Literacy and Schooling Edited by Frances Christie and Ray Misson bbe doen RX London and NewYork, 199.Learn: Te Nae ot Cogn of Raking ond Wig, Camb, _Cambeidge University Press. oe Willams (2 1995 Jor Boeing sn Kerr ppg» cosmo {camino vlame COME) rte RLF Simca eg ne pn cn» Tou Samal Ray econ’ fn Ce edgy an he Siping of Css Ling od Soca Per, Loo, Cas enc 3 Learning the literacies of primary and secondary schooling Frances Christie Introduction “There are at leas ro myths rnd in eracy eduction, she one having ‘ite ol histor, ee oer being much more recent in its ngs The rt ard oder of the rw mye whose ocgins ae in fet some eerie ‘the which holst the leaning of heracy is a prt, even Unig task forthe ist years of oholing. Leng ead and wee inate primary of matecing the speling, handwriting and panceation| "ates and ence of beg able both to take meaning ofthe words. on the pied pate, an to sonasict nieannge oneself by sein The teacher sole inthis view of things st focus a partial on eaching ‘Gove syiems, en incend af the cost of rense and meaning, 0 sistent fn the demand be to teach and reinforce sach things as 2 sense of “Sund-fatercorsipondenc. The road meh, ding in patil fom {he 1970s and 195 ithe which proposes that che learn of ery "sana process, nd thats is Feared in rch the save way 38 Speech, Inthe model proposed in his case, the teachers role to be at Rot supporter and fair at chldren dovelop sll wh Ueracy in largely uturred ways oth myth ae harm, dstorting what ae ia fact mach more complex ines and process To fake the forner myth, we can sce cht inward fete Ba cimventonal view of Iterac, as bring esentally conseaced ia Tertingyspeling and pancnaion. Like many other myth, this one Has Some elements of tat, although i does nor do jostice to the te sts fon English cthography, handwriting and "punctaton “are very importat, especially in the fret years of schoolina, and were sade Enempe 16 proceed up the years of school wale sil experiencing fc ths in contol these mater they ran into trouble. However, spel frncraaron aed handwrang are aso the most visible manifesto of Ferate bhavius and itis for that enon very cay t0 he persuaded the fraser of these things fepresente the sum total of appropriate itezste eaves The sath tot ase shall se, te ifinely move comple,48 Fence Chie | volving masery of the grammaccal fetes of writen, a8 opposed «0 | spoken Toguage, but these features, eegeetably, are often mot Very apparent. "Tt to the son ofthe myths, this derives from the influence of verter sich ar Goodman (1982) aad also Sah (eg. 1985}, both of ‘whom commenced thee writing the late 1960s and 1970s, and bat of ‘hom were intend bythe Inguitiedvores of Chomsky (hough i Tomb that Chor fas never lane any edeatomal evan oe bis ‘hore, Boh scribed tothe vcw thatthe aby Yo lesen language innate and that observation of the ways oral Language f lured by rol chiten courage the siew that they proceed by proenses of fea and erorto wen the rls by whe ange ut together and tied The view went on to propose that Iteracy i best leaned inthe ‘ne ways as spect, snd that too anh acre lervenion on the pare of ‘he racer can be cute of harm. For Gaon (ted by Reid, 1993 25) at least eeading was cen as the direct counterpart of ister, and learned inthe same “natural” way. [n'a paper Goodoan gave at the Regional Language Cette Sersinar on "Resta snd Weng Theory ito Prete in Sagpore in 1994, e argued sir view of the Faring of ‘wating: it pavallee the leaning of speech, and should be allowed to Soop in natural and urmstoeed wage Tt am ee fan skment of tu inthe oer thy there at ast soine rth nthe natural leneing thoes of Gola Sith snd hers nthand observation of chien, apart tom the weath of asta revere evidence sot how ei learn tienes tong, makes it ‘lee thar engagement ia nora everyday atts wit eategive provides the best ~andthreore nontnaur say forchidren to lars nguage Hence ~and many god eachers can atest thie = ciden Ieee ear It in ways ha prose opportunist arn andundertand toe men inal and rewarding parpoms 0 tat hese coo Maye undetood 35 JFastira Barton all she, arora leaning theories ar fact very bare Keene they ail to gasp Bech bow diferent writen language fe from {petche and how cstal dhe role ofthe teacher in inervening C0 tech ‘ents racy. ‘Where asin the former myth, iti the view dat Heeatebshavir ial soot splingspanctaton andthe wing system, there ae a eae 80 Ufa consequenesnesionl pace. Fra there fan asm tio that everything children need to Knuw aout being erate should be Irawered ty about aye eight ete, Tn his ew, racy i undies Sonal The view bode tht some exental sl fr fing snl writing ae ‘rablghed inthe ect year, sole ipliation Beyond that tha, me very unproblematic way. these slept recycled ever fer a tudes {ow slice mowing wp the yeact of schoaling and enter, ale ie, The Svond and rested wnotnate consequence the aesmption she hitecacy ‘nal abou sling wing aed panctaation, chart dels eahers oases them not to acknowedge oe 10 teach for a developing ar Sanling ofthe nature of heraey, aad of the ways i changes oth 8 ‘Sodents grow olde an a hey encmter and deal with diferent Kis of inowledge snd experience The tat sche literacy rules foe ani inensional, eat there are many Terate practices and that the Framing of Meracy takes many years See Macken-Horarik and Willams inh volume for related dicuor} Unded, scan be argued hae the Tearing of leroy is lone, Petry inthe commemporary woe, and fonder the presses of developments i iafonmtion technology (se Morgan, Lanksbear and Kiobel ths volte), thee season f0 belive thar ery is ndrgoingequen apd change, causing all of ws 0 work [tundestanding it new prea and possi Ie forthe scond repel have already soggested something of umf consequence Fst shae te view’ of ngage and leaning hee tstmes thar write Langage eames in the sameway as speech Fas to acknowledge jut how diferent the rw modes of using guage relly tel herefoe has noobing use to say about the features of writen Tnuage, and faves teaches and siden alike informed. Second i thor the view assumes te befits of facia rather than an iteves- tiomst sole on the pare of the tact, this aso desl the acher Encouraging © see that there i no expert Knowledge to be offered Stodentsas they tea iter. "Vie he two myths intfied have had diferent historical ae theo retical ates T shal suggest thi chapter thatthe evo ae elke in that oth old very ined move of she nature of language generally and of literacy learning in parila czos the yeas of sooling. shal are that we spe a ncionl ml of lngunge aod eras, we en lily tence Inge sidence for some of the sigoificanemlstones in itera laring that redo occur throeghout the yeas of schooling if Suents ave to. emerge ‘with 3 rseomable dgpee of profi ‘aiisonall we can sug somching