Preface

There are a number of varied books in Human Resource Management available on the shelves
and online. The unfortunate part is that most of these books do not cover adequate information to
cater for the course requirements. Reading through most books one will discover that the most
text books cover more on training and not the key aspects of Human Resource Development per
se.

This module is provided to fill the apparent gaps and provide some materials that would help
student have a solid understanding and grounding in HRD concepts.

The module is intended for the fourth year students doing AED 4411 – Human Resource
Development or Human Capital Development at the University of Zambia

The module brings to the fowl four topics. The first topic introduces the subject of Human
Resource Development. The second topic discusses Training and Development and the third
topic specifically addresses Competency Based- Training and Development, topic four
discusses Career Management in the modern age

AED 4411 – HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

This course aims to explore the need and impact of Human Resource Development on
Organizational competitiveness and effectiveness.

OBJECTIVESS

At the end of the course students should be able to:

a. State and explore the impact of training on the management of organizations

b. Differentiate training from development , so as induction and orientation
 c. Describe training and development strategies, systems and processes
d. State the importance of Competency-Based – Training & Development
e. Discuss management and Career Development

TABLE OF CONTENT

COURSE OUTLINE
1.1 Perspective of Human Resource Development
1.2 Need for Human Resource Development
1.3 Induction and Orientation
1.4 Structure of the Programme

2.1 Systematic Training and Development

2.2 Training Cycle
2.3 Training & Development Needs
2.4 Training Plans & Methods
2.5 Training for Skills
2.6 Evaluating Training

3.1 Competence-Based Training and Development

3.2 Needs Analysis
3.3 Competency Based L earning
3.4 Criticism of CBL

4.1 Career Management

4.2 Choice of Career
4.3 Developing a Career Plan
4.5 Development and Careers
4.6 Shifting Career Management Paradigm

COURSE CONTENTS
1. Perspective of Training & Development
2. Systematic Training & Development
3. Competency-based training & Development
4. Career management

Student Assessment
Students will be required to complete:
1. One long –major Assignment worth 30%
2. One test worth 20%
3. One Final examination

Topic 1 – INTRODUCTIO TO HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

General Perspectives of Human Resource Development

There are many terms that are used to describe the strategies and activities organization or
institutions employ to add value to their human resources’ capabilities, in order for them to
contribute more effectively to overall organizational goals and imperatives. The terms include:-

- Human Resource Development

- Training
- Learning
- Development
- Education

Human Resource Development (HRD) is a broad umbrella term that encompasses all such
activities (training, Learning, Development & Education) and provides a conscious alignment
between an organization’s business and human resource management strategies and plans
(Nankervis, 2008)

HRD is also defined as “the combined use of learning and interpersonal strategies and practices
within an organization to accomplish high levels of individual and organizational effectiveness.

PURPOSE OF HRD

1. Enhance individual performance

2. Improve organizational effectiveness and productivity.
3. HRD is considered as the key to higher productivity, better relations and greater
profitability for any organization

IMPORTANT BENEFITS OF HRD

 HRD (Human Resource Development) makes people more competent. HRD develops
new skill, knowledge and attitude of the people in the concerned organizations
  With appropriate HRD programme, people become more committed to their jobs. People
are assessed on the basis of their performance by having a acceptable performance
appraisal system.
 An environment of trust and respect can be created with the help of human
 resource development.
 Acceptability toward change can be created with the help of HRD. Employees found
themselves better equipped with problem-solving capabilities.

The significant goals of human resource development are

1. Access to organization proficiency.

2. Increasing quality and efficiency.
3. Promotion in growth and individual development.
4. Integrating people into business.
It is worthy noted that goals must be according to organization's goals and missions.

Learning: - Is a complex process of acquiring knowledge, understanding, skills and values

in order to be able adapt to the environment we live in G, A. Cole (2005)

- Is an on-going process which applies to whole organizations and their employees,

and usually requires positive attitudes towards change complemented with

structured learning programs

Training: - is a more specific term used to describe generally short-term formal and semi-formal

methods of transferring basic knowledge and skills to employees

- E.g. employees are trained to operate machinery or to understand implications of

legal or administrative procedures and processes
 - Noe etal., (2003) defines training as that planned effort by a company to facilitate
employee learning of job-related competencies. These competencies includes
knowledge, skills or behaviors that are critical for successful job performance
- Training may be broadly defined as learning activities which lead to the systematic
development of knowledge, skills and attitudes to improve or increase competence in
specific tasks or occupational skills
- Focused on helping employees’ performance in their current job
- Continues to be strategic in nature (highly related to business goals)

Development: - Is usually a longer term process focused on the acquisition of more complex or

deeper competencies, which involve both formal training program and on-the job

Practical experience and mentoring

- E.g. employees may be developed into managers or supervisors by means of a

structured series of on –and off – the job activities

- Development is also said to be a continuous process covering a broad range of

learning activities which contribute to the self development of the individual and the
organization
- Noe etal., (2000) defines development as the formal education, job experience,
relationship and assessment of personality and abilities that help employees prepare
for future
- Future oriented and involves leaning that is not necessarily related to the employee’s
current job
- Helps employees prepare for changes in their current job that may result from new
technology, work design, new customers and new product markets

Education: - Is the long term learning activity directed at preparing a person for a variety

of roles in life

- refers to formal courses provided in the primary, secondary and tertiary Institutions
 and now has come to encompass broad learning systems which encourage the

acquisition of conceptual, analytical and evaluative competences with or outside

the organization

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Training and Development

Employee training and development- is the processes of helping employees develop personal
and organizational skills, knowledge and abilities. Training and development in organizations are
related. The relationship at times is blurred and at times very direct and clear.

Noe et al (2000) note that development refers to formal education, job experiences,
relationships and assessment of personality and abilities that help employees prepare for the
future. The fact that development is future oriented, it involves learning that is not necessarily
related to the employee’s current job.

Training on the other hand is focused on helping employees’ performance in their current job.
Development on the other hand helps prepare employees for other positions in the company and
increases their ability to move into jobs that may not yet exist. Further, development helps
employees prepare for changes in their current jobs that may result from new technology, work
design, new customers or new product market. As training continues to be more strategic in
nature (highly related to business goals), the distinction between training and development
become blurred.

Table 1: Comparison between Training & Development

Dimensions Training Development
Focus Current job -Future jobs
-Willingness to accept the
requirements of the new task
Goal -Preparation for current job -Development of general skills
-Transfer of necessary skills to for trainees
the current trainee -Preparation for change
Influence On the current performance On the future performance
Participation Required Voluntary
Time Short term: to focus on s Long term: to enrich employee
pecific deficiencies skills and a variety of tasks to
address variables
Level Allocated to employees in Dedicated to management
administrative levels as a levels as a whole
whole
Requirement Depends on the shortage or Depends on personal ambition
lack of skills
Use of work experience Low High

The Need for Human Resource Development

The work of an organization is achieved through the people that are employed to undertake the
various activities aimed at achieving set objectives. If the people employed are very effective in
what they are assigned to do then the organization as a whole is effective. Such an organization
will be competitive in the market and it will be able to adapt effectively to changes in the
external environment and develop successfully

DeCenzo and Robbins (2001) states that “every organization needs to have well-trained and
experienced people to perform the activities that have to be done. If current or potential job
occupants can meet this requirement, training is not important. When this is not the case, it is
necessary to raise the skill levels and increase the versatility and adaptability of the employees”

Nankervis notes that,

1. The processes of recruiting and selecting human resources are the initial stages in
building an effective workforce.
2. Managers, supervisors and employees also require continual learning and
development if their potential is to be utilized effectively.
 3. The development of human resources should be viewed as beginning with their
induction and orientation, continuing throughout their employment with the
organization
4. Organizations must continually be able to learn, adapt and grow if they are to
survive and indeed prosper in turbulent environments
5. Lifelong learning has become vital to the success of modern organizations as
rapidly changing technology requires that employees demonstrate the capabilities
necessary to cope with new processes and production techniques
6. The growth of organizations into large complex operations whose structures are
continually changing are makes it necessary for managers as well as employees to
be prepared for new and more demanding assignments
7. As organizations strategies are renewed, human resources must also be renewed

