original resistance/C rise iq temperature i «of resistance ofa conductor is the increase in resistance pen erature co-efficient ‘ohm original resistance per °C rise in temperature, [lite reflection shows that unit ofc. will be ohm/ohm/C i-., PC. Thus, copper has a termperature co-efficient of resistance of0.004267C. It means that if a copper wire has a resistance of | Qa0e, then it will increase by 0.00426 82 for 1 °C rise in temperature i. it will become 1.00426 @ at 1 °C, Similarly, if temperature is raised to 10°C, then resistance will become 1 + 10 (0.00426 = 1.042 ohms. If a conductor has a resistance Ry Ry and Ry Ry=Ry(I + Ogf,)s Ry= Ry + Ooh) at O°C, f, °C and f, °C respectively, then, Ry _1+ Oty = R, 1+ Gf, 1.17. GRAPHICAL DETERMINATION OF. ‘The value of temperature co-efficient of resistance A can also be determined graphically from temperature! | c resistance graph of the conductor. Fig. 1.10 shows the h temperature/resistance graph for aconductor. The graph is a straight line AX as is the case with all conductors. ‘The resistance of the conductor is R, (represented by OA) at O°C and it becomes R, al *C. By definition, RESISTANCE (2) > > & cones ME cdeeAe ete A CAN eI a, = Re Ryxt Bul R- Ry = BC and 1 = rise in temp. = AB a i ° ' BC r oO, = TEMPERATURE (°C) ‘0 RX AB ——_—> ig. 1.10 ; Ir will be shown in Ant. 1.18 that value of o depends u is upon temperat : original temperature i. C in this case, Hence. the symbol Gy binithensiialanhiinlaie:18 ® Principles of Electrical Engineering and Electronics ay 1 04h - Subtracting the reciprocal of Eq. (i) from the reciprocal of Eq, (ii), Similarly, iy | 1 ii) | er) a, / Eq, (0 gives the relation between ct, and cr, while Eq. (ii) gives the ralation a ©, and 0, 1.19, SUMMARY OF TEMPERATURE CO-EFFICIENT RELATIONS act at O°C, thi (i) IER, and oy, are the resistance and temperature co-efficient of a conducior at 0°C, then its resistance R, at PC is given by ; kd vneneinntinsnssemmaannbicdauieii mas: nas oasis : R=R (+a) : [ , Wid Hf oy cand ar the temperature co-efficiems at OFC, f°C and 1.°C respectively then, : 1 % =—3— , g,-—1_ = | ye : Tra | Te agt Tey | O (iii) Suppose R, and R, are the resistances of a conductor at t,°C and 1,°C respectively. If 0, is the temperature co-efficient at 1,°C, then, | =R [1+ a(t, -1)1 1 Example 1.8. A copper coil has a resistance of 40 ohms at 0°C. Find the resistance of the coil 4a 50°C. Resistance temperature co-efficient of copper is 0.0043/°C at 0°C. Siluton 3 Ru = Ry (1 + 068) A = 40(1 +0.0043 x 50) = 48.6. Fxample 149. The field winding of a generator has a resistance of 12.7 Q at 18°C and 14.3.9: | 1 50°C. Find (i) temperature co-efficient at O°C (ii) resistance at O*C, and (iii) temperature co- efficient at 18°C. 1 Solution, w Ry = Ry{l + 1 x18) Roy = Ry (+ Oy X50) 0, Ry = a, R, where R. is the resistance at 1, °C. or Slope of graph, tan @= Ro, = Ra, = Rc, Increase in resistance as temperature i aise rom °C to 19C Stan 8 (1 / “. Resistance at CR, = R, + Rar, (1) (n= RU +, (~1))wu Principles of Electrical Engineering and Electronics j 7. A-copper coil has a resistance of 200 2 at 80°C. Find the resistance at 20°C. The temp, > | ture covetficient of resistance of copper is 0.0039FC at 20°C. 1 real 8. Appiece of resistance wire 15.6 m long and of cross-sectional area 12 mm? at a temperat of 0°C passes a current of 7.9 A when connected 10 a dec, supply at 240 V. Calcutgy (i) resistivity of wire (ii) the current which will flow when the temperature rises to 5 of wire is 0.000297. Mi) 23.37 x 10-6 2 m3 ii) 7.78 43 9. When working normally the temperature ofthe filament in a 230 V, 150 W gas-filled tu, sten lamp is 2750°C, Assuming a room temperature of 16°C, calculate (i) the normal curre taken by the lamp (i) the current taken at the moment of switching on. Temperaty