Physical Optics

UNITEXT for Physics
Giovanni Giusfredi
Physical Optics
Concepts, Optical Elements,
and Techniques
UNITEXT for Physics
Series Editors
Michele Cini, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Roma, Italy
Attilio Ferrari, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
Stefano Forte, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
Guido Montagna, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
Oreste Nicrosini, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
Luca Peliti, University of Napoli, Naples, Italy
Alberto Rotondi, Pavia, Italy
Paolo Biscari, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
Nicola Manini, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
Morten Hjorth-Jensen, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
UNITEXT for Physics series, formerly UNITEXT Collana di Fisica e Astronomia,
publishes textbooks and monographs in Physics and Astronomy, mainly in English
language, characterized of a didactic style and comprehensiveness. The books
published in UNITEXT for Physics series are addressed to graduate and advanced
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their education, knowledge and teaching.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13351

Giovanni Giusfredi
Physical Optics
Concepts, Optical Elements, and Techniques
123
Giovanni Giusfredi
European Laboratory for Non-Linear
Spectroscopy (LENS)
Istituto Nazionale di Ottica—Consiglio
Nazionale delle Ricerche (INO-CNR)
Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
ISSN 2198-7882 ISSN 2198-7890 (electronic)

UNITEXT for Physics
ISBN 978-3-030-25278-6 ISBN 978-3-030-25279-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25279-3
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7(70 Transverse wave to the plane of incidence, Electrical, Magnetic
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About the Author
Giovanni Giusfredi is currently a senior associate at INO-CNR, having retired in

2016 from INO, where he had been a lead researcher for almost 30 years. He
remains actively involved in research and collaborates with colleagues at the
European Laboratory for Non-linear Spectroscopy. He is also a founding member
of CNR ppqSense. His research interests are wide ranging and he has coauthored
more than 220 titles, including 71 articles in international journals. He is skilled and
experienced in the teaching of Physical Optics and the History of Optics.
xxvii

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Chapter 2
Geometrical Optics
All what we see,
it is seen in a rectilinear direction.
Pseudo-Eukleidēs, Catoptrics, 2nd postulate
Introduction
Geometrical Optics is one of the oldest of the physical sciences, but still re-
mains the most effective approach for explaining a good part of the most common
optical phenomena. It is particularly useful for tracing the propagation of light in
inhomogeneous media and for describing or designing optical instruments. The
emphasis of this discipline is to find the path of light rays, imagined as geometric
lines along which energy flows. It is based on a few simple observations:
a) light propagates in a straight line in homogeneous media and, in particular, it is
possible to produce thin beams of light, similar to geometrical rays within the
physically unattainable limit of an infinite subtlety;
b) the laws of reflection and refraction;
c) different light beams propagate without disturbing each other;
d) “natural” sources are generally uncorrelated between them, for which their
light beams overlap without showing interference.
On the other hand, the electromagnetic field associated with visible light is
characterized by very small wavelengths, on the order of 106  107 m. There-
fore, the phenomena that violate the first and the last of the above observations
can be observed only with accurate experiments. Indeed, the effects of diffraction
or interference are almost hidden using natural sources, for which the visibility of
the fringes is reduced. The diffraction phenomena appear when there are rapid
changes in the amplitude of the field, such as that produced by a sharp obstacle,
particularly when some dimension of the optical system, such as the diameter of
an aperture, is comparable to the wavelength; or in the neighborhood of a focal
point; or over long distances compared to the transverse dimension of a wave, par-
ticularly when there is a delimitation imposed upon it. Lastly, point (c) follows
from the linearity of the media at the ordinary beams’ intensity.
In this chapter, we will explore the consequences of such observations taken as
empirical data. However, we will derive the laws of Geometrical Optics by Max-
well’s equations within the limit at which the wavelength  tends to zero. We will
also see that, within such a limit, the intensity can be deduced from the transverse
dimension of a thin pencil of rays and that the polarization state can be associated
with each ray. Therefore, in Geometrical Optics, the rays are associated with the
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/