Training: Not Like It Used to Be

Imagine this: You have a pile of work on your desk and as you get started, your outlook calendar
reminds you about a sexual harassment training in ten minutes. You groan to yourself, not
looking forward to sitting in a conference room and seeing PowerPoint slide after PowerPoint
slide. As you walk to the conference room, you run into a colleague who is taking the same
training that day and commiserate on how boring this training is probably going to be. When you
step into the conference room, however, you see something very different. Computers are set up
at every chair with a video ready to start on the computer. The HR manager greets you and asks
you to take a seat. When the training starts, you are introduced (via video) on each of the
computers to a series of sexual harassment example scenarios. The videos stop, and there is a
recorded discussion about what the videos portrayed. Your colleagues in the Washington, DC,
office are able to see the same training and, via video conferencing, are able to participate in the
discussions. It is highly interactive and interesting. Once the training is finished, there are
assignments to be completed via specific channels that have been set up for this training. You
communicate about the material and complete the assignments in teams with members of your
Washington, DC, office. If you want to review the material, you simply click on a review and the
entire session or parts of the training can be reviewed. In fact, on your bus ride home from work,
you access the channels on your iPhone, chatting with a colleague in your other office about the
sexual harassment training assignment you have due next week. You receive an e-mail from your
HR manager asking you to complete a training assessment located in a specific channel in the
software, and you happily comply because you have an entirely new perspective on what training
can be.
This is the training of today. No longer do people sit in hot, stuffy rooms to get training on
boring content. Training has become highly interactive, technical, and interesting owing to the
amount of multimedia we can use. Sun Microsystems, for example, has developed just the kind
of software mentioned above, called Social Learning eXchange (SLX). This type of training
allows people across the country to connect with each other, saving both money and time. In
fact, Sun Microsystems received a Best Practices Award from Training Magazine for this
innovative software in 2010. 1 The SLX software allows training to be delivered in an interactive
manner in multiple locations. The implications of this type of software are numerous. For
example, SLX is used at Sun Professional Services division by delivering instructional videos on
tools and software, which employees can view at their own pace. 2 There is also a channel in the
software that allows the vice president to communicate with employees on a regular basis to
improve employee communications. In another example, this software can be used to quickly
communicate product changes to the sales team, who then begin the process of positioning their
products to consumers. Training videos, including breakout sessions, can save companies money
by not requiring travel to a session. These can even be accessed using application technology on
cell phones. Employees can obtain the training they need in the comfort of their own city, office,
or home. Someone is sick the day the training is delivered? No problem; they can review the
recorded training sessions. An estimated $1,400 per employee is spent on training annually, with
training costs consuming 2.72 percent of the total payroll budget 3 for the average company.
With such a large amount of funds at stake, HR managers must develop the right training
programs to meet the needs; otherwise, these funds are virtually wasted.

Steps to Take in Training an Employee

Any effective company has training in place to make sure employee can perform his or her job.
During the recruitment and selection process, the right person should be hired to begin with. But
even the right person may need training in how your company does things.

CONSEQUENCES OF LACK OF TRAINING

 Lack of training can result in lost productivity

 lost customers
 poor relationships between employees and managers
 It can also result in dissatisfaction, which means retention problems and high turnover.
All these end up being direct costs to the organization.

STEPS INVOLVED IN EFFECTIVE TRAINNG

1. New employee goes through an induction and orientation,
2. New employee receives in-house training on job-specific areas.
3. Employee assigned a mentor,
4. As the employee grows and became comfortable with the job duties, he or she may
engage in external training.

Employee Induction and Orientation

The first step in training and development process is an employee induction and orientation.
Induction – is the formal process of familiarizing (or orienting) new employees with the
organization, their jobs and work unit
Orientation is the process used for welcoming a new employee into the organization.

The importance of employee orientation is two-fold.

1. Allow employees to gain an understanding of the company policies
2. Learn how their specific job fits into the big picture.

The goals of an orientation are as follows:

a. To reduce start-up costs. If an orientation is done right, it can help get the employee up to
speed on various policies and procedures, so the employee can start working right away.
It can also be a way to ensure all hiring paperwork is filled out correctly, so the employee
is paid on time.

b. To reduce anxiety. Starting a new job can be stressful. One goal of an orientation is to
reduce the stress and anxiety people feel when going into an unknown situation.

c. To reduce employee turnover. Employee turnover tends to be higher when employees

don’t feel valued or are not given the tools to perform. An employee orientation can show
that the organization values the employee and provides tools necessary for a successful
entry.

d. To save time for the supervisor and coworkers. A well-done orientation makes for a
better prepared employee, which means less time having to teach the employee.

e. To set expectations and attitudes. If employees know from the start what the expectations
are, they tend to perform better. Likewise, if employees learn the values and attitudes of
the organization from the beginning, there is a higher chance of a successful tenure at the
company. Some companies use employee orientation as a way to introduce employees
not only to the company policies and procedures but also to the staff. Some companies
have very specific orientations, with a variety of people providing information to the new
hires. This can create a welcoming environment, besides giving the employee the
information they need.
f. Increases employee retention
g. Enhances productivity
h. Positive employee morale
i. Facilitates subsequent learning
 1. In-House Training

In-house training programs are- learning opportunities developed by the organization in which
they are used. This is usually the second step in the training process and often is ongoing. In-
house training programs can be training related to a specific job, such as how to use a particular
kind of software. In a manufacturing setting, in-house training might include an employee
learning how to use a particular kind of machinery. Examples might include sexual harassment
training or ethics training. In-house training can also include components specific to a job, such
as how to use a specific kind of software. Some examples of In-house training include the
following:
• Ethics training
• Sexual harassment training
• Multicultural training
• Communication training
• Management training
• Customer service training
• Operation of special equipment
• Training to do the job itself
• Basic skills training

NB. As we can tell by the list of topics, HR might sometimes create and deliver this training, but
often a supervisor or manager delivers the training.

2. Mentoring
After the employee has completed orientation and in-house training, companies see the value in
offering mentoring opportunities as the next step in training.
  Mentoring is a process of using specially selected and trained individuals to provide
guidance, pragmatic advice, and continuing support that will help the people in their
learning and development process.
Mentoring is methods of helping people acquire skills and knowledge from experienced
managers who are wise in the way of the organization.

 A mentor is a trusted, experienced advisor who has direct investment in the development
of an employee.
A mentor may be a supervisor, but often a mentor is a colleague who has the experience
and personality to help guide someone through processes.

Mentee

While mentoring may occur informally, a mentorship program can help ensure the new
employee not only feels welcomed but is paired up with someone who already knows the ropes
and can help guide the new employee through any on-the-job challenges. To work effectively, a
mentoring program should become part of the company culture; in other words, new mentors
should receive in-house training to be a mentor. Mentors are selected based on experience,
willingness, and personality.

3. External Training

External training includes any type of training that is not performed in-house. This is usually
the last step in training, and it can be ongoing. It can include sending an employee to a seminar
to help further develop leadership skills or helping pay tuition for an employee who wants to take
a marketing class for instance.
How Would You Handle This?

SYSTEMATIC TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Systematic Training and Development - Is a deliberate process of planning for training after
identifying training needs and designing training activities in a rational manner and then assess
the results of training, as training at all cost cannot be met haphazardly.

DeCenzo and Robbins state every organization needs to have well-trained people to perform the
activities that have to done. It is necessary to raise the skills levels and increase versatility and
profitability of employees. As jobs have become more complex, the important of employee
training has increased

Dessler, G (2010) emphasizes that training is the hallmark of good management that can only be
overlooked at management s’ own peril. As such training needs to given serious consideration as
it is influenced by many factors.
The factors identified as influencing the quality and quantity of training include:
 Degree of change in the external environment (technology, legislation etc)
 Degree of internal change(new markets, new processes)
 Adaptability of existing workforce
 Availability of suitable skills within existing workforce
 Extent to which organization support the idea of internal career development
 Commitment of senior mak,nagement to training as an essential part of economic success
 Extent to which management see training as a motivating
 Knowledge and skills of those responsible for carrying out training

THE TRAINING CYCLE

Cole, A (2005) explains that a systematic approach to training and development generally
follows a logical sequence of activities commencing with the establishing of a policy and the
resources to sustain it, followed by an assessment of training needs, for which appropriate
training is provided, and end with some evaluation and feedback.