co-efficient of tungsten is 0.0047/°C. (Ci) 0.652 As (ii) 8.45 4y 10. The field coil of a motor has a resistance of 250 @ at 15°C. By how much will resistance increase if the motor attains an average temperature of 45°C when running Take a, = 0.00428/°C. 130 1.20, OHM’S LAW ‘The relationship between voltage (V), the current (J) and resistance (R) in a d.c. circuit was fi discovered by German scientist George Simon Ohm. This relationship is called Ohm’s law and me be stated as under The ratio of potential difference (V) between the ends of a conductor to the current (1) flowing between them is constant, provided the physical conditions (e.g., temperature etc.) do not change ie, Temperature co-efficient of resistan ' Constant = R where R is the resistance of the conductor between the two points considered. For example, if in Fig. 1.12, the voltage between points A and B is V volts and current flowing is J amperes. then V/I will be constant and equal to R, the resistance between points A and B. If the voltage is doubled up, the current will also be doubled up, so that the ratio V/7remains con- stant, tinay be noted here that if voltage is mea- sured in volts and current in amperes, then re- . sistance will be in “ohms, Ohm’s law can be Fig, 112 expressed in three forms vis. 1= VR, V=IR: R=Vil Example 1.28% battery has an emf of 12.8 volts and supplies a current of 3.2A. What is t resistance of the circuit? How many coulombs leave the baitery in 5 minutes? Solution : Circuit resistance, R= Wl = 12.8/3.2 = 4.0 ye Charge Mowing in 5 minutes = current x time in seconds =3.2x5x60= 9600 Example 1.29. A metal filament lamp takes 0.3A at 230V. Ifthe voltage is reduced to 115 V, will | the current be halved?’ Explain your answer, a a’, j ible only if the resistance of the circuit does not | change. In the present ease, when voltage is reduced from 230 V to 115 V, the temperature of the lamp | Solution. No. Iris because Ohm’s law is appl unit of resistance ¢.. ohm) was named in honour of George Simon Ohm,0 NS SS“ Hi | Fundamentals of Current Electricity ™ 23 a Q ease 100 m yall decrease 100 much, resulting in an enormous decrease of lamp resistance. Consequently, Ohm's Un taw Va em be apphed. To give an idea fo the reader, pag hat cesistance (i.e. at normal operating femperature) of an incandescent Lamp is more than 10 times its cold resistance. ple 1.30. An incandes "y i ; me 5 cae candescent lamp has a resistance of 10 Q when not burning. When burning witha elute Of 120 its resisance is 144. ind the current a the instant of switching and the Ay normal current when burning, What is the wattage af the lamp? ® om Current at the instant of switching, J, = V/R, = 120/10 = 12.4 Ite Normal current when burning, 1, = VAR, = 120/144 = 0.833 A \i ‘Watiage of lamp Vi, = 120 x 0.833 = 100 W ‘s The reader may note that when lamp is first connected to supply, the current is very high (12 A in 32 his ease? This current raises the temperature of the filament rapidly and the resistance increases due Y tothe increased temperature, By the time normal operating temperature of the lamp is reached, the resin i ncesied many tm 4 inthis case) the cok resistance the resin of the filament did not increase, the power input would remain P = Vi, = 120 x 12 = 1440 W and the lamp st would be destroyed by its own heat. ¥ 4.21. ELECTRIC POWER The rate at which work is done in an electric circuit is called electric power i.e, Electric power = Work done in electric circuit Time ‘When voltage is applied to acirenit, it causes current (i.