ofthe Knowledge teachers wal Feauite inorder each bercy propery acoss he years shoo. oder to develop the aagument ere, [propose to examine below some of the most raimentry of the tee young eile learn to witty inlehce go on to examine» sampling of those By oer students. One Imhof court, develop « smilae oe conplemenary angument by rl nc tothe eat ype, or ents, stants ned read at dillerent stars Shc leamiag, One reason examination of wing i particulary revealing. Himenen in that isthe pemfactive mode’ ie fevens something of he Actual tsk in composing iterate tex hat Stents have 10 handle the lennig, est, however, fore [commence examination of slecion of writen text pes ov pens tous the yeas of schooling, Twat ofer Someecral observations about spoken and writes language, and about the ins of kale that schooling requires students increasingly to ale wrth vee to Hersey. T shall also tnake sme observations about the Vales of fncional grammar a2 toot for exploring the ature of Tenswase, Spoken nd writen Tsallsgest atthe nature of Hersey thongs as sedents grow adr, and that there 2 elaconship between ‘Be changing pte of written langope that stunts need to regis Sn tse, and the sate of Knowledge they eed eo lear. A funceonal ranma Usa soe allows sc ace fears ofthe changes. ‘Spoken and written language ‘AN saiey of twenteh-centney esearch by linguists fe Halliday, 1975, 1983), payeholopss le. Vygotsky 1962; Lata, 1976; Trevarthn, 1987, Brune 1986), amopologists (eg, Malinowski, 1923; Good. 1968) palcoanthroplagsts fee Leakey, 1994) and socnlogiss fg Berger and Tekan, 1966; Rerntem, 1975) has esti to she prea significance of {arunee nal hontan commmoritic, Oral Isguage i the bie resource ‘oth which inva gow and expres hee density a wel 8 parti ten and comprehend tee soil groups "With de advent of ieracy humans leamed co handle experienc in new ways The greet change that Meracy aforded involved a distancing (tc. Both the writer andthe reader beam danced frm the evens Shar infomation rccorded in weting Thus eents andor infomation Soul! he cured and sommunistl co persone who were distant ove Space-say ines seon gate coantry~ ad ove me 3) In Tso unborn generations, Tole informatio i either sensei 0 do things ifrentiy feo the say hey are done ia speech. Thus, for ample, whenever we take crems led an tated about in he ime Ainoy of fae to fase neractnn, and recontuee these for an aie rote ume we place, we change he events, We epeset them detent ‘Tawong upon graphic mesns 4 dso, employing wting stem and 2 Speling sem inthe procs. In adinon, we change the grammatical hoes in which me represent the event That 105, we Bul! know ‘Sg he events in ew was. As Halliday 1985) has suggssted, we eed tobe ett about drawing ‘oo nesta parallel between the process by which humans eelved ther Tangtages and subseueey ther seriten modes and the proses by teh chideen ler thee mother tongue and thence lars eras Evolmion & no te same as growth in leaning, Nevrles, hee 63 Sense in which certain pasate spy. Thy, for most chen the fst “Sty in besoring erate spear to emerge rom prior efforts in drawing, inst av as the world’ writing systems evolved from earlier exper fences in desing and pang. Learning the teraies of schooling $1 Ey ilo teaches len encore chien ro do dawins to wits shut them, One young chide preparatory kindergarten ‘Raped a picure of wel and Ex a the beac, and produced yaLdumonary cp The teacher wrote what she understood eo be Macks ‘Eons sesh rferring so his beach towel (ee ign. The ble eG tees fr several reson My principal eres here isn the Borie te hl, ue unable to wee the words ‘beac tow’ scaly Best ie pete of ones ong ts place om te fine in what eerie etsitutcssreuonsbly goo arr to prove wnten Engi. He hag Godhead at weograph Bathe general character ofthe rest of the pice ows be knew he was emoving ros the semacic ystem of dating ut TROY Men ara of the cc tng development of aboot ity Ra Shige ever the Bat tne pears oF tt schooling (Cheat, 1989), TES chives thc only one ever ta prac sch a script with weoaraph etd atom to he uncommon, Hevea le portant evident 0 SORES Tees sides tatty ea lean thar drawing and writing are dfleent, and {hat they achive ferent ends. Where drawing repesets actual chins ra ey Bosc rowel, wring sepresentsngunge. Wrnng 2 symbole Semele onder om Jews : Develo, prfieney with contol ofthe symbole system of writing roi: hates engage ncrensinaly with te grammatical fears of TeSiten mode: Nomen the peocesses of learn the grammar of Pear 3. Marks deawingering take several years, lndeed, the evidence (eg, Hilday, 1994; Derewanka, 1996; Christe, 1995s, b,c, 1996, 1997) wonld soagest that ‘contol of writen language isa devclopmen of lat ldhood and ex Adolesc though the patter vars great dea with inviduaks As the ‘yamvnar of wate language changes, so too do the kinds of kaowledge that tudes ae asked ese, Tn the early days and yeas f schooling, a great deal of whats earned ‘ele pen manipulation of what we wil cl ‘ommonsense” knowl the kaowlsdge ofthe familie andthe commonplace, of what ts known fund observed in family aa community. Good any childhood teachers desvely plot knowledge of these matters a, foe example they teach ‘hen shout sch things od fod o ee aspect ofthe seo heath rogram) the passage ofthe sasons aspects of he nara ene prog Fanmel, or movetent about the stets ila ose of safecrossings a lene lights aspects of che soc science programe), where all as, familar everyday experience proves a commonsense knowledge for ‘eaching an leaning, Te ist writing experiences of young cidren deal ‘vith the far and dhe commonsense, but as students grow older they ne tntesingly ing leaming an-comimonsense’ knowledge (Bere, 1975), knowledge thir esoere im me sen, aed ot fare svalable UUncommonsense knowledge is not 4 fed comma, asic ends to sry in diferent pris of Bstory: what commonsense today may well have on anvcommonsense ia cae tine: Bet what clear i dat Fearing unscommonsense knowles effort it tends to take ime and ‘normally segues some acatanee ts mastery Such kectedge, whie ‘course olen fry talked about, i typually an found in pains of Ivete langage, which by thir nares quit fen fon the early Patras of somemsense Knowledge constuction esrng thee olberatons im ind we wll examine some instances of serie langage inal from the exely years schooling nd then rr the iter ear fore | commence hs dncuson, bower L watt ay 8 Tile of the sytem functional grammar (eq. Halliday, 194, Martin, 19925, Mathiesen, 1998) and ascocined theories of roger ant genre sed examine the texts Systemic functional grammar, register and genre There are curently around the world various functional approaches to langage dies, several might well be ned treed qs ‘Nom Systeme fomcionl (6) grammars dtnctiein