Figure 1: Training Cycle (adopted from Cole)

Policy statement

Establishing
T&D unit
 Evaluate program Identify T&D needs
4. 1.

Carry-out program Establish Plans

3. 2.

Benefits of systematic Training & Development

The benefits that accrue to organizations that adopt systematic approach to training are that
trained employees will turn out a high standard of goods in a cost effective manner and therefore
with a better chance of achieving organizational goals

Benefits to organizations are:

Maintenance of sufficient and suitable range of skills
Harnessing of work experience and other forms of on-the-job development in a planned
way
Achievement of improved job performance and productivity
Improved product quality
Improved service to customers
Improved motivation amongst employees

Benefits to the individual

Increase in personal repertoire of skills
 Increased job satisfaction
Increased value of employees in the labour market

Improved prospects of internal promotion

An organizations’ training policy is usually included in a range of human resource policies. The
fulfillment of the policy can be achieved in many ways different ways. Some organizations have
a “grow your own” approach by providing training on an in-company basis with little reliance
on outsiders. Other organizations use outsiders like universities, consultants and private training
institutions. Whatever the option chosen, it will require funding and thus justifying the budget
allocation.

Example of policy statement – “Develop for individual and organizational benefit”

TRAINING AND DEVELOPEMNT NEEDS ASSESSMENT

To justify its training expenditure, an organization must carry out training needs analysis on the
basis of organization needs

Training needs
In a systematic approach to training, organizations set out by defining their training needs in a
rational and organized procedure that looks at training needs from several perspectives that
include: corporate requirements, functions, and occupational group of jobs individual employee.
The choice of the perspective depends on the prevailing circumstances. If the external
environment is exerting pressure for internal change then the corporate perspective needs to be
taken. If the issue is of improving skills in a particular category of employees, then that
occupational group will provide the focus of effort.
Organizations analyze training needs in response to operational weakness. This suggests that
there is an element of reaction to a situation that needs to be attended to. Training can be
deployed as an element of planned change in the organization.
A training need- Is any short-fall in employee performance or potential performance which can
be corrected by appropriate training. From the perspective of the individual employee, training
need is illustrated as shown

DEMANDS OF THE JOB Level of knowledge,

understanding
 Knowledge possessed by employees
 Understanding
 Skills
Training
 Attitude
Extent of employee’s Needs
Demand for change in
Minus willing to adapt Equals
the organization

 The demands of the job are made up of the appropriate proportions of knowledge, skills
and attitudes
 Demands for change requires an employee to meet the job challenges
 Against these requirements are set the employees’ level of understanding and knowledge.
 If the two sides match, there is will be no training requirement
 A mismatch of the two sides identifies training needs
NB.
In an organization, the sources of individual’s training needs are the demands of the job and the
demands of organization change.

TRAINING PLANS
Cole, G. A. (2004) explains that training is a systematic statement of training intentions and the
means by which they are to be achieved and measured. Training plans are central to the training
process as shown in the flow chart below:

The Training Process

Training Policy

Assessment of Needs
(What the org. needs)

Internal Factors
Performance Training plans, External Factors
programs, activities &
-Effectiveness events -Adaptation

-Efficiency -Competitiveness in the

market

-Growth

Implementation

Evaluation

A training plan typically has the following information:-

 1. Program Aims- a general statement on the intentions of training
2. Target numbers – estimate of numbers involved
3. Program content – details of the topics to be covered, learning objectives to be
achieved, learning activities to be employed and learning methods to proposed
4. Program evaluation - proposals for estimating the relative success of the training in
terms of both objectives achieved and impact on organization’s activities
5. Administration and costs – details of timetables, location of activities , release of staff
from normal duties, expenses and costs
6. Training staff- identification of staff to be deployed

TRAINING METHODS
Training Methods are the means used to communicate information, ideas, skills, attitudes and
feelings to learners. These methods are very crucial to the trainer’s success and categorized as:

Off-the-Job On-the-Job
Lectures/talks Job instructions
Classroom instructions Learning from experienced work mates
Programmed instructions Coaching/counseling
Group discussions Delegation
Case-studies analysis Secondments (Exposure to new experience)
Simulation exercise Special projects

EVALUATING TRAINING
Evaluation- generally means “to assess the value or worthiness of the training .” This implies:
1. Finding out about the training activity
2. Looking for possible improvement to training -that is formative evaluation
3. Evaluating the worth of the activity is summative evaluation
4. Evaluation is not the same as validation, which is just an aspect evaluation.
5. Validation refers to the assessment of the progress towards achievement of objectives
TYPES OF TRAINING
Learning Objective
There are a number of different types of training we can use to engage an employee . These
types are usually used in all steps in a training process (orientation, in-house, mentorship, and
external training). The training utilized depends on:
 the amount of resources available for training
 the type of company,
 Priority the company places on training.

NB
No one type would be enough for the jobs we do. Most HR managers use a variety of these types
of training to develop a holistic employee.

A) Technical or Technology Training

Depending on the type of job, technical training will be required. Technical training is a type of
training meant to teach the new employee the technological aspects of the job.
 In a retail environment, technical training might include teaching someone how to use the
computer system to ring up customers.
 In a sales position, it might include showing someone how to use the customer
relationship management (CRM) system to find new prospects.
 In a consulting business, technical training might be used so the consultant knows how to
use the system to input the number of hours that should be charged to a client.
 In a restaurant, the server needs to be trained on how to use the system to process orders.

Let’s assume your company has decided to switch to the newest version of Microsoft Office.
This might require some technical training of the entire company to ensure everyone uses the
technology effectively. Technical training is often performed in-house, but it can also be
administered externally.
 B) Quality Training
In a production-focused business, quality training is extremely important. Quality training refers
to familiarizing employees with the means of preventing, detecting, and eliminating non-quality
items, usually in an organization that produces a product. In a world where quality can set your
business apart from competitors, this type of training provides employees with the knowledge to
recognize products that are not up to quality standards and teaches them what to do in this
scenario. Numerous organizations, such as the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), measure quality based on a number of metrics. This organization
provides the stamp of quality approval for companies producing tangible products. ISO has
developed quality standards for almost every field imaginable, not only considering product
quality but also certifying companies in environmental management quality. ISO9000 is the set
of standards for quality management, while ISO14000 is the set of standards for environmental
management. ISO has developed 18,000 standards over the last 60 years. With the increase in
globalization, these international quality standards are more important than ever for business
development.
 Training employees on quality standards, including ISO standards, can give them a
competitive advantage.
 It can result in cost savings in production as well as provide an edge in marketing of
the quality-controlled products.

C) Skills Training
Skills training, the third type of training, includes proficiencies needed to actually perform the
job. For example, an administrative assistant might be trained in how to answer the phone, while
a salesperson at Best Buy might be trained in assessment of customer needs and on how to offer
the customer information to make a buying decision. Think of skills training as the things you
actually need to know to perform your job. A cashier needs to know not only the technology to
ring someone up but what to do if something is priced wrong. Most of the time, skills training is
given in-house and can include the use of a mentor.

D) Soft Skills Training

Our fourth type of training is called soft skills training. Soft skills refer to personality traits,
social graces, communication, and personal habits that are used to characterize relationships with
other people. Soft skills might include how to answer the phone or how to be friendly and
welcoming to customers. It could include sexual harassment training and ethics training. In some
jobs, necessary soft skills might include how to motivate others, maintain small talk, and
establish rapport. In a retail or restaurant environment, soft skills are used in every interaction
with customers and are a key component of the customer experience. In fact, according to a
Computer world magazine survey, executives say there is an increasing need for people who
have not only the skills and technical skills to do a job but also the necessary soft skills, such as
strong listening and communication abilities. Many problems in organizations are due to a lack
of soft skills, or interpersonal skills, not by problems with the business itself. As a result, HR and
managers should work together to strengthen these employee skills. Soft skills training can be
administered either in-house or externally.

