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Bahan Tutor Skenario 4
Bahan Tutor Skenario 4
Bladder Catheterization
Author Information
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Objectives:
Explain the importance of improving care coordination amongst the interprofessional team to
improve outcomes for patients with bladder catheters.
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Introduction
Urinary bladder catheterization is performed for both therapeutic and diagnostic purposes.[1][2].
Based on the dwell time, the urinary catheter can be either intermittent (short-term) or indwelling
(long-term).
There are three types of urinary catheters based on the approach of insertion.
External catheters adhere to the external genitalia in men or pubic area in women and collect the
urine. They are useful for the management of urinary incontinence.
Urethral catheters are inserted through the urethra, with the tip advanced into the base of the
bladder.
Suprapubic catheters are inserted into the bladder surgically via a suprapubic approach.
Urethral catheterization is most commonly performed in routine clinical practice and is discussed in
this article.[2]
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The urinary system comprising of kidneys, ureter, bladder, and urethra is involved in the production,
storage, and excretion of urine. Under normal conditions, in an adult, the kidneys produce
approximately 1500 ml of urine in a day. After passing through the ureters, the urine is stored in the
bladder. The capacity of the bladder can vary between 350 ml - 500 ml. Three sets of muscles control
urinary drainage from the bladder into the urethra. The internal sphincter located at the base of the
bladder is an involuntary smooth muscle. The voluntary striated external sphincter muscles
encompass the proximal part of the urethra. Lastly, the pelvic floor muscles support and provide
additional control.[3]
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Indications
Therapeutic
Urinary retention
Urinary retention can be acute or chronic. The causes of urinary retention can be:
Obstructive: Urinary obstruction can be intrinsic (within the urinary system) or extrinsic. Benign
prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), stones, strictures, stenosis, or a tumor can cause intrinsic obstruction.
BPH is the most common cause of urinary retention. If the blockage is from a pathology outside the
bladder, it is classified as extrinsic. An enlarged abdominal or pelvic organ can compress on the
bladder neck resulting in extrinsic obstruction.[1]
Infectious & Inflammatory: Cystitis, urethritis, prostatitis (common infectious etiology in men), and
vulvovaginitis in the woman can cause urinary retention.
Neurologic: Brain or spinal cord injury, cerebrovascular accident, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson
disease, and dementia can lead to urinary retention.[4]
Others: Trauma, psychogenic, Fowler syndrome in women.[1][5][6]
Perioperative
Urinary incontinence
Bladder irrigation[8]
Diagnostic:
Measurement of urodynamics
The need for a bladder catheter should be assessed daily and must be removed when the purpose
of the catheter insertion is served.[9] For intraperitoneal colorectal surgeries, the catheter can be
removed on postoperative day 1. In the case of mid to low rectal operations, the catheter can be
removed between postoperative days 3-6 based on the risk of urinary retention.[10]
Early removal of urinary catheters helps with ambulation and better post-op recovery.[7] For
patients with chronic urinary retention and incomplete bladder evacuation, intermittent
catheterization is useful.
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Contraindications
Blood at the meatus. Insertion of the catheter can worsen an underlying injury.
Gross hematuria
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Equipment
Sterile gloves
Sterile water
Catheter
Catheter bag
The catheters can vary with the composition and coating material.
Coating: Teflon, hydrogel, and antimicrobial or latex with a silicone elastomer coat.[12]
The selection of a catheter type depends upon the clinical indication, dwell time, and individual
patient's risks.[2] A trained physician must perform catheterization with a Coude or suprapubic
catheter in cases where standard catheterization is unsuccessful. Silver alloy impregnated catheters
are preferred for short term catheterization(≤14 days) as they reduce the incidence of UTI and
bacteremia.[13]
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Preparation
Review indications and contraindications for the procedure. A careful history can help to assess the
need for urological referral.[14]
Give clear instructions to the patient about the procedure. Allow appropriate time to respond to
the queries of the patient.
The patient should lie down on a firm flat surface with the head resting on a pillow.[15]
Appropriate positioning of the patient. Supine position for men and frog-leg position for women is
recommended.