several senses ad ‘Secauar of thear dat sll ake sme selective te ofthe grammar here SF grammar haw a eesonably welrestaled story of involvement i ‘duction, hang been an pon ina imber of elocationst projets ad reports the UK (was dawn upon by Carter and eters, for example, in developing the Language inthe National Curiculam Projet adi [Ruslan (Christe ly 1991, Se Christi, 1991 and Marin, 19920 fr tome representative dscusions ofthe ways SF theory has ben used 10 infor language elution developments Asta Te pay beese the ganna as sich seabed istry of solvent in edocational ‘heory and research dha daw on thee asa wack er ‘One of the ost daintve ofthe feteres of SF graminae i cson that ll natural langonges hve thre major metaancion he idertonl ito do wih the experiences, othe content represented a lng, he tnterpersnal co do withthe nature ofthe lationship ofthe paripats invehed tm sing langage) sad the testa (odo wth the nner sich sequences of langage ems ‘hang together toh meamings ad Bene crete ex When we we language, we elect from the eal langage Syatem thoes ems necenarys so achieve ut Goals Im pearing some pecs) ofexpeence or soation, to construct an neonate out Febonhis with others, andr build meaaingl tex. “The parca language shoes we make a ny time depend in part con the context of tation sid the register assole wh a pv 00 ‘eeontet of eure andthe ssccned goore Some examples wl sutice ‘lrsostrae the pont I the coare of 2 typical day the average person srilrmove into many diferene cote of station. Assume ie day Ite ie of teacher who, on ling home i the mornings tps ate incl garage to buy petrol, holing conversation withthe petrol vendor, then travel to schon, where she csirs + casein plating meeting Sith ner teaches reece 8 tlhe conversation from a eoncemed Pant hide sca ose ce ane ws ‘oer repors on cursus mates Each ofthe ferent actin est, ‘heched i represets diferente context of station, equiv ferent inngoape choses wth respect ter: That oy interpersonal the teacher astumes + ffeentrelaonsip. with the” ote parciponts ‘red in each etext of son Meatoally she das wth diferent Exjenences ot nfrmation whe textual, smetines she engage in face force convertion sometines (in theese ofthe phone ever} She hols conversation wan unseen portant a sometimes (a 0 the report) she peoduces writen text fra ele ete subence. All these ene sie wth eae forester are known, oF ve reals ne {een language choices the teacher kes UP ‘ice the imagined teachers sural to bein an Enlsspeaking ‘coment of ular, we am expec chat the ones mole ate al hose cha ‘eens of English-speaking clare, A gene, ae the terms sed ete, ‘taped punpoutsl goalie ctiy repented in anguage The wade “counter wit the petrol vendor fie Ver, 1987 and Fase, 1985 for Snsyses of related gore, frexample, il eae represent isan‘ofa gent, while the sso will costae sural gene eg. Chri, 1998, by, 1996, 1997) or perhap parts such genes where they could cebrac several sons. The telephone conversation, te nceting proce, ‘hewitt opoct lal hive distinctive gntessa dincineseressapes rough which the participants) mst move in oder achive he Roa ‘eactvtes nied, otis point he only ems have we from the SF gramme refered to the thee metafunctions. Below, a0 I examine «representative sample of ‘eriten tees produced by sent cross the years of scoring sly !ppenpiate, Ide ober es talen fom che SF grammar to deste Paicalar Language choices. Two matters shouldbe ned ist oc ‘Som Pall ue terms that willbe known to readers fait ih tore {tadiconal model af grammar for many ave sind in the fantons Aeserptons second, 2 fal 9 descipion wil not be atempted. with respecte aay txt Early writing behaviour Necessary, longunge is leaned in fae tvfae interaction, and the puters of speech elt and rvedl much af he immediaey of the way in whch Language # wed. As noted above, the particular achievement of Writing that enables people to se language for ther than ee imme “ite contest of face fae iaerton: alls a distancing from te imate writen about interme of time and space ei these panic Aistancing features that, more than anyshing ese account for the pram ‘natal diferenesherween speech and wring Young cideen of cour Understand othing af than rakes sere Fat fot onacowsnea of the geamnatial fester of writen, 96 oppor to spoken langue tO ‘mete, chiA in Year wrote the fllowing (pling correct), which i st ‘oto reveal her lass ave going to se Kangaroo anda koala but foun my muim andy da Technically this piece does noe quay a 3 text, snce while i cet Engh, ts dificuleco see char the reo clases cohere to crest dhe wn wwe should expect in text. Pliny, the young, writer wees fgnente of Fersonal experience, but without ace about the contexts) rom whi the child draws the expersence, the meaning ofthe senfeace i na lee Had it been possibe to speak to the el, won no doube ave been posible to retrieve the conncions he ied hetmeen his appaeney Aisparace clauses. Bue the opportunity aflrded for lain tr speech ‘sor so reudiy available ance one ha embarked wt se of the wren ‘ane. a important sens, writen langage removes its expericne from the immeiiay ofthe facetofae interaction, binging about changes in the grammar which len fd acd vo eas, Assidentsgrov alte older andlearato write 3t moresustsinod lengths, they prodacetextschasthefollowingwhpelingcorrsted} which have scour clase by use revel something te raratcl organisations ‘Text Anahie Gorge” (On Wednesday we went to Aniki Gorget and when we wont we went past Fay Park fd shen we got here> we walked daw he ps tnd we saws Haale and we liad fn there was den foxes hanging onthe ence dnd we walked om othe pic place Sd then we cimhed up the nouns td nec sipped Sot went down and » when everyone was doen we hal lunch fd hen we went or 3 walt he crs Sd ound ones fa boys were throwing stones the water Ana shen we were coming back Jtcy flint creck nd sbefore we went we made dit chal, The Ea “The whiter of Text 1 marcates personal exprinc, creating what Retry (0984 termed a secoune. The mos dstnctnefeasces of sacha ext ates + the fact hat eretes personal experience and atv evident in pe Inthe extensive use of personal pronoun, and als inthe ma intel Process, sah as we Wen, we gt ther we waked. (Te factional [rammat identifies decent eyes of race ale eros na he "soe parents is oven and frequent wes of conjunctive relations (marke in bald) Tink the clauses though which she scenes pesonl expe cee + the very strong sense of ative cmnecton estalsted in these onjanctiverelons, {he use of the past tense indicating the writer is atare she recon stectng pas eres ‘The ter suecedsasa piece of cberent writen angge though itmakes fewtse of panctation, Fora thas, the tex i grammatically closet speech fan to mire writing, The reson we cin say thsi tha tinge