E) Professional Training and Legal Training

In some jobs, professional training must be done on an ongoing basis. Professional training is a
type of training required to be up to date in one’s own professional field. For example, tax laws
change often, and as a result, an accountant for Zambia Revenue Authority must receive yearly
professional training on new tax codes. Lawyers need professional training as laws change. A
personal fitness trainer will undergo yearly certifications to stay up to date in new fitness and
nutrition information. Some organizations have paid a high cost for not properly training their
employees on the laws relating to their industry. In 2011, Massachusetts General Hospital paid
over $1 million in fines related to privacy policies that were not followed.

F) Team Training
Team training is the process that empowers teams to improve decision making, problem
solving, and team-development skills to achieve business results.

Do you know the exercise in which a person is asked to close his or her eyes and fall back, and
then supposedly the team members will catch that person? As a team building exercise (and a
scary one at that), this is an example of team training.
The goal of team training is to develop cohesiveness among team members, allowing them to
get to know each other and facilitate relationship building. Often this type of training can occur
after an organization has been restructured and new people are working together or perhaps after
a merger or acquisition. Some reasons for team training include the following:
• Improving communication
• Making the workplace more enjoyable
• Motivating a team
• Getting to know each other
• Getting everyone “onto the same page,” including goal setting
• Teaching the team self-regulation strategies
• Helping participants to learn more about themselves (strengths and weaknesses)
• Identifying and utilizing the strengths of team members
• Improving team productivity
• Practicing effective collaboration with team members
Team training can be administered either in-house or externally. Ironically, through the use of
technology, team training no longer requires people to even be in the same room.
Human Resource Recall
G) Managerial Training
After someone has spent time with an organization, they might be identified as a candidate for
promotion. When this occurs, managerial training would occur. Topics might include those from
our soft skills section, such as how to motivate and delegate, while others may be technical in
nature. For example, if management uses a particular computer system for scheduling, the
manager candidate might be technically trained. Some managerial training might be performed
in-house while other training, such as
leadership skills, might be performed externally.

For example, Mastek, a global IT solutions and services provider, provides a program called
“One Skill a Month,” which enables managers to learn skills such as delegation, coaching, and
giving feedback. The average number of total training days at Mastek is 7.8 per employee and
includes managerial topics and soft skills topics such as e-mail etiquette. The goal of its training
programs is to increase productivity, one of the organization’s core values.
 H) Safety Training
Safety training is a type of training that occurs to ensure employees are protected from injuries
caused by work-related accidents. Safety training is especially important for organizations that
use chemicals or other types of hazardous materials in their production. Safety training can also
include evacuation plans, fire drills, and workplace violence procedures. Safety training can also
include the following:
• Eye safety
• First aid
• Food service safety
• Hearing protection
• Asbestos
• Construction safety
• Hazmat safety
Starbucks Training Video

TRAINING DELIVERY METHODS

1) On-the-Job Coaching Training Delivery

On-the-job coaching is one way to facilitate employee skills training. On-the-job coaching refers
to an approved person training an employee on the skills necessary to complete tasks. A manager
or someone with experience shows the employee how to perform the actual job. The selection of
an on-the-job coach can be done in a variety of ways, but usually the coach is selected based on
personality, skills, and knowledge. This type of skills training is normally facilitated in-house.
The disadvantage of this training revolves around the person delivering the training. If he or she
is not a good communicator, the training may not work. Likewise, if this person has “other things
to do,” he or she may not spend as much time required to train the person and provide guidance.
In this situation, training can frustrate the new
employee and may result in turnover.
 2) Mentoring and Coaching Training Delivery
Mentoring is also a type of training delivery. A mentor is a trusted, experienced advisor who has
direct investment in the development of an employee. Mentoring is a process by which an
employee can be trained and developed by an experienced person. Normally, mentoring is used
as a continuing method to train and develop an employee.
DISADVATAGE OF MENTORING
- possible communication style and personality conflict.
- can also create overdependence in the mentee or micromanagement by the mentor.

3) Brown Bag Lunch Training Delivery

Brown bag lunches are a training delivery method meant to create an informal atmosphere. As
the name suggests, brown bag lunch training is one in which the training occurs during
lunchtime, employees bring their food, and someone presents training information to them. The
trainer could be HR or management or even another employee showing a new technical skill.
Brown bag lunches can also be an effective way to perform team training, as it brings people
together in a more relaxed atmosphere. Some companies offer brown bag lunch training for
personal development as well. For example, an employee provides a slide presentation on a trip
he or she has taken, discussing the things learned on the trip.
- One disadvantage to this type of training can be low attendance and garnering enough
interest from employees who may not want to “work” during lunch breaks
- There can also be inconsistency in messages if training is delivered and not everyone is
present to hear the message.
Human Resource Recall
What types of brown bag lunch training would employees be most
willing to attend? Do you think this type of training should be
required?

4) Web-Based Training Delivery

Web-based training delivery has a number of names. It could be called e-learning or Internet-
based, computer-based, or technology-based learning. No matter what it is called, any web-based
training involves the use of technology to facilitate training.

There are two types of web-based learning.

1. Synchronous Learning uses instructor-led facilitation.
2. Asynchronous learning is self-directed, and there is no instructor facilitating the course.

Advantages to Web-Based Training

- it is available on demand,
- does not require travel,
- cost efficient. However,
Disadvantages
- impersonal aspect to the training
- limited bandwidth or technology capabilities.
- Web-based training delivery lends itself well to certain training topics. For example, this
might be an appropriate delivery method for safety training, technical training, quality
training, and professional training. However, for some training, such as soft skills
training, job skills training, managerial training, and team training, another more
personalized method may be better for delivery. However, there are many different
platforms that lend themselves to an interactive approach to training, such as Sun
Microsystems’ Social Learning eXchange (SLX) training system, which has real-time
video and recording capabilities. Hundreds of platforms are available to facilitate web-
based training. Digital Chalk, for example, allows for both synchronous and
asynchronous training and allows the instructor or human relations manager to track
training progress and completion. Some companies use SharePoint, an intranet platform,
to store training videos and materials. Blackboard and Angel (used primarily by higher
education institutions) allows human resource managers to create training modules,
which can be moderated by a facilitator or managed in a self-paced format. In any of the
platforms available, media such as video and podcasts can be included within the
training. Considerations for selecting a web-based platform include the following:
 -
5) Job Shadowing Training Delivery

Job shadowing is a training delivery method that places an employee who already has the skills
with another employee who wants to develop those skills. Apprenticeships use job shadowing as
one type of training method. For example, an apprentice electrician would shadow and watch the
journeyman electrician perform the skills and tasks and learn by watching. Eventually, the
apprentice would be able to learn the skills to do the job alone. The downside to this type of
training is the possibility that the person job shadowing may learn “bad habits” or shortcuts to
performing tasks that may not be beneficial to the organization.
Fortune 500 Focus
.
6) Job Swapping Training Delivery
Job swapping is a method for training in which two employees agree to change jobs for a period
of time. Of course, with this training delivery method, other training would be necessary to
ensure the employee learns the skills needed to perform the skills of the new job. Job swap
options can be motivational to employees by providing a change of scenery. It can be great for
the organization as well to cross-train
employees in different types of jobs. However, the time spent learning can result in unproductive
time and lost revenue.

7) Vestibule Training Delivery (Near-site training)

In vestibule training, training is performed near the worksite in conference rooms, lecture
rooms, and classrooms(Vestibule training delivery is also known as “near site” training).This
might be an appropriate method to deliver orientations and some skills-based training. For
example, to become a journeyman electrician, an apprentice performs job shadowing, on-the-job
training, and vestibule training to learn the law and codes related to electricity installation.
During the busy holiday season, Macy’s uses vestibule training to teach new hires how to use the
cash register system and provides skills training on how to provide great customer service.
Many organizations use vestibule training for technical training, safety training, professional
training, and quality training. It can also be appropriate for managerial training, soft skills
training, and team training. As you can tell, this delivery method, like web-based training
delivery, is quite versatile. For some jobs or training topics, this may take too much time away
from performing the actual “job,” which can result in
lost productivity.

8) International Assignment Training

Since we are working within a global economy, it might be necessary to provide training to
employees who are moving overseas or working overseas. Up to 40 percent of international
assignments are terminated early because of a lack of international training. Ensuring success
overseas is reliant upon the local employee’s learning how to navigate in the new country. The
following topics might be included in this type of training:
1. Cultural differences and similarities
2. Insight and daily living in the country
3. Social norms and etiquette
4. Communication training, such as language skills
This training is best delivered by a professional in the region or area in which the employee will
be working.

DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAM

Training Program Framework Development

When developing your training plan, there are a number of considerations. Training is
something that should be planned and developed in advance.

Training Program Development Model

The considerations for developing a training program are as follows:
1. Needs assessment and learning objectives. This part of the framework development asks
you to consider what kind of training is needed in your organization. Once you have
 determined the training needed, you can set learning objectives to measure at the end of
the training.
2. Consideration of learning styles. Making sure to teach to a variety of learning styles is
important to development of training programs.
3. Delivery mode. What is the best way to get your message across? Is web-based training
more appropriate, or should mentoring be used? Can vestibule training be used for a
portion of the training while job shadowing be used for some of the training, too? Most
training programs will include a variety of delivery methods.
4. Budget. How much money do you have to spend on this training?

5. Delivery style. Will the training be self-paced or instructor led? What kinds of
discussions and interactivity can be developed in conjunction with this training?

6. Audience. Who will be part of this training? Do you have a mix of roles, such as
accounting people and marketing people? What are the job responsibilities of these
individuals, and how can you make the training relevant to their individual jobs?

7. Content. What needs to be taught? How will you sequence the information?

8. Timelines. How long will it take to develop the training? Is there a deadline for training
to be completed?

9. Communication. How will employees know the training is available to them?

10. Measuring effectiveness of training. How will you know if your training worked? What
ways will you use to measure this?
Human Resource Recall

Needs Assessment (Identifying the Need for Training)

Generally, training is focused in nature and directed towards satisfying an identified need. It is
quite important, therefore, to develop and use skills in identifying the need for training.
These skills will include:
 Communication skills,
 Interpersonal skills such as interviewing and negotiating,
 Problem solving
 Analytical skills and knowledge of the workplace
 Empathy with the people in the work situation.

- To determine the need for training, it is essential for the training manager to talk to
people to see if a training need exists. This means consultation with the people
responsible for supervising the work and people who are responsible for doing the work.
- Sometimes training will be required to equip people with competencies for the job
because the people are new to the job or because the job has changed for whatever
reason. Training may be required when the work is not being performed correctly. There
is a general rule which says that training is often the answer for "CAN'T DO" situations.
It is rarely the answer for "WON'T DO" situations.
- The decision on whether training is needed should be based on information. The training
manager needs to gather the information from appropriate people. One useful question
might be to ask whether anybody has ever done the job correctly. The job may well need
to be re-designed, for instance. Other useful questions relate to information about the
extent of instruction or training provided, if any. When jobs are not being done correctly,
they may well be "WON'T DO" jobs. People know how to do WON'T DO jobs. They just
don't do them the way they should.

The first step in developing a training program is to determine what the organization needs in
terms of training. There are three (3) levels of training needs assessment:
 - organizational assessment
- occupational (task) assessment,
- individual assessment:

1. Organizational assessment
In this type of needs assessment, we can determine the skills, knowledge, and abilities a
company needs to meet its strategic objectives. This type of assessment considers things such as
changing demographics and technological trends. Overall, this type of assessment looks at how
the organization as a whole can handle its weaknesses while promoting strengths.

2. Occupational (task) assessment.

This type of assessment looks at the specific tasks, skills knowledge, and abilities required to do
jobs within the organization.

3. Individual assessment.
An individual assessment looks at the performance of an individual employee and determines
what training should be accomplished for that individual

We can apply each of these to our training plan. First, to perform an organizational assessment,
we can look at:
1. future trends and our overall company’s strategic plan to determine training needs.
2. We can also see how jobs and industries are changing, and knowing this, we can better
determine the occupational and individual assessments.
3. Researching training needs is another way and can be done through a variety of ways.
One option is to use an online tool such as Survey Monkey to poll employees on what
types of training they would like to see offered.
4. Reviewing performance evaluations turned in by your managers can also be applied, as
you may see a pattern developing showing that employees are not meeting expectations.
As a result, this may provide data as to where your training is lacking.
NB
There are also types of training that will likely be required for a job, such as technical training,
safety training, quality training, and professional training. Each of these should be viewed as
separate training programs, requiring an individual framework for each type of training. For
example, an employee orientation framework will look entirely different from an in-house
technical training framework.

Training must be tied to job expectations. Any and all training developed should transfer directly
to the skills of that particular employee. Reviewing the HR strategic plan and various job
analyses may help you see what kind of training should be developed for specific job titles in
your organization.

Competency-Based Training and Development

- Is a system of training (transferring of knowledge, understanding, skills, values, attitudes

to employees) which is geared towards specific outcomes
- The distinguishing feature of competency based training is that it is focused training.
Focused training is, by its nature, directed towards satisfying an identified need

Competency:
- The concept of competency focuses on what is expected of an employee in the workplace
rather than on the learning process; and embodies the ability to transfer and apply skills
and knowledge to new situations and environments.
- Competency is a broad concept that includes all aspects of work performance and not
only narrow task skills.
Competency encompasses:
 the requirement to perform individual tasks (task skills)
 the requirement to manage a number of different tasks within the job(task management
skills)
  the requirement to respond to irregularities and breakdowns in routine(contingency
management skills)
 the requirement to deal with the responsibilities and expectations of the work
environment (job/role environment skills), including working with others

The current understanding of the concept of competency and competence is very wide. It implies
concepts such as ability, behavior, activity, or even complex of operations. These components
should then be reflected in the above-average performance of a man in a certain area.
Competencies are used in several areas of human resource management – individual selection,
development, performance management and strategic planning as well.

Competence is the standard that must be owned by an employee in carrying out the work and
function properly. Competence includes a number of attributes attached to the individual which
is a combination of knowledge, skills, and behaviors that can be used as a means to improve
perform. According to Spencer, competence is defined as a character, attitude, and behavior, or
the ability of workers to be relatively stable when faced with a situation in a place of work,
which is formed from the synergy between self-concept, internal motivation and capacity of
contextual knowledge. Meanwhile, according to Covey, Roger, and Merrill, that competence
includes some of the following:
a) Technical Competence – which is the knowledge and expertise to achieve the results that
have been agreed upon, the ability to think about problems, and seek new alternatives,

b) Conceptual Competence – which is the ability to see the big picture, to test a variety of
control and perspective changes,

c) Competence to live that is the ability to effectively interdependence with others, including
the ability to listen, communicate, get the third alternative. Thus, competence is an essential
factor of a person who has more skills, which makes it different from a person who, having the
ability of an average or mediocre.
d) Threshold competencies- Are the main characteristics that must be possessed by a person in
order to carry out the work
e) Differentiating competence- Are the factors that distinguish high-performing individuals and
low.HR competencies can be fostered through a system that integrates the needs of the individual
(in terms of organizational interests) with the training program

Origin of Competencies
- Competencies originate from organization’s strategic goals and operational priorities.

Competency Cycle

Identify Key business Identify/define key Define competencies

Drivers/success factors supporting behaviors & and Develop
competencies competency maps

Develop job
profiles

Measure Measure Create & implement Measure

organizational competency individual & individual &
impact improvement Organizational & organizational
development plans skills gaps
The Competency Cycle has no beginning and an end. The version of the Competency Cycle must
change and evolve with you r organization and its business environment and ecosystem. The
entire Competency Cycle is very powerful, and every step will set you up for additional
organizational success. Even partial implementation will still yield results.

Competency in a job is developed. It does not suddenly happen with a flash of insight nor does a
person achieve competency by knowing what to do and being able to talk about it. Ultimately the
gaining of competency requires practice in the work.

The development of competency can usually be plotted through a sequence of training which
requires:
4. Demonstration
5. Explanation
6. Practice Review
7. Application.

The Framework for Competency- Based-Training

Competency-Based-Training is a system of training which rests on a series of interlocking steps
or processes. In their simplest form, these consist of:
 Establishing the end product (the competencies to be gained);
 Providing training and practice Opportunities (the learning/training process);
 Checking that the final performance meets the requirements (the assessment process).

