CELL PHYSIOLOGY 

Glycocalyx 
Cell  ❖ Loose carbohydrate coat outside the cell 
❖ Basic living unit of the body  ❖ Important functions of CHO moieties attached to the 
❖ Each type of cell is specifically adapted to perform one  surface: 
or few specific functions  ➢ Many are negatively charge → negative 
➢ E.g. ​red blood cells ​- transports oxygen from  surface charge that repels other negatively 
charged objects 
the lungs to the tissues  ➢ Glycocalyx attaches to the glycocalyx of other 
❖ Comprised of 3 elements:  cells → cells attach with other cells 
➢ Cell membrane  ➢ Many CHO act as ​receptor substances​ for 
➢ Nuclear region  binding hormones like insulin 
➢ Cytoplasm   ➢ Some enter into immune reactions 
   
*nucleus is generally located at the center, but in some cells, it is 
located at the periphery 
 
MOLECULAR COMPOSITION OF CELLS 
1.​ Water 
❖ 70-85% ​of the total cell mass 
 
2.​ Inorganic Ions 
❖ 1% or less​ of total cell mass 
❖ Involved in a number of aspects of cell metabolism 
❖ Critical role in cell functions   
 
Important Ions in The Cell  CYTOPLASM & ORGANELLES 
Cytoplasm 
Large Quantities  Smaller Quantities  ❖ Semifluid matrix that occupies the volume between the 
nuclear region and the cell membrane, containing 
Potassium  Sodium  numerous organelles 
Magnesium  Chloride   
Phosphate  Calcium  Nucleus 
Sulfate  ❖ Control center of the cell 
Bicarbonate 
❖ Usually located at the center of the cell 
  ❖ Repository of the genetic information that directs all 
3.​ Organic Molecules  activities of a living cell 
❖ CHO, Lipids, CHONs, Nucleic Acids  ❖ Enveloped by a ​nuclear membrane 
(macromolecules)  ➢ Actually 2 separate membranes 
❖ 80-90% ​of the dry weight of most cells   
❖ Lipids​ - major constituent of a cell  Endoplasmic Reticulum 
  ❖ Extensive system of internal membranes that form 
compartments and vesicles 
❖ Agranular​/​Smooth​ ​ER​ (​SER​) 
➢ Functions in organizing internal activities 
➢ Enzymes become active when associated with 
a membrane (ER) → enzymes embedded in 
the ER catalyze the synthesis of a variety of 
CHO and lipids 
  ❖ Granular​/​Rough​ ​ER​ (​RER​) 
  ➢ Surface of the RER is where the cell 
MEMBRANOUS STRUCTURES OF THE CELL  manufactures proteins intended for export 
Cell Membrane   
❖ Lipid bilayer, protect layer that covers the entire cell  Ribosomes 
surface which regulates what moves in and out of the  ❖ Manufacturer of proteins 
cell  ❖ Read the RNA copy of a DNA gene → uses the 
❖ Lipid bilayer   information → directs the synthesis of a protein 
➢ major barrier impermeable to the usual   
water-soluble substances such as ions,  Mitochondria 
glucose, urea and others  ❖ “​Powerhouse​” of the cell 
➢ Fat-soluble substance such as oxygen, carbon  ❖ Site of oxidative metabolism where ATPs are formed 
dioxide and alcohol can penetrate the portion   
of the membrane with ease  Golgi Apparatus 
  ❖ Closely related to the ER 
Cell Membrane Proteins  ❖ Functions in association with the ER 
❖ Mainly glycoproteins  ❖ Usually composed of ​4 or more stacked layers of thin, 
❖ Integral proteins   flat, enclosed vesicles​ lying adjacent to one pole of the 
➢ Protrude all the way through the membrane  nucleus 
➢ Provides ​structural channels​ (or ​pores​) 
❖ Plays a major role in synthesizing substances that are to 
➢ Acts as ​carrier proteins ​by transporting 
substance through active transport  be secreted or used elsewhere in the cell 
➢ Serves as ​receptors  ❖ Prominent in ​secretory cells 
❖ Peripheral proteins   
➢ Attached to only one surface of the   
membrane and do not penetrate all the way   
➢ Function almost entirely as​ enzymes or as   
controllers of transport of substances 
   