together a Sequence of class, overly linked through wes of conjunctions salve noted, n'a manner mere characteristic of talk than of wating The tendency of writen langue, a8 opposed to speck, ase shall soe lary, fo compress independent clase, often burying the conjunctive felons found between clases, and reexpresig the information ia (Iieene grammatical cies “Another early tet type that foul ia Tent 2 Text 2 How to make cocolte ees Thangs 08 ned frying pan souks fo Bowe brown and white chocolate How to make them 1 pur water in he eying pam 2 pte bowl inthe water fa the pan 5 pcre fying pan on 4 rclshe cock 5 pechocolate inthe mold 5 5 Pot he ould the ridge Fn gas out of most pceses onthe plate “Tex 2 has aloe in common sith Text 1. Meson tala des 00 personal experience, and ix bul ound 3 roquene of sep. Like Tex fy Feuer material processes (patel op) someracting ations in Ft Bur unlike Tent I, Towt 2 dows ee eesomtrace events: Interpersonal he wweter of Text 2 kes up 2 vey ferent reatonship os 0s the read. “Text 2 dics the actions af hers in the mane fal procera ents. ‘Where the declarative mond choice es sled in Tet I forthe building of nformation, Test 2 selects he pecstive mod a a poeta aspect ff comet i neang ‘Simple rescues and procedures inthe manner of Texts 1 and 2 would seem tobe prototypical, even clementa genres ian English-speaking “uw eis this more than asthe tha mast explain the ender fate of such text types in young etme classrooms Receaing event {Sa dccing other to scion would seem go bet ie fundamental serge of making meanings Ely production of sch tex ype i elas rehearsed in spcch and ht explains for example the rk of morning news fr showandel.sesions in enly childhood eduction, im which youn stunts often practise mazracing events to othe, oom occasion they pe ‘sealing thers how od some othe catego leg nay ~ ind signe challenge of schoo! learning = learning fo handle moee chan personal experience: Ae ‘te sal se, eaming 0 deal withthe researched experince of» adel xpanding cucu neove eesing 6 Hand Tange ne 3) Writing in the middle to upper primary school years “Text 3, by a chil of eiphe years old in Year 3 is am eerestingy tar ional texts ince st certainly recess personal experienc, hit soo provides evidence of apacity to make dedotions from peronal exper hee, im a manner charscteric of Western scenic endeavn. Ua indebted o Anim in pep) who collated the text, fr person ose ithe, Text 3 Science warke Record of Buen ‘One Monday 29th April Grade 3V went to Science works ‘Weert toa sence show ‘hela [that pat onthe show showed us experiments wih iid siopen (ne of them was with flower ‘She put the Mower in the fui ntrogen ana then pci onthe ble ‘The lower did. She did the same ching 0 sq Bll but svhen he warmed tps ent bask co noc Resuls Daa shows that non ving ehings can gp back to soemal tue tivig things cance afte ing put gud trogen. “Tea icaneatfncomplerexampleot what Ve (1992), studying since teaching inthe junior secondary school, has identified as "pocedwral ‘ecountItputines the proceare or st of sep the lay atthe sence Show eared oat in the opening element, bt then, sry concies Wiha subsegues clement shown im talc, in which the implistons of the simple procedure are indented, Thin later lent of is srt Sealed thoogh several igus mea4+ the ue of the conjanction ‘and bling connectedness tothe ear ‘erent of the goo, hut ako ering te start of the aew elas, Sve the sade writes And that shows 4+ Thee of te vey genera referent "than the same clause 10 refer tuck in sammy way to the epee procere, + the use ofthe verbal or signifying proves "shows in the same "ignalinghatthesgnfcance ofthe evens tobe reveled. See Wi fis volume for some dscusion of verbal of what he calls sting process + hes rom the past tothe present ene, inating that the weer ‘slogts diferent aspect towarie the eaperiene beng const, “Tresmple presen ene che incste thn he meanings ene, oF avn tone ainda. “The young writer was in face the only ci in er clas who wrote suc a text types for none of the others seemed able (0 write dhe concadg, ‘nent parila This woulduggesteneit wa for them aie hig todo, “The child who weote Text 3 reproduced che ser of steps in which the science ly dt her simple experiment in & manner not unlike the yo4m. Senter who proc Text 2 tht i foreach even separate late wat produced, and the causes were inked hyn conjetive relation, This to Feprodse expevence in 3 cogent sunner tha ist ay, foreach oe Sep or event shee is one lat to buds The endeney eo eeprodace "xperience this way the trlney of speach. We sing the experiences ful events of lie topoter as sees of ttercnnecting elses, marking thee conmectednes through feguent use of cnjunetive elation. This no ouberskes easier for ot Usteners o follow what wear saying than i tee produced Tangusge closer to true wrisen language. Thie i not of ‘outset sggste that speech is beer than wring, ar vice versa, On the contrary t sto draw steton to the important mate thatthe to ae ‘eer eine Wren ngage has evolved ove the centres 10 do things that spose doce. necessary takes many years to master the gram IRatca oransoion of writen language: Its no s developmental Fsttc Of primary aged chee. “Text about the roseses by which pod bli is prshced wae verte by 3 saentin eae ff the primary school Ie rperced ere by permasion of Sanford (1988), who collected it sme work wath seadere learn to research and write explnston genres. Once an, | have st tut showing the independent causes om separate lines, aso racking stances of conjunctive sltions in Bol. Ths els reveal some ‘hing of the grammatical choices by which he text & pu wget The femre his two elemene of seuctoce, the opening one in wich the phenomenon tobe cused i nraduce, ands longer eemen in which the pracestes ae explained by which that phenomenon comes about. The two clement re labled, though the sent didnot wee hese aes Text 4 Gold mining Phenomenon (Over he years people have thought af many diferent ways Ilo processing orl) to ind gold and ober precios mineral Up tomow they vsed horse and manual tenth bo now there fa whole mew way [lo proces Explanation sequence ‘The process arte when the ore sed fom the mine nd bro ro the ea The ore ey bi whem ken fom he mine before ean be prowsed Iehas to be crashed “Theis sae shat ee re pes hough] ieprimary crashing ‘when the ore passes through the aw cashes, the cane crs fan finaly he sezeen ‘whic ony ltt smaller than 10m pss ‘Thesmal i of oe ate mix with ter toform a tick mud [ealed sur] theslury th heavier partic of fol snk och boscom, the lighter pres are then wate 30 “Thelary passes rh series chemical treatment) “This restores nesenry to repartee gold om Waste “There x pumped nto a seis of 12 eanks Aivis blown Gnd the sory an chia are mined