If these steps are successful, the training works. They are the basic elements to return to
whenever the process looks complex and the tasks seem overwhelming. Whatever is added, and
the full sequence is about to be displayed, those three elements remain the key.
The full sequence consists of:
1. Identify the need for training
2. Design and develop training
3. Organize training resources
4. Deliver and evaluate training
5. Assess performance of trainees

1. Identifying the Need for Training

The necessary element in this task is the development of competency standards to
provide a reference point. Competency standards provide the measure of the workplace
requirements. Competency standards are generally developed on an industry basis..
.
2. Design and Develop Training
In a CBT system, competency standards form the base on which training is developed.
The design and development of training is frequently referred to, particularly among
educationalists as curriculum development. Curriculum covers the full range of work in
preparation for training, covering the preparation of training objectives, course or
program outlines, learning materials, teacher's guides and assessment strategy.
.
3. Organize Training Resources
Training is a physical process as well as a mental and psychological one. And yet the
three aspects are interrelated. As McLuhan is often quoted, or perhaps misquoted, "The
medium is the message". A powerful message is given to those people who find that
training is not organized. Equally, they are given a powerful message when the trainer is
organized, the training place is organized and training and learning materials are
organized and ready for use before the training commences. To add to that, if their work
environment and supervisors are supportive of the training, then its value is enormously
enhanced.
4. Deliver and Evaluate Training
The delivery of training may take many forms. In the more detailed discussion of training
delivery, attention must be focused on the need for a mindset change, to think in terms of
the facilitation of learning. Evaluation of the effectiveness of training in terms of helping
people become competent, and, equally in terms of helping people to want to become
 competent, is a vital part of training. Without careful and collaborative evaluation
between trainers and learners, there will be no possibility of continuous improvement in
the provision of training.
5. Assess Performance of Trainees
Assessment may be classified into two main types by function. These types are
summative assessment and formative or diagnostic assessment.

- Summative assessment is the final step in the process of developing competency to the
standard required. It serves to confirm that a person has achieved the competency
standard sought. There should be no surprises at the final assessment. It is a confirmation,
not a hurdle to overcome.
- Formative or diagnostic assessments, which are simply variations on the same theme
that are an inherent part of the learning/training process. They are the means through
which the learner and the teacher/trainer track progress. The analysis of performance can
then serve to guide the succeeding phases of learning.

Competency-Based Learning (CBL)

Competency-based learning - refers to systems of instruction, assessment, grading, and

academic reporting that are based on students demonstrating that they have learned the
knowledge and skills they are expected to learn as they progress through their education.

The general goal of competency-based learning is to ensure that students are acquiring the
knowledge and skills that are deemed to be essential to success in school, higher education,
careers, and adult life. If students fail to meet expected learning standards, they typically receive
additional instruction, practice time, and academic support to help them achieve competency or
meet the expected standards.

Defining competency-based learning is complicated by the fact that educators not only use a
wide variety of terms for the general approach, but the terms may or may not be used
synonymously from place to place. A few of the more common synonyms include proficiency-
based, mastery-based, outcome-based, performance-based, and standards-based education,
instruction, and learning, among others.

In practice, competency-based learning can take a wide variety of forms. At the collegiate level,
for example, competency-based learning may entail prospective adult students receiving
academic credit for knowledge and skills they acquired in their former careers—an approach that
can reduce tuition costs and accelerate their progress toward earning a degree. It should also be
noted that many online schools and educational programs, at the both the K–12 and higher-
education levels, have also become the object of criticism and debate. Many for-profit virtual
schools and online degree programs, for example, have been accused of offering low-quality
educational experiences to students, exploiting students or public programs, and using the
popularity of concepts such as “competency-based education” to promote programs of dubious
educational value. When investigating or reporting on competency-based education, it is
important to determine precisely how the terms are being used in a specific context.

Competency-based learning is generally seen as an alternative to more traditional educational

approaches in which students may or may not acquire proficiency in a given course or academic
subject before they earn course credit, get promoted to the next grade level, or graduate. For
example, high school students typically earn academic credit by passing a course, but a passing
grade may be an A or it may be a D, suggesting that the awarded credit is based on a spectrum of
learning expectations—with some students learning more and others learning less—rather than
on the same consistent standards being applied to all students equally. And since grades may be
calculated differently from school to school or teacher to teacher, and they may be based on
divergent learning expectations (i.e., some courses might be “harder” and others “easier”), it may
be possible for students to pass their courses, earn the required number of credits, and receive a
diploma without acquiring important knowledge and skills. In extreme cases, for example,
students may be awarded a high school diploma but still be unable to read, write, or do math at a
basic level.

A “competency-based diploma” would be a diploma awarded to students only after they have
met expected learning standards.
While the goal of competency-based learning is to ensure that more students learn what they are
expected to learn, the approach can also provide educators with more detailed or fine-grained
information about student learning progress, which can help them more precisely identify
academic strengths and weakness, as well as the specific concepts and skills students have not
yet mastered. Since academic progress is often tracked and reported by learning standard in
competency-based courses and schools, educators and parents often know more precisely what
specific knowledge and skills students have acquired or may be struggling with. For example,
instead of receiving a letter grade on an assignment or test, each of which may address a variety
of standards, students are graded on specific learning standards, each of which describes the
knowledge and skills students are expected to acquire.

When schools transition to a competency-based system, it can entail significant changes in how a
school operates and how it teaches students, affecting everything from the school’s educational
philosophy and culture to its methods of instruction, testing, grading, reporting, promotion, and
graduation. For example, report cards may be entirely redesigned, and schools may use different
grading scales and systems, such as replacing letter grades with brief descriptive statements—
e.g., phrases such as does not meet, partially meets, meets the standard, and exceeds the
standard are commonly used in competency-based schools (although systems vary widely in
design, purpose, and terminology). Schools may also use different methods of instruction and
assessment to determine whether students have achieved competency, including strategies such
as demonstration of learning, learning pathways or personal learning plans.

While there is a widespread agreement that students should be held to high academic
expectations, and that Public Universities and lecturers should make sure that students acquire
the most important knowledge and skills they will need to succeed in adult life, there is often
disagreement and debate about the best way to achieve these goals. For this reason, debates
about competency-based learning tend to be focused on the methods used by schools, rather than
the overall objective of the strategy (i.e., all students meeting high standards and achieving
proficiency—a goal that few dispute).

Proponents of competency-based learning may argue that the approach greatly improves the
chances that students will learn the most critically important knowledge, concepts, and skills
they will need throughout their lives and that competency-based learning can help to eliminate
persistent learning gaps, achievement gaps and opportunity gaps. For these reasons, advocates of
competency-based learning argue that the practice is a more equitable approach to public
education, since it holds all students to the same high standards regardless of their race, ethnicity,
gender, or socioeconomic status, or whether they attend schools in poor or affluent communities
(uneven standards being applied to minority and non-minority students, or the uneven quality of
teaching and facilities from school to school, are believed to be major contributing causes of
issues such as achievement gaps). Proponents may also point to the weaknesses or failures of
existing systems—which allow students to get promoted from one grade to the next and earn a
diploma without acquiring important knowledge and skills.