¢.. electrons) to flow through it. Clearly, 4 Q work is being done in moving the electrons in. “> the circuit. This work done in moving the elec-_ fe- 4 trons in a unit time is calied the eleciric power. Thus refering to the part AB of the circuit (See Fig. 1.13), -it V = PD. across AB in volts urrent in amperes sistance of AB in Q Time in sec. for which current flows The total charge that flows in f seconds is Q = 1 x 1 coulombs and by definition (See Art, 1.6), ork Ve QO or Work = VQ = Vit (: Q=1) . Blectric power, Work — Vit yy joule/see or wat, aoa Ve P=W=PR= we PR=e v Ve a4 ( IR or I R valid for calculation of electric power in a dc. circuit. The above three formulae are equally i or most easily determined Which one is to be used depends simply on which quantities are known Unit of electric power Taf he unit of electric power is joule/sec ot watt. The power con- sumed in a circuit is 1 watt if pL. of 1 V causes 1A current to flow through the circuit Power in watts = Voltage in volts x Current in amperes Pri reeeeee eee eee eee oeeecee eee- 24 © Principles of Electrical Engineering and Electronics ___ { ‘The bigger units of electric power are kilowatts (KW) and megawatts (MW)- | 1 kW = 1000 watts ; 1 MW = 10° watts or 10° KW | { 1.22. ELECTRICAL ENERGY | The total work done in an electric circuit is called electri | Electrical energy, W = Electrical power x time | | | cal energy Le. 2 2p, =. =Vh=PR=—t Vie = TRE =e In practice, electrical energy is measured in kilowatt hour cw). Wh = Power in kW x Time in hours | Energy in k ait’ 1000 w. : i it if 1 RW (1000 watts) of One kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electrical energy is expended in a circ 7 A power is supplied for I hour sss of tol electrical energy consumed By the consume The electricity bills are made on the bi The unit for charge of electricity is 1 kWh. simply unit. Thus when we say that a consumer electrical energy consumption is 100 kWh. ard of Trade (B.O.T.) uniCor) f electricity, it means that | | | ‘One kWh is also called Bot .r has consumed 100 units of Energy meters i 1.23. USE OF POWER AND ENERGY FORMULAS | Ithas already been discussed that electric power as well as electrical energy consumed can be | expressed by three formulas, While using these formulas, the following points may be kept in mind : (i) Electric power, P=PR= e watts Electrical energy consumed, W = 17 Rr va joules | The above formulas apply only to resistors and to devices (¢. -g. electric bulb, he: ctrie Kettle ec) where all electrical energy consumed is converted into hese nn eet etre (ii) Electric power, P=Viwatts i Electrical energy consumed, W= Vit joules | These formulas apply to any type of load including the one mentioned in point () { |Fundamentals of Current Electricity ™ 25 Fxample 1.41. A heating element supplies 400 kilojoules in 50 minutes, Find the p.d. across the lemens when current is 2 amperes, ‘Tal charge, Q=1x1=2% 50% 60 = 6000C PD. wi 300 x 10" Charge ~~ 6000 0 Vs Prample. 1.32. The following are the details of load on a circuit connected through a supply meter (i) Six lamps of 40 watts each working for 4 hours per day Gi) Two fluorescent tubes 125 watts each working for 2 hours per day q Gil) One 1000 watt heater working for 3 hours per day. Z Ieach unit of energy costs 70 P, what will be the electricity bill for the month of June? i Total wattage of lamps = 40.x 6 = 240 watts Total wattage of tubes = 125 x 2 = 250 wants Wattage of heater = 1000 watts Energy consumed by the appliances per day 40) x 4) + (250 x 2) + (1000 x 3) 160 watt-hours = 4.46 kWh ger Total energy consumed in the month of June (ie. in 30 days) ines =4.46x30= 1338 kWh FT Bill for the month of June = Rs 0.7 x 133. A current of 80 A flows for I hour in a resistance across which there is a voltage of 2 V. Determine the velocity with which a stone of mass 1000 kg must move in order that its Kinetic energy shall be equal in amount to' the energy dissipated in the resistance. ‘iow, Let v mis be the required velocity of the stone. As per conditions of the problem, we