Prepare the glans penis and the urethral meatus using a sterile technique. In women use the non-
dominant hand to expose the urethral meatus by separating the labia and prepare the meatus
with an antiseptic solution.[7]
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Technique
In Men:
Local anesthesia and the lubricant must be generously used. The lubricant gel should be milked
proximally with the distal urethra compressed to occlusion.[15] The penis is held using the
nondominant hand directed towards the ceiling or the umbilicus. The catheter is inserted into the
urethral meatus with the dominant hand until the Y of the catheter is at the urethral meatus.[15]
The return of urine in the attached bag is a sign of correct placement into the bladder. The catheter
balloon is then inflated using sterile water. The amount of water used for inflation varies with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.[7]
In Women:
After exposing the urethral meatus, a lubricated catheter tip is advanced in the meatus until there
is a spontaneous return of urine. The catheter balloon is then inflated as per the manufacturer’s
recommendations. In morbidly obese patients, exposing the meatus may require help from a
second person or placing the patient in a Trendelenburg position. Adequate swabbing with
povidone-iodine helps with visualizing the meatus. In the event a catheter is inserted in the vagina,
it should be left there until a new sterile catheter is successfully inserted into the meatus.[7]
Analgesia is of no proven clinical use in women.[15] Lubrication jelly should be applied to the tip of
the catheter. The application of lubricant to the urethral meatus is associated with difficulty in
catheter insertion.[15]
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Complications
Urinary tract infection (UTI) is the most common complication that occurs as a result of long term
catheterization.[7] The normal urinary flow prevents the ascension of microbes from the
periurethral skin avoiding the infection. Alteration of the defensive mechanism from the catheter
results in an increased risk of UTIs.[3] Escherichia coil and Klebsiella pneumonia are the most
common organisms implicated in UTIs.[3] Recurrent UTIs are associated with increased antibiotic
resistance.
A chronic bladder infection can occur from urinary (10-100 ml) stasis at the base of the bladder,
which is obstructed by the balloon of the catheter.[16]
A transitory stinging sensation is common in men that often occurs during lubrication and can be
minimized by cooling the gel to 4°C.[8]
Paraphimosis[8]
Urethral injury[17]
Catheter obstruction can occur due to the sediment buildup in patients with subclinical bacteriuria.
Flushing can often relieve the blockage. If unsuccessful catheter replacement may be required.[18]
Urine leakage from the urethral meatus extrinsic to the catheter may occur as a result of bladder
spasms. These spasms can be painful and can be alleviated with anticholinergic medications like
oxybutynin.
A negative effect on the quality of life, especially for patients with longterm indwelling catheters.[6]
Due to these complications, indications for the bladder catheterization must be carefully reviewed
before the procedure.
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Clinical Significance
Bladder catheterization is a commonly performed hospital procedure. Therefore physicians and
nurses must be aware of its indications, contraindications, and be familiar with the scenarios where
a urology consultation is warranted.[15] The need for a bladder catheter should be evaluated daily.
Prompt removal of the catheter decreases the risk of urinary tract infection.[9]
Acute urinary retention is an emergency that requires urinary catheterization. Urethral strictures are
one of the leading causes of urinary retention in patients younger than fifty years. Urethral
catheterization can be challenging in the presence of urethral strictures and must be attempted with
a 14 French catheter. If an obstruction is encountered, the catheter should not be forced into the
urethra.[9] Blood at the meatus can be due to urethral trauma. Repeated attempts of catheter
insertion may further increase the risk of injury and the creation of a false passage. Urology must be
promptly consulted in challenging cases of urinary catheterization.[15]
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A myriad of clinical conditions may require bladder catheterization. While a physician or a nurse can
place the catheter in most cases, consultation with urology is necessary for specific patients. The
nurses are essential members of the interprofessional group, as they will predominantly perform the
procedure. They also monitor the catheter and assist with the education of the patient and family as
needed. The pharmacist will ensure that the patient is not on any medication that can precipitate
urinary retention. The physical therapist also plays a role in early mobilization, voiding exercises, and
rehabilitation. Interprofessional communication and care coordination among health professionals
are vital to enhancing patient-centered care and improve outcomes.