Criticisms of the Competency-Based Learning

1. It is not valid to equate competency with performance. Other factors are important
(Competency is just potential and not performer, has only ability and motivation)
2. the transition will require already overburdened trainers to spend large amounts of time—
and possibly uncompensated time—on extra planning, preparation, and training,
3. Competency-based learning can be prohibitively difficult to implement, particularly at a
global or national level.
4. Critics may also take issue with the learning standards that competency-based systems
utilize, or with the specific features of a system used in a particular school. For example,
parents often express concern that the abandonment of traditional letter grades, report cards,
transcripts, and other familiar academic-reporting strategies will disadvantage students who
are applying to colleges and universities (because the reporting strategies will be unfamiliar
to college-admissions professionals, or because competency-based systems may eliminate
many of the competitive dimensions of academic achievement, such as GPAs or class rank,
that tend to favor high-achieving students). Others may question whether there is sufficient
evidence that competency-based learning will actually work as intended.
CAREER MANAGEMENT

A CAREER
1. careers have been described as a sequence of positions held within an occupation

2. A career is not simply a job, but rather a lifelong endeavor comprising behaviors,
attitudes and feelings in a developmental process driven by people’s work and life goals
and moderated by the organizations they work in (

3. Is the sequence of work-related positions occupied throughout a person’s life (objective)

4. Changes in values, attitudes and motivation that occur as a person grows older
(subjective)

Career management (development planning)– defined as a system used to retain and motivate
employees (good performers and employees with potential for managerial positions) a
companies need through providing, identifying and meeting employees’ development needs.
Career management involves those personal competencies and organizational influences and
structures that allow and drive individuals to acquire the requisite skills, knowledge and attitudes
to achieve their own career and personal goals and to meet the demands of their work
environment. It is an ongoing process of refining, implementing and monitoring the plans made
and the steps undertaken by the individual and his or her workplace

There are two distinct types of career management strategies (Sturgess, Guest, Conway, &
Mackenzie Davey, 2002).
A. The first targets skills and strategies that enhance a career within the individual’s present
organisation, such as in-house training and fostering contacts with influential people.
B. The second targets skills and strategies that enhance a career generally, such as obtaining
higher level qualifications and forming contacts through trade and professional
associations. The strategy emphasised by the individual depends on complex factors,
such as commitment to, and satisfaction with, the organisation, and will be influenced by
the type and level of career management and development assistance offered by the
organisation (DeVos, Buyens, & Schalk, 2003).
Career development has three broad phases (Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2004). First, schools and
post-secondary colleges and universities provide young people with workplace relevant skills,
knowledge and attitudes that prepare them for taking their place in the world of work. Second,
young people acquire the competencies to bridge the gap between attending formal educational
institutions and settling into a life that involves full-time employment. Third, development
occurs within the workplace itself, when individuals are orientated and developed to the
requirements of their employers. This phase largely has an employer focus, meaning that much
of this development is aimed at organizational efficiency (Hall, 2003), although career
development in this context can and does benefit individual employees. Employees are
socialized to the culture and demands of their jobs, and they receive ongoing training and
guidance on how to adapt to the changes that will occur within themselves and to the
organization.

Thus, the development of a career is a long-term and complex process influenced by those
psychological, sociological, educational, physical, economic, environmental and fortuitous
factors that converge to shape it during a person’s lifetime (McDaniels & Gysbers, 1992).

Traditionally, from the organizational perspective, career development for adults was seen
clearly as an organizational responsibility, whereby organizations established policies and
processes to implement and foster career development, primarily to the advantage of the
organization, and only secondary to the benefit of the individual. More recently, increased
globalization of the business world and rapid technological advances have increased competition
and forced large scale restructuring on organizations, such as the replacement of full-time staff
with temporary and part-time employees, and a movement to flatter organizational structures
(Fieldman & Ng, 2007). As a consequence of these organizational changes, many employers are
no longer able, or willing, to offer employees traditional support and advancement opportunities
that might encourage them to commit to, and remain within an organization for long periods, or
even a lifetime (Gratton & Hope Hailey, 1999). Individuals themselves may also be reorientating
their values and goals and be less prepared to travel these traditional paths (Arthur & Rousseau,
1996). In this climate, employees, on the one hand, have been given, and to some extent have
sought, increased responsibility for their own career development (Baruch, 2004); whereas on
the other hand, employers have become rather more pragmatic and organisationally focused with
their developmental activities.

CAREERS IN PERSPECTIVE

Career planning for the individual is an ongoing, iterative process that involves developing an
understanding of one’s self and one’s goals, as well as becoming aware of the educational and
labour market opportunities and impediments to one’s expected fit in the world of work. Ideally,
it involves informed choices about occupational and life directions (Hall & Associates, 1986;
Leibowitz, Farren, & Kaye, 1986).

Career planning is important because the consequences of career success and failure are closely
linked with each individual’s self-concept, self-concept and satisfaction with career and life.

CONCERN FOR CAREER PLANNING & DEVELOPMENT

Career planning and development have become big concern in organizations for the following
reasons:

1. Slow economic growth and reduced advancement opportunities –since the liberalization
of the national economy here in Zambia, people are now realizing that formal
employment is only guaranteed for a season and can change at anytime causing chaos in
formal employment. In anticipation of change and the desire to be flexible , many people
have opted to have multiple skills that can lend themselves to be alternative employment
or personal business development
2. Rising concern for quality of work and for personal life planning. People have ambitions
that need to be met so that they can have a lifestyle that is in line with their ambitions.
This can only be achieved through choosing a career that will provide such lifestyle
3. Equal employment opportunity legislation and affirmation pressures; legal requirement
have placed demand on organizations to practice equity in employment. This legal
 requirement has encouraged women and minorities to pursue careers that previously
exclusive
4. Rising educational levels and occupational aspirations, coupled with educational
opportunities have opened up many avenues for self-improvement for many people such
that in general educational levels have increased with subsequent increase in career
aspirations

Types of career planning

Two types of career planning exist-:

a. Organizational centred
b. Individual centred

Organizational Centred Career Planning- focuses on jobs and on complicated career paths
that provide for typical progression of people between jobs. These paths represent ladders
that each individual can climb to advance in certain parts of an organization’s units

Individual centred career planning – focuses on individuals rather than jobs. People’s goals
and skills are the focus of analysis. Such analysis might consider situations both within and
outside the organization that can expand on the individual’s capabilities.

The table below compares the two career perspectives

Organizational- career centred Individual- career centred

Identifying future organization strategic Identify personal abilities and interests
needs
Plan career ladders Plan life and work goals
Assess individual potential and training Assess alternative career paths inside and
needs outside the organization
Match organizational needs with individual Note the changes in interest and goals as
abilities career and life stages change
Audit and develop a career system for Develop own goals and pursuit
organization

Choice of a career
There are four (4) general characteristics that affect how people make career choices. These are
as follows:

1. Interest: - people tend to pursue careers that they believe match their interests. A person
with a strong interest in music will tend to develop a career in music either in writing or
playing or producing music. Similarly, someone who is much interested in business will
develop a business to realize his dream of running a big successful business making much
money as he dreams of.
2. Self-Identity:- A career is an extension of person’s self-image. All of us have an image
of ourselves and how we believe others see us. So strong is this image that we are
entrapped by it and develop our behavior and career to conform to the image.
3. Personality: - includes an employee’s personal orientation (whether enterprising or
artistic) and personal needs (including self-application, power and advancement needs).
A person with a strong need for power will take steps to ensure that he dominates or
confront others with the ultimate aim of being one-up over others. Such a person will aim
to be over and above others as a manger at work, as a deacon at church or as a chairman
in political constituency.
4. Social Background: - social-economic status and the education and occupational level of
a person’s parents are a few factors included in this category. Many people have
developed their careers because their parents were in same career. Some of the doctors,
lawyers, teachers and business persons have followed their careers because of parental
influences.

Why plan for a career?

From the organization’s point of view, career planning has three major objectives. These are:-

 To meet the immediate and future human resource needs of the organization on a timely
basis
 To better inform the organization and individual about potential career paths within the
organization
 To utilize existing human resources progrmmes to the fullest, integrating the activities
that select, assign, develop and manage individual careers with the organization’s plan
Responsibility for career planning

Successful career planning requires action from three (3) sources:-

 The organization
 Immediate supervisor
 Individual employee

Employee’s responsibility

Career planning is not something one can do for another; it has to come from individual. O nly
the individual knows what he/she wants of the career and the desires vary appreciably from one
person to person as earlier alluded to.

Manager’s responsibility

A manager should serve as a catalyst and a sound board. The manager should show how to go
about the process and then help an employee evaluate the conclusions.

Organization’s responsibility

The organization’s responsibilities are to develop and communicate career options within the
organization to employees. The organization should carefully advise an employee concerning
possible career paths to achieve employee career goals. The human resource department is
generally responsible for ensuring that this information is kept current as new jobs are created
and old ones are phased out. The organization should promote conditions and create an
environment that will facilitate employee career development.

Developing a career plan

A career plan- Is the analysis of an individual’s situation, identification of career objectives and
development of the means of realizing these objectives.