have, Vit=S mv’, or 2 x 80 x 3600 = 1 1000. y? 22x 2x 80% 36 or vate v= Vi152 fs uaple | 24 What must be the useful rating of tin-smelting furnace in order to smelt 50 kg of tin per hour? Smelting temperature of tin = 235°C: specific heat = 0.055 kealfkgC ; latent heat of liquification = 13.31 keal/kg. Take initial temperature of metal as 15°C. Solution Energy input/hour =m [0+ Ly] Here c = 0.055 keal/kgPC; m= 50 kg; @ = (235 -15)°C; Ly, = 13.31 keallkg :. Energy inpuvhour 50 [0.085 (235 ~ 15) + 13.31] = 1270.5 keal 2B ers kWh = 1.47 kWh [v IkWh = 860 keal] 1.47 «. Useful rating = 147 kWeee eee ee eee eee EE Se assy 26 = Principles of Electrical Engineering and Electronics i: Oe TUTORIAL PROBLEMS Siitamesnette 1, A resistor of 50 @ has a p.d. of 100 volts dc. across it for I hour. Calculate (i) power and (i energy i) 200 watts; (i) 7.2 x 105 9 A current of 10 A flows through a resistor for 10 minutes and the power dissipated tag resistor is 100 watts. Find the pd. across the resistor and the energy supplied to the circuiy, (10 V3 6 x 104 1210 volts through a pair of feeders of total resistan 1s each taking 40 ampere A factory is supplied with power al 0,025 Q. The load consists of 250V, 60-wait lamps and 4 motor Find : (i) total current required (iii) power wasted in feeders. 4. The electrical load in a small workshop consists 3 electric fires, each rated at 240 V, 1 kW. What is the ¢! (ii) voltage at the station end of feeders [li 231.4. Ag i 215.78 V 5 li) 14 KY of 14 Jamps, each rated at 240 V, 60 W an {fective resistance of the load? us 1.24. CARBON RESISTORS . . A component whose function in a circuit is to provide a specified value of resistance is called, resistor. The most commonly used resistors in electrical and electronics circuits are the carbon resis tors. A carbon resistor is made from powdered carbon mixed with a binding material and baked int ‘a. small tube with a wire attached to each end. These smal sized resistors are manufactured in values, from a fraction of an ohm to several million ohms. Note that power rating of a carbon resistor depends) upon the physical size of the resistor. A large resistor is able to throw off (dissipate) more heat than. 22 Ei smaller one. Colour code for carbon resistors. ~ — Since a carbon resistor is physically quite folate +) esti smali, itis more convenient to use a colour 7 code indicating the resistance value than 10 first band —L-? imprint the numerical value on the case. In this scheme, there are generally four colour eer taat bands printed on the body of the resistor as . shown in Fig. 1.14. The first three colour | bands give the value of the resistance while Fig. 1.14 4 the fourth band tells about the “‘olerance in percentage. The table below shows the colour code fé resistance values and colour code for tolerance. acne Tolerance band | Third band } Colour code for Resistance values olour code for Tolerance Black 0 Green 5 Gold £5% Brown 1° Blue 6 Silver £ 10% Reds 2 Violet 7 No colour + 20% Orange 3 Gry 8 Yellow 4 White 9 (@) To read the resistance value, we refer to the first three colour bands. The first two colo bands specily the first two digits of the resistance value and the third colour band gives th number of zeros that follow the first two digits. Suppose the first three colour bands on resistor age red, brown and orange respectively. Then resistance value is 21000 @ Due to manufacturing variations, the resistance value may’ not be the s Thus a resistor marked 100 Q; jame as indicated by colour code 10% tolerance means that resistance value is between 90 Q and 110 Q. jGa Fundamentals of Current Electricity = 27 , Red 2 Brown 1 +. Resistance value = 21000 Q 1 Orange 000 wid The fourth band piyes the value of toferance in percentage. Ifthe colour of the fourth band i tp gold tolerance iy + 5% and if silver, then tolerance is 10%. If fourth band is omitted, the tolchance ts assumed to he + 20% - Boge. The resistance insted by the colour code (ie by fst three ands) i called nominal valu. The actual auc of @ resistor can vary above or below its nominal value by an amount equal to its tolerance, 4 Example LAS, Find the nominal value of resistance and tolerance from the following colour codes : (i) yellow, violet, orange, silver (ii) brown, black, red 1 ii) blue, grey, black, gold Solution BBROY. Ai) yellow violet, orange, silver = 4 4 7 000 + 10% Genrer, Nominal value of resistance = 47000 Q ; Tolerance = + 10% e (ii) Brown, black, red, none: cave — é 1 0 00 £20% - 2 ++ Nominal value of resistance = 1000 Q ; Tolerance = + 20% % (ili) Blue, grey, black, gold & 6 8 é £5% ‘ . Nominal value of resistance = 68 Q: Toleranc Example 1.36. What colour bands will be found on a resistor with a nominal value of 390. Q and a tolerance of + 10%? | Solution. | 3 9 0 £10% Orange White Brown Silver ‘The colour bands will be orange, white, brown and silver. Carbon resistors i> TUTORIAL PROBLEMS a 1. A resistor has the following order of colour bands : Red, Red, Red, gold Find its nominal re ‘ance and its range of resistance values. 2200.2; 2090 2 to 2310.9) 2. Find the nominal value of resistance and tolerance of a resistor having colour bands : yellow, violet, orange, gold. [47 kQ; + 5%] i 3. What colour bands willbe found on a resistor with a norainal value of 1M and a tolerance of £5%7 [brown, black, green, gold}28 & Principles of Electrical Engineering and Electronics 1.25. POWER RATING OF A RESISTOR The ability of a resistor o dissipate power as heat without destruc: tive temperature build-up is called power rating of the resistor Loy, PIN, Power rating of resistor = FR or VIR , Suppose the power rating of a resistor is 2W. n means. ee ev VR should nor exceed 2W, Suppose the quantity PR (or VIR) . 7 Fig. Lis resistor becomes 4W. The resistor is able to dissipate 2 as heat and t 7 remaining 2W will start building up the temperature, In a matter o i seconds, the resistor will bum out, | ‘The physical size of a resistor is not necessarily related to its resistance value bt rather tots po rating. large resistor is able to dissipate (throw off) more heat because of its ae physical size, general, the greater the physical size of a resistor, the greater is its power rating ant Pample 1.7. A 0.10 resistor has a power rating of 5W. Is this resistor safe when conducti, a.current of 10A? Solution. Power developed in the resistor is 10)? x 0.1 = 10W The resistor is nat safe since the power developed in the resistor exceeds its dissipating ratin , ee Example 1.38. What is the maximum safe current flow in a 47 Q, 2W resistor: Solution, Power rating or . Maximum safe current, 1 = \/75 example 1.19 What is the maximum voltage that can be applied across a 100 Q, 10 W resis in order to keep within the resistors power rating? Solution Power rating = VIR or 10 = V7/100 2 Max, safe voltage, V = \f10% 100 = 31.6 volts ' TUTORIAL PROBLEMS 1. A200 Q resistor has a2 W power rating. What is the maximum current that can flow in resistor without exceeding the power rating? 110 2. A628 kG, 0.25 W resistor shows a potential difference of 40V. Is the resistor safe? | V §. ALS kQ resistor has IW power rating, What maximum voltage can be applied acro t resistor without exceeding the power rating? —_ — in the last orbit of an atom are | 2. If the number of valence electrons of an atom i calle less than 4, the substance is usually (@)_ a conductor (b) an insulator (a) tree electrons () bound electrons (©) valence electrons (©) a semiconductor (d) thermionic electrons (d) none of the aboveing toy a5 Sere Sansone i 0 Fundamentals of Current Electricity @ 29 _ the number of valence electrons