978-3-030-25279-3_2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25279-3_2
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Chapter 3
Interference
The law is, that “wherever two portion of the same light arrive at the eye by
different routes, either exactly or very nearly in the same direction, the light
becomes most intense when the difference of the routes is any multiple of a
certain length, and least intense in the intermediate state of the interfering
portions; and this length is different for light of different color”.
Thomas Young [Young 1802, p.387]
Introduction
The most impressive evidence of the wave nature of light is given by the bright
and dark bands that, under appropriate conditions, are formed in the overlapping
zone of two or more beams of light, and which become observable, for example,
by interposing a diffuser screen in such a zone. These bands are called interfer-
ence fringes, and the phenomenon itself is known as interference.
Historically, the first documented observations of interference fringes were
made independently by Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke, who noted the colored
fringes produced by thin films. Hooke, in particular, made a systematic study of
them and observed the ones that are improperly called “Newton’s rings”. Newton
himself realized the periodic nature of Hooke’s rings, but he gave an explanation
of compromise between wave ideas and his corpuscular theory of light that was
completely wrong [Landsberg 1979, p. 123]. Finally, Thomas Young, in 1802,
correctly interpreted the phenomenon as interference between the reflections from
the interfaces, coming to the measurement of the wavelength. To further demon-
strate the wave nature of light, Young performed his famous experiment, pub-
lished in 1807, in which he observed the interference produced by the light com-
ing from two slits [Young 1807]. However, his principle of interference was not
accepted until Augustin Jean Fresnel removed the various objections to the wave
theory, demonstrating the validity of his diffraction theory.
In the following sections, the theory of interference is developed from the equa-
tions of electromagnetism in the case of a linear and isotropic medium. In this
context, interference finds its justification in the sum of the fields of the various
waves and in the principle of superposition. We will first analyze the cases of two-
wave interference, the conditions for their observation and the interferometers,
with some examples of their use, such as in the examination of the optical quality
of the surfaces, in the refractive index measurements, and in stellar interferometry.
Next, we will study the most significant cases of interference with many waves:
the Fabry-Perot interferometer, as a prototype of resonant cavity, and the dielectric
multilayers with their applications.


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25279-3_3
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Chapter 4
Diffraction
Lumen propagatur seu diffunditur non solum Directe,
Refracte, ac Reflexe, sed etiam alio quodam quarto
modo, DIFFRACTE.
Propositio I, De Lumine, P. Francesco Maria Grimaldi
Introduction
Diffraction, whose name was introduced by Grimaldi in 1665, when he first

discovered it and described its effects, has been conveniently defined by Sommer-
feld (1949), paraphrasing the Grimaldi’s expression, as «any deviation of the light
rays from rectilinear paths which cannot be interpreted as reflection or refraction».
For example, if an opaque object is placed between a point source and a screen,
the shadow thrown by the object does not have an edge as sharp as the one pre-
dicted by Geometrical Optics. In fact, careful observation of the shadow edge re-
veals that a bit of light goes into the shaded area, while darkened fringes appear in
the illuminated area. On the other hand, there is also a similarity between the dif-
fraction produced by a diffractive body and the refraction or reflection from a sur-
face: both effects are due to a sudden discontinuity of the medium and, indeed, the
diffraction fringes can be attenuated by the apodization of the obstacle edges,
which consists of a gradual variation of their opacity. The phenomenon of the dif-
fraction fringes is quite complex, and there have historically been deep disputes
about their origins. Today, we can say that there is both an electromagnetic contri-
bution from the edge of diffractive objects, and a “geometric” contribution due to
their form; in this chapter, we will only deal with cases in which this second con-
tribution is relevant and the other can be neglected.
Many diffraction studies are devoted to the effects of objects placed in the path
of radiation. The term diffraction, however, is also used to indicate a particular
method of calculation of the wave field by means of surface or line integrals, as an
alternative to methods of propagation through the integration of the wave equa-
tions in three-dimensional space.
After that of Grimaldi, the first important contribution to the diffraction theory
was given by Fresnel, who perfected the Huygens model by introducing Young’s
interference principle in place of the envelope of wavelets. Fresnel was thus able
to calculate diffraction figures with remarkable precision. Even Young presented a
theory of diffraction, based on the visual observation that an aperture edge appears
illuminated. Therefore, he suggested that the diffraction fringes were produced by
the interference between the radiation transmitted directly from the aperture and a
wave coming from the edge, which is now called a boundary-diffracted wave. An
equivalent to Fresnel’s theory was then demonstrated by Maggi and Rubinowicz