The development of a career plan within an organization involves four basic steps:
 1. Individual assessment- career plans normally require that the individual acquire
additional training and skills. This must be based on reality and involves identifying
personal strengths and the financial resources available.
2. Organizational assessment - the organization’s assessment of an individual employee
should normally be coordinated finally by the human resource department ad
individual’s immediate manager. The performance appraisal process, personnel records
are good sources of assessment information.
3. Communication – to set realistic career goals, an individual must know the options and
opportunities that are available. An organization can do this by job posting and by clearly
identifying possible paths of advancement within the organization
4. Counseling – this is an activity which integrates the different steps in the career plan
process. Secondly, an employee’s immediate manager, a human resource specialist or a
combination of the two, may perform the counseling. Managers who are good in basic
human relations are successful as career counselors. Developing a caring attitude towards
employees and their career is of prime importance. Being receptive to employee concerns
and problems is another way.

Development and careers

Two views on development and careers discussed. The first is extracted from Noe, Hollenbeck et
al (2004) and the second is extracted from Nankervis et al (2008). Both views focus on new
career patterns and how different they are from traditional careers.

Traditional careers

- Traditionally – careers have been described as a sequence of positions held within an

occupation. For example, a person who starts off as a laboratory technician in the
chemistry department continues to improve his qualifications and is promoted to chief
technician assistant lecturer, lecturer and senior lecturer after obtaining a PhD.
- A career has also been described in the context of mobility within an organization. For
example, a qualified accountant works as an assistant cost accountant, then as financial
accountant at the Kitwe branch then as chief account at the Copperbelt branch and
finally as the financial Director at Lusaka Head Office.
 - And finally, a career has been described as a characteristic of the individual: each
employee’s career consist of different jobs, positions and experiences. For example, an
individual works as a teacher for many years, quits and runs a private school as the
principle, later he joins politics and is appointed as minister responsible for vocational
training and finally he is appointed as an ambassador at the UN

PROTEAN CAREER MODEL

(Proteus was a Greek God who could change shape at will )

Protean career – Is a career that is frequently changing based on both changes in the person’s
interests, abilities and values and changes in the work environment. Here the employee takes
more responsibility for managing their careers.

For example, a social scientist working with a medical facility takes a sabbatical from her social
work to work in management at public institution addressing poverty issues. The purpose of the
assignment could be to develop her managerial skills as well as help her personally evaluate if
she likes managerial work more than social work.

Protean-orientated individuals are seen to have personal goals of “learning, psychological

success, and expansion of identity as compared to the traditional organizational goals of
promotion, status and power.

1. The psychological contract for the protean career is typically short-term, transactional
(rather than relational), and includes, in part, exchanging work in return for opportunities
to gain new skills, networking and enhanced marketability.
2. Human and social capital, which are the skills, abilities, effort, time, and networks
possessed by the individual and invested when employed, become much more important
with the protean career.
3. Individuals who follow this path need to continually upgrade their skills and contacts, as
employability, rather than job security within an organization, is paramount. Security
comes with the individual’s knowledge that she or he has the personal and social capital
to locate, obtain and execute the next employment experience (Jones & DeFillippi, 1996
The development of the Protean Career has been influenced by changes in psychological
contract between employees and companies.

Traditionally, the psychological contract emphasized that the company would provide continued
employment and advancement opportunities if the employee remained with the company and
maintained a high job performance, pay increases and status were linked to vertical movement in
the company.

Implication of the Protean Career for employee development

1. The goal of the new career is psychological success- the feeling of pride and
accomplishment from achieving life goals that are not limited to achievements at work
such as raising a family
2. Psychological success is more under the control of employees than the traditional career
goals, which were not only influenced by the employee effort but were controlled by the
availability of positions in the company
3. Psychological success is self-determined rather than solely determined through signals
the employees receives from the company such as salary increases
4. Psychological success appears to be especially prevalent among the new generation of
persons entering the work force – Generation X often unimpressed with status symbols,
wants flexibility in doing jobs tasks and desires meaning from work
5. The other implication of the Protean Career is that employees need to develop new skills
rather than rely on a static knowledge base. With regard to this observation , Noe et al
(2004) state that “this has result from companies’ need to be more responsive to
customers’ service and product demands. The types of knowledge that an employee
needs to be successful have changed. In traditional career “know how”(having the
appropriate skills and knowledge to provide a service) was critical. Although knowing
how remains important, employees need to “know why” and “know whom.” Knowing
why refers to understanding the company business and culture so that the employee can
develop and apply knowledge and skills that can contribute to business. Knowing whom
refers to relationships that an employee may develop to contribute to company success.
The relationship may include networking with vendors, suppliers community members
and customers
Learning to know whom and know why require more than formal courses and training
programs. Learning and development in Protean Career are increasingly likely to involve
relationships and job experiences rather formal courses. The emphasis on continuous
learning and learning beyond knowing how as well as changes in the psychological
contract are altering the direction and frequency of movement within careers (career
pattern)
Traditional career patterns consist of a series of steps arranged in a linear hierarchy, with
higher steps related to increased authority, responsibility and compensation.
Expert career patterns involve lifelong commitment to a field or specialization such as
law or management or medicine. These career patterns will not disappear. Rather, career
patterns involving movement across specializations or disciplines will become more
prevalent. The new career patterns mean that to develop employees will require providing
them with the opportunity to:-
1. Determine their interest, skill strength and weaknesses
2. Based on information above, seek out appropriate development experiences that will
likely involve job experiences and relationships as well as formal courses

The appropriate view of a career is that it is “boundaryless” and may include movement
across several employers or even occupations. A career may also involve identifying
more with a job or a profession than with the present employer. A career can also be
considered boundaryless in the sense that career plans and goals are influenced by
personal or family demands or values. Finally, boundaryless careers may refer to the fact
careers success is not tied to promotions. Rather, career success may be related to
achieving goals that are personally meaningful to the employee rather those set by
parents, peers or the company.

To retain and motivate employees, companies need to provide a system to identify and
meet employees’ development needs and retain good performers and employees with
potential for managerial positions. Such a system is known as career management or
development planning system.

Shifting career management paradigm

The emphasis on employability rather than employment security as a motivation for
employees forms the new career management paradigm where the responsibility for
career development rests with the individual. This is a departure from the traditional view
held by employees as part of their psychological contract with their employers.

The second view takes the strategic perspective of career development. Nankervis
observes that “the management of careers in times of demand for more innovation,
creative and competitive organizations is one of Human Resource’s greatest strategic
challenges. Many observers have suggested that the primary concern of all organizations
is to attract and retain the best ‘talent’ in what is increasingly being seen as a global
‘war of talent’ and obviously therefore, career development is one of the most important
weapon in this war.

Nankervis further states that other researchers have argued that the paradigm for
managing careers has shifted enormously over recent years. The traditional career
encouraged lifelong employment, numerous hierarchical layers, bureaucratic processes
and many years of promotion through the hierarchy. Today there are fewer opportunities
to advance through the ranks, as layers of management have been removed forever and
democratization of the workplace results in even fewer managers for the future.

Nankervis highlights one researcher’s views of a “flat Earth theory” impacting

organizational hierarchies. He explains that facing more volatile and competing markets
than ever imagined and an awareness of the success of more consensual management
styles, some organizations have responded by removing as many management layers as
possible. Contemporary organizations cannot afford the luxury of large, stable and
orderly bureaucratic structures, whose principle function has been to ensure predictable
top-down decision making.

Nankervis alludes to two views of career management by other researchers:-

The first is the corporate stability and individual commitment and encouraging career
dependency on the organization. Career incentives include profit sharing, cash bonus for
long for long service, long term career plans for employees along with generous
retirement benefits and life insurance. The traditional organization career saw the typical
male pattern of working full-time for the same employer for an entire career with a
hierarchical view of success. A more recent approach is the so- called “parallel” career
system which gives especially technical employees the choice of two possible career
tracks- upward mobility through technical streams or through managerial stream-
depending on the employee’s skills, interest and development programs. The second view
considers the organization as a source for individuals, which is the reverse of the
traditional HR view of career management. In this scenario, employees (especially
generation X and Y) see themselves as a product and unashamedly pursue careers
without boundaries. The emphasis is now on employability rather than employment
security, which is arguably a more motivational situation for employees and this forms
the new career management paradigm where the responsibility for career development
rests with the individual.