together under high temperature ina peocess [known god esching “Thon gold wit some este i pat int a special take with pieces of carbon ini {Gold staches isl to the carbon “The cach wit golds screened ou ofthe tak and washed wih aside thigh temperate. ‘Then an cleric crcet ine woo! sess he gold partes, The sel wo then dsoved into hydrochlonc cd Aad gl parties ae slo Srmeting eh st proces in gold ming, shih purities the ol 99.9% porenes (pu)Frances Chevette: ‘Once the gold i pre tes poured into moulds, where it cole fan hardens ‘and becomes god balion, “eat 4 shows a stent who is dealing with un commonsense knowledge: knowledge that which was quite oatide bis expenence, which ered Some reseaeh 10 ently, ad which alo required some ul in tote: fentng that knowledge in anne that adequately explained the Phenomenon, ‘Some linguistic features parteulrly invoked nthe Eonstton of sich keowlede and such 2 pee ncoe + a number of process, some of which ate materi, and involved in inalding she actives though hich the gold is processed Ye he procs sari ican be crashed, the surty is pumped) aa several Felton pcese, vale ether is haldng fame ofthe gol and ter lees fe the ore ix very big) or sometimes in denying tome phenomenon (eg “the fist stage [lat dhe ore goes through o¢ primacy eushing these of consideable cehaical language elevant to che an commonsense fed of knowledge eg. old blo series of chemical tecnmenrs) “gold. patil, "an elec eutrent in ste! woot, mento a fe omnes in ntrodcing several ccc terms in ways tha ceva the teensy reference other meanings whee the areexpreseln ese el ‘calor ore commonsense ways: Inthe following example the techie term talc, sd a each eae fein Ft 3 tlational proces ee "feng! or sometimes “naming” process) ether reals ins" orn “Elle that help intone the fea erm 1 The st sage Ii the one goes rough i rinary crushing 1 olor a hc ml lead levy Ii Airis blown ia and the sorry snd chemicals ate mined egether under high ermperature in 9 proce [frown a gold lacing the series of conjunc tlatons, more varied in character than inthe imple addicve manner that wat ature of Text 1 above, eopanding ‘he cle vist Their eet eo ull seis of ttexconaeting ses the processes dented, suggesting + Iniry comples sees of vent, ote sequence and consequential ects ae impart ‘+ the very authontative role taken up by the writer toward the eed, tanked in the absense of efron fo elf or indeed fo any other human agent) andthe consistent use ofthe third person throghout the Before Heaveditcasion of Tox 4 wane ro daw stein to some ther Learning the fiteracies of schooling 61 ‘spect of the linguistic resources deployed by the young write, showing ‘dence of developing maturity in cntol of ween language The ‘sources are tose of momial grap and circumstance, bah of which shall ‘tly explain ise The ery nominal group reles to any word or group ‘of words that names. A pronoun sich 3s°h or she’ nominal grou, Sod so isa noun such a5 "gold or “oe”. Most commons. howeve, ‘minal poup consis of mere than ne word, 2 ini small its of | forthe heir pares of gol. Infact he wonder earce Ut he ‘ominal group is capable of being enpanded to ‘pack i rent deal of Important information. The young water of Text 4 very anceesflly ses thr resource, a im the feo exarple ftcied, a well a for exaple fan Scr caren in sel woo ort whole new way It procs oe Ive compare the wes of nominal group with hone Fond in te ese by Yyomngsr wrtery, we ca sce ow much sper ae thee, Coder thee Instances in Teat I by a mach younger weiter, for amples Wey Koa “dead foxes, the mountain’ “To tn to the aon of icumstanc, thie teem which is sed who considering process, hich ve already heen bry introduced. Often, STproces involves an acompanyingcrmatane, ceed either ia an ‘dverbel group or in prepostional phrase. Hee ate some examples From Tee ‘he ores ase fromthe mine Inthe sry she heavieepotlesof wld snk to the boston the sary pases through aero of chemical testes the sire te pmped ito aeons of 12 ake the chon wih gold sereeel ont ofthe tak ‘and washed eth eid a ih temperate Agim, if we compare the uses of cicumseanoes Tent 4 with examples fem exe 1 we ca gaupesosehing of the founey the youn. t reds teak earning opty Ingusge wo create meaning, cng the umcommonsene meaning of the knowledge of school Ieuan TRIS In-Text I, we find the folemrng instances of czcumstances, ail of them Sling an important toe, bu ll reasonably simple whe in some other stages tute geno cutances a al wwe wen to Anabie Gorge Wwe wale dv ae path Wwe climbed xp the mountain “Tex 4 makes more fequent ase ofcvcmstances than does Text ty and thar collecve elect to bald a great deal of important experiential information ‘Nominal group and circumstance are two important resources. for bling expenence and information, and always explied tothe fll byscessfl writers. A stants eter the secondary schoo, they olen don tke these cesurees wel stead prodicing language marked by some of the singh of she mich younger cd. Developing maturity n ing, sel ivolve among ier mates, learning to eyplote such language "souresthough there aol coreoterfentres of wet engage fe the older weer which we will now conser ‘Changing features of writing with the entry to secondary schooling. hove Lote thatthe writes of texts such a5 Tests 1, 2 0¢3 tended to frente their teks by producing, 2 series of claws, cach of which onseucted 9 parlor eves, and at these events were then overtly linked thoughconjunctive reasons, The pattern is very smile fn Text 4 swell deste its pester copes nother wayay a we have ses. The tendency s build experience meh way cepresents a congroet ay £0 bald msaning, That io say one clase sed for one even, were the ven tals esealiy a process wih accompanying participants Si sometime accompanying cecumatances, 3 OnWiednsday we went to Ambie Gores Procent Paripnt — Creumatanen ramon 3 ™ ew the Newer in the iad sitogea Paseo Process Ceumesnce 4 )Phetendeny of youn writers sto write series of suc congruent eases, Ts the trey of tach tive writen lingage ofthe kind found in 2 Lening the eran of chookog_ 62 ‘peo del of ade eo eran he gama of independent lac, Scnpreing them in way that produce ncongrven eataatons of te | Iratngsiveloed. The proces by which independent, cong las Ie ken an resrangid i koow a hat grained staph iFianday, 1984) I compare wah sal mean which proba mre tallae to soit aden ofthis capce Eanpe of eel tmeaprs ect when or xsl the pets of the moon ha oly gricon tose spon cloudy seat or more fama in peck Sen wy of someone fash 2 aly a We sme fone in how abiqutou the ae of lee thor at comnunpace cxprsion ie saying tht oreo log i the tek we ang Scone to Ky Re Bead inch cnc we em teal sore on ey tate cera um We do th ese parecer ttc pecap overs the pt being wade, o fo pode # pare iny pow mage forthe rene o ede The et Se meet icongr eane Gramma etapa 0 abeady spate, iso call Becase te cata rammaial exprasion ofthe Senor experece reamed © apres drawing on tbe promt resouce i fron ways ‘omol of grammatcel etpor thas i partclar ngortat Stents move nt secondary econ id the nce increas 0 Sir rcemmonnse knowcdge of may Hid acetal emer tence af grammaical meapbor and hence convol of oe teh rrepoege ta etre oat chong anole Tere lure the pom by rece oa sens have ake Go a. publcaon, ging. ivice on sxonbe (Guide to Exerc Hove Teoundationy 1982-48): The poubiay fms [ng ltd by hor Stes} a isos problem cnfoaig fan nme” “fis const one chore, wih ne Somat or enue cls vii ie are wh the bake If bs tery amr tae of {iver Engl we comer the sett ot vson Gover oe way tight beside spcech we produce a ore congruent ven whch Fe aed on bl he congue eons: 1 pope ron they pet hot land tea tes her Sovthis makes it had [to ong fun enh [Note what happens in the proces of tring hist specs + the one cause of wen has become for clauses in speech 1 conjunctive relation betwen clauses in the spec Dud 2 sense ofthe Tegal elaonships between the mestages of the uses+ the spoken vecsion spi people run they get hs fand this can sess them’ Thre verbal groups realising thee peocesss are involved ete "ru get and “ean re’. Thee thre causes, thir process and their relacaess ate dealt with que ifeenly i the gramiae of writing, Where they: are eaprared tna nominal Gloup hich invohes one enibeled clase: the posibilty of runner [bing affected hy beat sires In fay, the processes of Speech aed the Toil eelationshipe erwcen classer are transformed by ceaing two nominal coupe the possibly of raaner and “est srs At the same tie the cniune {ie eelation are hari "neff ofl these rammascal changes that he only process prteat inthe clause iw This ivan stan ofa elational proven esting ‘eltonship beeween ea entes Once you cca two ting oes Which you name through nominal gop, you can then bl a connee. tion hetween them chrough = zlstonal process The praliy of Fuaners feng affect by heat seen] ir a mayor_prolem Heonironing un nner ‘And now note wha has happened ro the pact ofthe clause which ce 2 major problem [catroaing fun Zenner) te spss there the se oft conjunction "so" and another ease: "30 tis makes it hard [to npn fn run ‘Overall the one clause of the writen vesion i very sch denser than the four causes of speech. Thats Because ii the tendency of wring ‘pack it 0° compress information by ase of nominal prop hile he [endency'of speech 10 oferisformation in a strng of nerconneted Inui, where sere are many more grammatical items in wey chang ‘he cnjanction, articles, prepositions, pronouns at so on atts poe we lok hack ad review the fetes far examined in this chapten we can see that they ave all ended to produce sdes of tlauses that offered congeuent realations of hci information. Ths tendency is particularly marked for example, in Texts 1,2 and 3, Ia the fae of Text aya tes the txt dente than the ealer ones beeane Df the more elaborate use of nominal groups and circumstances, andthe onjantve elasnns are more varied, as beits the more comple tts of loge relasionabipe constricted ten vais aces. Bat even they thee is no use of grammatical metsphen Tr should he noted that dhe extent to which atest wes grammatical metaphor isin pare a condition of the Feld of nowledge or experience {ang consented. File vy, thigh we can say that any of those onset nthe sol suber af the secondary lve wll we reso Kal meuphor to make thir meanings, Most of the texte seen this chapter have bean chosen from scenic fields, whese uncommonsese Learning the lceracies of schooling 65 Inowledge i an sue, hou this wae noe oF course the poi in che instance of Text 1, abou a as ist. ‘Writing in the secondary schoo! “Text $ was ween by a student in eae spel about fourteen, fis an iastance of a eport genre about arthritis sscefl for several reson rot lest that st does make elective use of grammatical metaphor it Schicsing conta ofthe wcommonemse. A scenic report ofthe kind See out here has two elements, Caueason and Description, sd they 6 Jabal Asin he case of the other teas I Rave examined ha se ou sdawse by clause Av in earlier neance, embeded clasen te shown ‘Where something occurs in rounded backers (J, this des elipcal ements the siden ot “Test 5 Arthritis Gener clastification Athos x dseae [hich fects he joints ofthe boy, deta lack of beatin athe jis ‘This came friction sn it auts) the bones to ra ogee “The word athe ets: llarunations [Lflctng the jin Description: ower Many ofthe enves of atric ace unknown Some ass have been known ro result fom Batra cisesses ke Syphilis gosortes or trl infections like Geer messes ed pain Thay often can ead 2 pin inthe joins Tejas, parcularly sport inj, ea ese ati to develop in laer if Description: symptoms Arthnts affects people of all ages. Tecan cause swelling snes soenes nd sharp pin the joins, limi mobity and movement i he affected sees. ‘Thearesaeound the jon may be red and may) fel wars, ‘eating dnc. Deserption: treatment ‘Untorrentalyn far a0 complete ete is known for rts Decors may recontmend asprin another ant inflammatory ues to help relieve pain and tines.te Frances Che Learning the teoracies af schooling 67 Antibiot ps rom act joins] may als be benefit for cass [resting ftom bacteria lection) Injections of god alts have proved hep i some cass, ‘ogi of ocer drop ee questionable ercses or palosherapy may also pve ee sures rei fan hey ay) help 9 keep the joins mob Description sate of brood yen though signe of artis ave been found in dinosaur fs very litle Known about de diese Bur daring seen ines a the arenes ofthe disease has prow, mote tserch a tio age Benger (Hom MeNamara ea, 1987 18), “Thistext abounds ininstances ofgeammascl tapos only some of whic Thave denied n able ses thecieehat each pairn the table 'says the sme thing’, However each pal atleast we can sty tha here Somsteble sian nthe experctiinformaton epesented Fuster Irote omarion ofthe hwo ehrows ight on he se of how the gramae “anges arly ue of the need ose rom spect wating an pay out fhe presse t reptesen an commonsense know ‘We cn seth scvral es the causal elation beeen events cor tena of information which are mae expo pee ae Dried oF a ist reised very hilfereey: Consider the cate ofthe opening sentence: ‘Nhs nt Gas [which afer the ones of he ody}, dae to a lack Tote 34 Geanmatiea mataphoe nis dave nlch ales Arh a ave wih oop Se sil dot as fron in many pare of he odes Te wine ien Seep dy ae “Tis coues eon ad ae) the Te bons tun ora oR Toe en together Trtbe he ame are not beat Tic ang ojo Rear enh ino or ny feces farts are Researchers dno know why pope ctor: may recommend prin ad Doctors may recommend alin and “oc