of an atom is rire than 4. the substance is Us (aya conductor wn (co) a semiconductor (hone of the above an insalate the number of valence electrons of an atom is 4. the substance is usually w ib (©) a semiconductor insulator (d)__none of the above A billion electrons pass through a cross-section of a conductor in 10" s, The current is (a WA () 16x 107 () 2Xx104A (dy 26x10 The specific resistance of a wire depends upon (a) its length (b) its cross-sectional area (6) ts dimensions (a) its materiat A length of wire has a resistance of 6Q. The resistance of a wire of the same material three times as Jong and twice the cross-sectional arca will be fa) 9Q (b) 36.2 19 (d) 120 ‘The potential difference of an energy source that provides 50 ml of energy for every microcou- Jomb of charge that flows is (@) 5V (b) SOV fo) SOKV (d) S00 AA piece of aluminium wire is streched to reduce its diameter to half of its original value. Its re- sistance will become — (a, () a) @ The resistance of a material 2 m long and 2m? in area of X-section is 1.6 x 10%. lis spe resistance will be (@) 1.6* 10% Om ‘ovo times sixteen times eight times four times fic ve (hy 6.4 10% Om (©) 3.2% 10*Om (d) 0.16 x 10% Qn A copper wire of resistance Ry is stretohed till its Jength is increased 1 times of its original length. Its resistance will now be (a) Ry? (6) Ry fo) Ry, (d) Ry ‘A copper wire is stretched so that its length is in- ‘creased by 0.1%. The change in its resistance is (a) 0.2% (b) 0.1% (©) 03% (a) 04% Fig. 1.16 shows the temperature/resistance graph ‘of a conductor. The value of 0 is Resistance (Q) ——> Temperature (°C}-—> Fig. 1.16 (@) 0.05rC () 0.004rC (©) 04rC (@) 0.005rC Referring to Fig, 1.16, the value of ey will be (a) 0.005°C (b) 0.0src () 0.004"C (d) o4rc The value of cy of a conductor is 1/236 per*C. ‘The value of ci, will be (a) W218 pers (by 1/254 per °C (©) WAR per*C — d)_ 2G per °C ‘The number of free electrons passing through the filament of an electric lamp in one hour when, current through the filament is 0.32 A will be (a) 72x10! (b) 72x10" (o) 3x 102 (2x10 What voltage drop will be there across a 1 kW heater whose resistance when hot is 40927 (a) 100V (6) SOV (c) 150 @ 200V30 = Principtes of Electrical Engineering and Electronics Is wibs rated for the same voltage @ 40 wl LOOW. IE theie resis () 0.121 respectively: then, ( 129 (hy Ry =4R, (d) 052 (R= 2K, (dR, =4R, 20. The percenta 19. A carbon electrode has a resistance of 0.125 @ lamp decreases due to drop of current by 3 a0 ure coefficient of carbon (a) 6% (b) 3% 18-0005 a 20°C. What will be the resistance (©) 9% (d) 12% of electrode at 85°C? Low 2 @ 3 ® 4 © | @& id 7. (a) 8. (co) 9. (b) | We (b) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (c) | 16. (ay 17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (b) by which the incandescence of Hints to Selected Multiple-Choice Questions 19 Electric current, 7 = He = 10 XE 6X10 1.6 107 A 1 10" L b 7 Raphi R=pe 1 yi R,_ {ly a 3L Al 2/2 |x {4 = (3\x(#) 15 R (e}(@) ales or R= 15K, =15x6=92 103 ia =50x 10° V = 50 kV b an Pa 7 b ae He) a Iya OF Iya -(4) =(“h), 4. “(3 jal or R Now a, 10. R=pt or 16x10 = px 3 2p =16x 10% Om It is given that /= nl,, Since volume remains the same,Ee —__————_—————E_ - Fundamentals of Current Electricity ™ 31 1 dyhy (nla or a=ayin = R ir grnenee or R=WR, Ol Now | =] + =~ = + Bh t= 1.0011 Since volume remains the same, al = al’ or a’ = x 100 = 0,002 x 100 = 13. a, = Sl0Pe.oftemperatureesistance graph _ 10/50 _ 9.00srC R 40 ia = Slope of temperature/resistance graph _ 10/50 _ y agyec boat reeceaceeaip 50 a 1 18. n= Tego xTe ” Vag) #18 ~ 236418 3547 g_ne 6 ate 16 t t Tt _ 0.32 x 3600 20 n= 2 = 2x10 ” {1000 x 40 = 200 volts 18. 200 0 re 2 or Ry = 2K v. fag [1 + Oyo (fy — 4)] = 0.1251 + (-0.0005 x 65)] = 0.121 2 2. P=PR or AP=2U(ADR