Lysosomes  Simple Diffusion 
❖ Vesicular organelles​ formed by Golgi Apparatus and is  ❖ Kinetic movement of molecules or ions occurs through 
dispersed throughout the cytoplasm  a membrane opening or through intermolecular spaces 
❖ Intracellular digestive system​ - cells digest intracellular  without any interaction with carrier proteins in the 
substances (food particles, damaged cellular structures,  membrane 
or bacteria)  ❖ 2 pathways​: 
❖ Turns cell waste into building material 
  ➢ Through interstices of the lipid bilayer if the 
Peroxisomes  diffusing substance is lipid soluble 
❖ Formed by ​self-replication  ➢ Through watery channels that penetrate all the 
❖ Contains oxidases rather than hydrodases  way through some of the large transport 
❖ Hydrogen peroxide​ - highly oxidizing substance and is  proteins 
used in association with catalase   
❖ Catalase​ - present in large quantities in peroxisomes, 
*Rate of diffusion - determined by the amount of substance 
oxidizes many substances that might otherwise be 
poisonous to the cells  available, the velocity of kinetic motion and the number and 
  sizes of openings in the membrane through which the molecules 
Secretory/Granular Vesicles  or ions can move 
❖ Storage vesicles   
❖ Secretory substance formed by the ER-GA system  Facilitated Diffusion 
  ❖ Requires interaction of a carrier protein  
Nucleolus 
❖ Carrier protein​ - aids passage of the molecules or ions 
❖ Contained in the nucleus 
❖ May be one or more  through the membrane by binding chemically with 
❖ A structure that contains large amounts of RNA and  them and shuttling them through the membrane in this 
CHONs  form 
❖ Does not have a limiting membrane   
 
Microtubules 
❖ Long, hollow cylinders that influence cell shape 
 
Centrioles 
❖ Organelles associated with the assembly and 
organization of microtubules 
 
Flagella 
❖ For locomotion/movement or even feeding   
❖ Example: sperm cell   
  TYPES OF DIFFUSION 
I. Simple Diffusion 
❖ Passive transport through a membrane 
❖ Natural movement of particles in and out of the cells 
via ​semi-permeable membrane from an area of higher 
concentration to an area of lower concentration 
 
II. Diffusion through a Transmembrane channel (CHONs) 
 
III. Facilitated Diffusion 
❖ Transmembrane channels CHONs reconfigure hence 
allowing larger molecule to move in 
 
IV. Active Transport 
  ❖ Requires energy 
   
FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS OF THE CELL 
Dynamic Equilibrium 
Endocytosis 
❖ Ingestion by the cell  ❖ Movement of particles from an area of higher 
❖ If a cell is to live and grow, it must obtain nutrients and  concentration to an area of lower concentration 
other substances from its surrounding fluids  ❖ Depends on temperature (​rate of diffusion is faster in 
❖ Specialized function of the cell by which large particles  higher temperatures​) and concentration of solutes 
enter the cell   
❖ 2 principal forms: 
Osmosis 
➢ Pinocytosis​ - cell drinking 
➢ Phagocytosis​ - cell eating  ❖ Movement of water from an​ area of less solute 
  concentration to an area of higher solute concentration 
Diffusion  ❖ “Solutes suck” 
❖ Movement through the membrane by random motion   
of the molecules of the substances  *In ​Hypotonic solution: ​(e.g. Water) ​Swelling​ occurs when 
❖ Moving either through the ​cell membrane pores ​or in  there are less solutes outside and more solutes in the cell 
the case of lipid-soluble substance, through the ​lipid 
*In ​Hypertonic solution​: (e.g. NaCl 5%) ​Shrinkage​ occurs 
matrix ​of the membrane 
❖ Divided into 2 subtypes:  when there are more solutes outside the cell and less solutes in 
➢ Simple diffusion  the cell so the H20 inside the cell moves out. As cells shrink, 
➢ Facilitated diffusion  they clump and clog small arteries  
  *In ​Isotonic solution: ​(solute is equal to the solvent; e.g. D5W) 
Active Transport  No change  
❖ Actual carrying of a substance through the membrane  *​Crenation​: clumping of cells 
by a protein structure that penetrates all the way 
 
through the membrane 
Pinocytosis   
❖ means the ingestion of extremely small vesicles  *In most cells, pyruvic acid produced by glycolysis does not 
containing extracellular fluid ; occurs continuously at  undergo fermentation. 
the cell membranes of most cells but especially rapidly   
in some cells  Aerobic/Cellular Respiration 
❖ the only means by which most large macromolecules,  ❖ If oxygen is available in pyruvic acid, it will enter the 
such as most CHON molecules, can enter cells  pathway of aerobic respiration 
  ❖ Requires oxygen 
Steps in Pinocytosis:  ❖ Produces nearly ​20 times as much ATP​ as is produced 
1. Molecules such as CHON attach to the surface membrane,  by glycolysis alone 
usually to specialized receptors; the receptors generally are   
concentrated in small pits on the surface, called ​coated pits. 
Beneath the coated pits is a lattice work of clathrin as well as 
additional contractile filaments of actin & myosin.  
2. Once bound to the receptors, the surface properties of the 
membrane change in such a way that the entire pit invaginates 
inward with the contractile proteins surrounding the invaginating 
pit causing its borders to close over the attached protein as well 
as over a small amount of extracellular fluid  
3. Immediately thereafter, the invaginated portion of the 
membrane breaks away from the surface of the cell, forming a 
pinocytic vesicle 
   