lianmtory cage tly. ster deep which ne cone ‘of ubecstion nthe ots I oder to meexpess dhe ies here na more congruent realation, sre have wed tree cats. In addon, note that the cao connection expeured in ‘due 10" the writen version is now” Inde more oven withthe se ofthe conjuction ‘because when We eee the separate clase “becuse the joints ate noe frist Pia looking na the writen version, we can sce that es created a Large ‘roup"s lade of lbeeation inthe joint. The proves involed foes ave ot lbricted’ sro tural Ino a thing we can name as 2 Phenomenon This procs of cresting phenomena inti way wey enc {par the effet of grammatical metaphor, and tals us someting of iar value. The phenomena we create Dove pat at est of the substance ‘ofthe un commonsense learning of schooling. ‘We cum se the sve procest at werk for etample ia che instanceof DDoetore may recommend spain and other antinlaomator drs (0 fel tleve pats and sles” The nominal prop “ether inamnstory Ful be eeesnted in specs "drs ih contol naa ‘Non ee impostor and usefl to create the nomial rowp because {reat a thing er phenomenon iaiportnt inthe oral pater of buldag wedge abou rit i resent “There another sease in which the tendency ofthe incongruent reali sions of wren language worthy of comment eta elt i fen fo remore human agency. Conse for example "Many ofthe cases Of bets ae waknown’ Inthe spoken or more congraeatvesion, “Researchers do noe know why people get ari, two foes of humans sre icnied~ wesearchord and people Why might be fal or des le amet Ho renpove humane in this way? The ase i thine thatthe removal of human agency crables the writer To foreground o¢ Inake prominent he cates of ti’ rathe than the ae of ho ate itor who revere “The redency of mach writen language to bury human agency and hence responsibilty, shouldbe noe soften Wend as ame we Shonlé worry abot. Where human agency emowed te ofen the ese ‘har human repens fe evens and happenings he were simply ‘ettowed. Conse for example the following sentence which t hae made tp, but which draws attention toa envi centenary probien “The ‘deurution ofthe rn forests i many pars of the world has caused a ‘line na tange of ial nl plan species which hither lived he {orests: The nomial group ‘the destruction ofthe cain fore many farts ofthe world in self ebncure the fact that tf humans who soy [Re fet: the writer ofthe inane tee fom whi thi sentence drawn were noe to acknowledge ti, tenths would be 2 fare o dive tome these of whose esponsibin really ivoled ‘Constsction of nominal groupe of the kind ave idnsed i an Important aspect of the eae in sec un-conmonsese Knowledge Is68 Feaces Chavo ‘omstraced, The grammatical tendencies involved an be shown 40 be ‘apable of hing sed ia the constuction of knowledge we may wan 10 sdsngze with o challenge, An important por of preparing stents 9 ie compete to challenge teaching them aspets OF how the grammar ‘work fl knowlege so tha hey can make adgment for hemscex about the valves of the knowledge involved, This should be part of Tuildig the cecal racy dicosed hy Macken rank clacwhere fn ‘his volume By way of binging co a clove this discussion of texts inthe secondary school, want briefly to tar ta sme writing i Eaglsh ad geography. 1 Shall use earacs only davon Some snuc lnger passages of wating "Hall Segue that he estate usd lust features ofthe wet language Student need 10 write and read ak they prow older and move up the Secondary school “One student in Your 12 had heen studying the novella by Janet Lec called The Wife of Martin Guerre, and abe ws asked o Write a ae Imentatve text in which she ditcused the characters. Her opening Paragraph ea The strength of the novel The Wife of Martin Guerre the portrayal of human gualies and vss, We sem Bertrand strong sene of rit sd wrong dufulness, we sr in Bereande and Pree. Matin shows ‘har be values individual ros while Ama x someone who elves love Hew the student construc qualities through se of gute elaborate nominal yroups On the ome haa he qualities ae othe Book, 35 he Strength of the novel The Wife of Martie Guerre and "che portal of oman qualities and values. On the ether hand, the qualities are 9 the harass ain "tar sce of ght and wrong” or in “indsdal frelon Tn crdee to write inthis manner, the writer needed to distance ewe feom the even ofthe novel to constrict am agument an a eter tion, not aout the deta of who ad what to ho, ha ater abou rhe “lean moral positions sha give the movel ts poir. To build soch an Srgument, she had considerable recourse #0 the grammar of writen lumpia in order to constrct statements about the tnral positions of ne of the tharaters. Hers te sme of the ettea fetes wich English stents most master in onder to consirat abstice Show 38d ressonog inde writin, “Another tert this ime in Yeae 8, and sped about siacen yeu was working on a major unit of work on World Ievtage sites around the Sor Ope ofthe ses besa was Kaka National Pack huge ace (of land in note Australi, fons Fors Bora snd fauna and fo is Learning the teraces a shooting 69 sacred Ahorginal sites. In the cours of fly substan pise of writen ‘work inwhich maps an other sources were slo used, ne seat wet; ‘The main reason for Kakady National Pak’ achievement of Work Meviape tat ets beutfl aston of clr nd nar igi ‘Twa fage nomial groups here, linked bythe relational proces, is reat he ome dase. spech would be something Hike the elon kay National Pak has achieved Word Heritage satus cats thas many ents ‘he are sigficane curly od wattlly hd they atsce many people. My own research in secondary schools (Cie, 1995b, 1995, 1997), ‘Smpling den’ leering in sovert different school subse shows tat {udent vacy enormously in the cxest to which they take up and we all the grammatical resources with eich to produce weten Langage of the kind we have been reviewing. Many stents weit what thc teachers ten recognise anguage cose to speech, and they regulary receive Por grades bocnse of this. The proeses of preparing stents for ental of writen language should commence inthe primary school, and hare students cecive plenty of guided assence from thee teachers is ‘tadying and using the model of ert language, thy wil bin 2 srg poston co enter secondary schooling. However whateve stadens koe the end of primary schol, it will eed to he consolidated and extended ithe seondaty Tee, and Here tke teachers wil playa snore role Development of control of many aspecs of writen ngage fa feature of Ihe childhood and adolescence, Where eshers are scare of the patie legis requirements of thei sbjecs to bd their uncommonsese Knowledge, they willbe able to atispate thi tadens” neds, ad to vee thie learning by drawing atenton to the fsturcs of erate language to be ose Conclusion began this chapter with the observation tha thee