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25279-3_4
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Chapter 5
Fourier’s Optics
Introduction
We have seen that, in Fresnel’s approximation the propagation of a wave be-

tween two parallel planes can be expressed in terms of a Fourier’s transform.
Here, we examine an alternative technique, relying on the fact that the field pre-
sent on the first plane can be represented by its spectrum in plane waves, for
which, in a homogeneous space, one can determine their propagation in a simple
way. By recombining these waves, one can therefore easily rebuild the field on the
second plane with an inverse transform. This fact has two important applications,
the first concerns the mathematical and numerical techniques that can be used to
calculate the diffracted field, and the second is, in a certain sense, opposite to the
first and concerns the processing of signals by optical means. In particular, we will
briefly discuss some topics that make use of the Fourier’s transform, including
sampling theorems and the numerical techniques for the calculation of diffraction,
the formation of images and analysis of the quality of optical systems, the theory
of coherence and some of its applications, spatial filtering and finally diffraction
gratings.
5.1 Mathematical preliminaries
5.1.1 Some special, frequently used functions
In optics one often refers to the concept of a point source, when, for example,
its dimensions are very small compared to the resolving power of the instrument
and then the source is assimilated to a point with a finite emissive power, but also
of infinite intensity. Other times, then, an extended source is assimilated into a
continuous collection of point sources, with an overall finite intensity. Mathemati-
cally, the concept of a point source is rendered by Dirac’s function, which is not
an ordinary function, but rather belongs to the category of generalized functions,
endowed with particular discontinuity, which have meaning only within an inte-
gral. A solid discussion of these functions requires the theory of distributions, but,
here, we limit ourselves to understanding them as the limit of a sequence of ordi-
nary functions with “good behavior”. Some functions of this type and others that
are particularly useful in optics [Goodman 1996] are as follows.


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25279-3_5
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UH

Chapter 6
Propagation of laser beams in linear media
The Gaussian, Bessel, and Bessel-Gauss approaches
Introduction
If the medium is homogeneous, linear, isotropic, and non-dispersive, any elec-

tromagnetic wave can, in principle, be decomposed into plane waves, which are a
simple and effective basis for complex wave equation solutions (1.4.12). But, in
real cases, we have to deal with electromagnetic beams of limited size, and the de-
composition in plane waves is not always the most appropriate. Consider, for ex-
ample, the case of a monochromatic, and therefore continuous (CW, that is, con-
tinuous wave, single-frequency) laser beam; at every point in the space, its electric
field oscillates sinusoidally over time. The spatial trend in this field is not equally
simple: at first sight, a collimated laser beam is a genuinely good representation of
a pencil of parallel geometric rays between them, but, with more careful observa-
tion, we find that the beam tends to expand due to the diffraction.
As we have already seen, the solution to diffraction problems is difficult to ob-
tain in general. However, if we limit ourselves to considering waves whose spec-
trum of wave vectors from the development in plane waves remains contained
within a narrow cone centered around a direction of predominant propagation,
let’s say, the z-axis, the wave equations can be simplified in a less drastic way
than for Geometrical Optics, while maintaining (in many cases) an excellent repre-
sentation of the diffraction (when, along the path of the beam, there are no dif-
fracting objects).
The equation that is obtained is called the paraxial wave equation, and its char-
acteristic solutions constitute a basis for replacing the plane waves. The advantage
of this treatment consists in the fact that, in many practical cases, it is sufficient to
consider a finite number of such solutions, instead of the infinite or very large
number that would be required for a plane wave development.
One class of characteristic solutions of the paraxial equation is that of Gaussian
beams, which constitute a series of transverse modes and are particularly suitable
for treating laser beams. Their field decays as exp(–r2/w2), where r is the distance
from the beam axis and w is a parameter that depends on the position along the ax-
is.
A different approach to the problem of diffraction derives from the observation
that, for a linear medium, the propagation between two planes orthogonal to the z-
axis can be seen as the response (output) of a linear system to an excitation input.
In particular, as we have seen above, the “classical” treatment of diffraction con-


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Physical Optics

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Physical Optics

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UNITEXT for Physics

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13351

ISSN 2198-7882 ISSN 2198-7890 (electronic)

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Giovanni Giusfredi is currently a senior associate at INO-CNR, having retired in

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1.1.1 Charges and fields

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1.1.2 The scalar and vector potentials

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1.1.3 Relativistic formulation of fields and Lorentz

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