 
CELL DIVISION 
Cell Cycle 
❖ Stages through which a cell passes from one cell 
deivion to the next 

 
 
Phagocytosis 
❖ occurs in almost the same way as pinocytosis except   
that it involves ​large particles​ rather than molecules   
❖ only certain cells have the capability of phagocytosis,  G1​: The cell is growing in preparation for DNA synthesis. 
most notably the tissue ​macrophages​ & some ​white  Cellular contents are duplicated except for chromosomes. 
blood cells  S​: DNA and chromosomes undergo replication and synthesis. 
  The cell is not dividing. 
Steps in Phagocytosis:  G2​: More cell growth and synthesis; preparation for Mitosis 
1. The cell membrane receptors attach to the surface ​ligands​ of  Mitosis​: Prophase/Prometaphase/Metaphase/Anaphase/ 
the particle.  Telophase 
2. The edges of the membrane around the points of attachment   
evaginate outward within a faction of a second to surround the  MITOSIS 
entire particle; Progressively, more & more membrane receptors  Prophase​ - Chromatin condenses into chromosomes; Nucleolus 
attach to the particle ligands, all these occurring suddenly in a  disappears; microtubules assembly begins 
zipper-like fashion to form a closed phagocytic vesicle   
3. Actin & other contractile fibrils in the cytoplasm surround the  Prometaphase ​- Nuclear membrane breaks down; Kinetochore 
phagocytic vesicle & contract around its outer edge, pushing the  microtubules form and attach to polar microtubules that push 
vesicle further into the cytoplasm.  against each other and push the centrosomes apart 
4. The contractile CHONs then pinch the vesicle off, leaving it   
in the cell interior in the same way that pinocytic vesicles are  Metaphase ​- Chromosomes line up on the Metaphase plate 
formed.   
  Anaphase ​- Chromosomes break at the centromeres into sister 
chromatids 
 
Telophase ​- chromatids, now called daughter chromosomes 
begin to decondense into chromatin; nuclear membranes begin 
to form around each daughter chromosome; new cell wall begins 
to form in plant cells; cleavage furrow forms in animal cells  
 

 
 
ATP FORMATION 
Glycolysis 
❖ Pathway in which 1 six-carbon molecule of glucose is 
oxidized to produce 2 three-carbon molecules of 
pyruvic acid or pyruvate 
❖ Takes place in the ​cytosol 
 Flagellar Movement 
❖ flagellum of a sperm is similar to a cilium: in fact, it has 
much the same type of structure and same type of 
contractile mechanism.  
❖ much longer and moves in quasi-sinusoidal waves 
instead of whiplike movements. 
 
 

 
 
CELLULAR MOVEMENTS 
Ameboid Movement 
❖ Movement of an entire cell in relation to its 
surroundings   
❖ Example​: movement of white blood cells through 
tissues 
❖ Amoebae move in this manner, hence the name 
 
*Typically, ameboid locomotion begins with protrusion of a 
pseudopodium from one end of the cell. The pseudopodium 
projects far out, away from the cell body, and partially secures 
itself in a new tissue area. Then the remainder of the cell is 
pulled toward the pseudopodium 
 

 
 
Cilia & Ciliary Movements 
❖ Whiplike movement of cilia on the surfaces of cells 
❖ Occurs in only 2 places in the human body: 
➢ Surfaces of the respiratory system 
➢ Inside surfaces of the uterine tubes of the 
reproductive tract 
 
*In the nasal cavity and lower respiratory airways, the whiplike 
motion of cilia causes a layer of mucus to move at a rate of 
about 1 cm/min toward the pharynx, in this way continually 
clearing these passageways of mucus and particles that have 
become trapped in the mucus.  
 
*In the uterine tubes, the cilia cause slow movement of fluid 
from the ostium of the uterine tube toward the uterus cavity; this 
movement of fluid transports the ovum from the ovary to the 
uterus.