ate myths about lrersey and liercy education, One mith Holds that the lesing ineracy x pray tak of the cacy years of schooling and ha hence Fer stadea simply recyle the sls mastered nthe ft four yeas ot tovef schooling, The other eyth holds thar the loring oferty fst ‘tata prowess, best fostered in non-intevenionist ays, where the teachers role mainly to faite leaning, not to. diece kaeing. of Tera. Bosh myths siggisted are harmfal The former is hae ce dace not acknowledge the conierae ling over earsaout lieracy that needs to take place for stadens tbe judged erly Tuerate, and able to function ia the contemporary world. The later 4 | harmful because i diminishes, sometimes even denies, the imporans role tf the teacher i guiding and dectingstodens'iteacy. Both myths, and | the models of Tera and Ieracy luming dey represent 1 sugges, | alter fom an inadesuate and hited undcsuaing of language and ler This chaper Ihave sought so provid a sense fa etter model of langage and eracy by developing aspects fa funcional account. While [have loge most closely at sanery of ween txt i his cape have tied to demonstrate some of the ways im which writes Language (es tom speech Ihave suggsted that dhe wo df grammatically and that ee grammatical difrenes are bor of the feet purposes thet foes seve, Whereas speci lard in faexoface interaction and Feontinues tobe asd cat way thoughout le, wing evolved to deal with lexprince a some remove, andi is for that purpose tha cannes teased, Ths, the grammatical features of sting reflect the fact that i “rests information forth audience that emoved farms of pace and time ete dancing fc hs genernes wk cnses the grammatical ‘hangs as langue moves from speech o rit, ‘Chui’ is temps at writing necessarily draw upon the gramme ical fester of language ose realy avaiable ro then. and they thas roe ee text which show aspect of dhe grammatical organisation of fpesch In parc her enemy 0 pada sequences of independent "Tooses,inked hy a ere of conpnetive relations, here each dase ofes ongruct representation of the experience ae sue: Moreover, cay writes, ‘we cera using nenial gzoups and circumstances in thee wrt Fave yer era ow to explie both fly, A tadents row ole, 3 devel. ‘pues they face that of learning how to rpesen experience and howled by the incongruent means made avaiable trough jamaica ‘metaphor Thin allows thr, aon oer mater, to expt the resoures| tf the nominal group apd oes ways to Bd ween texts masked by he eany the smo character of wring than of pee [have noted tha emergence of conta! of writen language, while ic certainly commences the primary school, a developmental featze of [ntecildhood and adaescence. However tis clea that nal adleseas \ sen to hai writen language ellen straggling to eal wth te Jon sommionsene Knowledge thar exe ofthe secondary schol and of [is inresuingly difeentted curicalum Mach conventional wisdom {about Ineacy lesning never ally acknowledges he very considerable ‘lvelopmental process tht invved in leening teracy, noe does i Scknowlodge the important role of teachers tn both understanding the ‘eatores of writing, ad in tesching students toe aware af these Fates, inonder to fecome effective snore Heras themes. Learning the Mearacies of schooling 71 Notes 1A fl dicaion a ctge of he antral ering theres of Goanan udSeehlbe foumd Re 98 icing ie te ld ee pea ‘lithe by se SEAMED Rego Language Core a eel by At Fehon 3 These mars ate cased inden lid, 1985. 4 nena tr cag ere op he Absa bua fe lames sh + Then pce lege ihe ele Sipe Tas bdpe ey shu the et Oe Sean Peo han dee ihe Se For rami wale, Sd! “egal ita of ser ed eel em 3 Be Teel ie Ss mar eval a tte te fe of pees Fee nen se Reseed ea flow teal aig odo ‘Soin, ehavoura mena nd aly elena Reference: age, Per apd Lachmann, Thomas, 1965 The Soc Coma of Realy ‘Miles, England Pega Bost. Remit, Bl, 1978 Clie, Cod amd Como, Yo 3. Toca Thory of “Pca Papen Londo: Roepe Kea Po ane rome, 1986 Atal Mandy, Ps Werdc Combee, Mans Hared ‘ora: £1989 Carin gens ney dan easen: ese dn “wetog elope Uapubghd na Unseniy Sry. TSS Niet Aas Aua Rew of Sipe Lait, 2 ese pe dace in the pinay scot Lng & Ec No, 721-242 ESBS, The eiching flere nthe scandy Brg es. Repor 1 of « Resch Stay ito the Podagope Dicure rf Secondry Sal sh A soy fied by the Avsttan Resatch Counc, Une of Maco, ADDIS The meshing of ory wring inthe jie econday acho. Report 2 fs Ress Study toe the Plage Dacor of Seca Sco Eni atts ann Resch Conc Unveray ot Mlboune. DDE Gaim Report of Rexel no he edie Discos of “Secon Sa Sad See Asay aed bythe Aan Reseach Cicer of Melbourne ST Canc ges a os of ison ia atte in F Chee and. R. Manin (ie Cones tian Proce the Wark ct nd Shot Londo Can Ace 134-160. (nai, Fy Devi, By Frebody, Py Lake, A Mat, > Tend and "Won Cy 1991 Texhng Engl Lisp A Yt of Natal Saneto the Presce Prepon of Taher to Tach Enh Literacy. Dep ‘Moo of Edscanan al Tsing 8 The Cantre for Sede of Lge Elston Noten Testy Urey Dari Asal, Darema 19% Langue deep nthe ssn fom cidhod “ose te sea mata erapor Up. MD thes, Macgue ‘aera, Art atsne Re 11D in KX, Colla Langue wal tery he Set ‘trum of Res Godan Landon Route 8 Kegan Pl mi lh Ly Tn! ates Ci, Coe lay Me AR, 1975 Lag Hw to Meo: Bxplration in the Deseo non of angus eso ad Awe ZIONS Spe ond Wonton Lange Gado, cura: Deakin Univers re sped by Ostord Unrate, 0 "Sot br anaicton fo onl Gem London rp Flan 18S to Mc Ae Halay and Hana Langage, Comer amd Text "Sos emote Panjos, Gxcong Vicor: Desa Ura Pes pb indy Oat User Ps, 989 iat atte, 1982 Cale te Farce. Neon Het Foundation of ‘say ACT Leske,R 194 The Orn of Mating London Ween Sc Nin Lanai, 197 Copmine Despment ts Cabral ond Soci! Fouts "ed A Cakt [orn Hard Une rs cSt, Jo McCaul Bal Baer Gy T87 Putin Pam on Par A ‘Mal for Tesh Patel es for Ring Sone and tory Rae ino 023 Tipe of ain piv Lagan GK “Donal A ochard ed) The Metin of Menon Stay of be Her sere ftamgaze mon That wd tht Seine of Sb. Loan ans Tey 192A Engl tx. Stem ond Sincere, Ane: Jon ET Gene ad ergy ~ dein cotest in eden Tigi’ “rit Rs of ipl Lega, HIT aan ahs teccopmmatica! Catgpby: Expl Systans. ky Tneuasoal Sees Fables ose] 1991 Readings poke langage: theme of eink ig Beard "ELS techn Litera, Booming erapcis, Landon Hes Behm, mw ote 1984 “The slope of ges — primar eo juitecondty nasa Deskin Unesny Chae Wang Sy Cua: Georg Vitor ieatn Uae oes o7=104 Sond 1998 Tesng Eponasane 0 Primary Sco hide, Te haw “ol he wy pu, MB thes sunt fad in 983 Reading Cambita: Camteige vere Pras Wahe alwyy 1987 Shara ke ses: erect a the making nam nonin in Ke see and Thenad es Langnaye Topi. ay in Ho of Michael Halla. Aes el, 1992 Eagging with sii langue: «fc apponch 60 she Tangg of cal cient Aaa Snes Ths ura ey 1987 Te Sucte of Social arta Lond Pec junk 81962 Th oad Lenguge Masha MT Prem Joh Benjamin olan 1,