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Topographic amplification factors associated to cliff morphology: numerical

results from two case studies in Southern Italy and comparison with EC8
recommendations

Conference Paper · September 2007

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 Topographic amplification factors associated to cliff morphology:
numerical results from two case studies in Southern Italy and comparison
with EC8 recommendations

Alessandro Pagliaroli, Giuseppe Lanzo, Beniamino D’Elia

Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale e Geotecnica, Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
Antonio Costanzo, Francesco Silvestri
Dipartimento di Difesa del Suolo, Università della Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, Cosenza, Italy

ABSTRACT
Seismic amplification of ground motion due to topographic effects at the Nicastro and Gerace cliffs (Calabria,
Southern Italy) is investigated. Linear and non linear 2D numerical analyses are carried out on representative
cross-sections using FLAC finite difference computer code. Additionally 1D analyses accounting only for
stratigraphic effect are also carried out. A topographic amplification factor at the crest is then obtained taking
the ratio of 2D over 1D horizontal peak acceleration and Fourier spectrum. The calculated amplification
factors are compared with those recommended by EC8.

Keywords: topographic amplification, cliff morphology, historical centres, EC8, numerical analyses.

1 INTRODUCTION Conventionally, in the numerical studies, the

The “stratigraphic” amplification of earthquake
ground motion, related to the variation with depth of
seismic impedance due to subsoil heterogeneity, is
nowadays routinely modelled through numerical
one-dimensional (1D) analyses. However, the
seismic amplification of ground motion can be also
affected by the surface topography, inducing two-
dimensional phenomena such as the focusing of
seismic waves, the diffraction of body and surface
waves and the resonance of the topographic feature.
The overall effects related to these phenomena are
often summarised as “topographic” amplification.
The occurrence of such effects is mainly reported as
macroseismic observations (e.g. concentration of
structural damage at hilltops), while only few
instrumental data are available (Pagliaroli et al.,
2007).
Quantification of topographic amplification is a
very difficult issue, as it depends from many factors,
including the frequent coupling between
stratigraphic and topographic effects. Also,
especially for the experimental studies, the difficulty
of finding a reference station free of site effects (i.e.
located on a stiff, unweathered and horizontal
outcropping bedrock) can further complicate the
estimation of topographic amplification. These
above mentioned difficulties probably explain the
quantitative differences between theoretical
predictions and observed topographic amplifications.
effects of the topography can be estimated through
the ratio of 2D (accounting for both stratigraphic and
topographic amplification) over 1D (depending only
on stratigraphic amplification) seismic motion
parameters. Usually this ratio is calculated in terms
of peak acceleration (Ashford and Sitar, 1997),
Fourier (Kallou et al., 2001; Assimaki and Gazetas,
2004) or acceleration response spectra (Bouckovalas
and Kouretzis, 2001). In frequency domain this ratio
has been defined as the “topographic aggravation
factor” (TAF) (Kallou et al., 2001).
With few exceptions (e.g. PS92, 1999), the
topographic effects are usually neglected in seismic
codes, because of the inherent difficulties in
quantifying the amplitude of topographic
amplification. In particular, Eurocode 8 (2003)
incorporates these effects specifying a frequency-
independent topographic amplification parameter ST
(Part 5, Annex A), which multiplies as a constant
scaling factor all the ordinates of the elastic design
response spectrum. The suggested values for ST are
reported in Fig. 1 for some typical topographic
features (slopes, isolated cliffs and ridges) having an
average slope angle β ≥ 15°. Typically, for β < 15°
the topography effects can be neglected. Regarding
the spatial variation of ST, the highest values apply
near the top of the slopes, while the amplification
factor can be assumed to linearly decrease towards
the base, where it becomes unity. The suggested
amplification factors are increased by at least 20% in
case of an existing superficial zone more than 5 m
thick.

Isolated cliffs and slopes
ST ≥ 1.2
β > 15°
Ridges with crest width significantly
less than the base width
ST ≥ 1.2
15°<β< 30°
ST ≥ 1.4
β > 30°
Figure 1. Suggested values for the topographic amplification
factor ST in Eurocode 8 (Part 5 Annex A).
In literature, comparisons between topographic
amplification factors by EC8 and those calculated
from numerical and analytical studies can be found,
among others, in Paolucci (2002) for ridges and
cliffs, Bouckovalas and Papadimitriou (2005) and
Klimis and Anastasiadis (2002) for slope- and
canyon-like topography, respectively.
More recently, in the Athens 2006 ETC12
Workshop, six contributions dealing with the issue
of topographic amplification were presented (see the
summary report by Pitilakis and Papadimitriou,
2006). In particular, two of these papers regarded
cliff morphology (Pagliaroli et al., 2006, Paolucci
2006). Paolucci (2006), based on the results of 3D
numerical analyses carried out on four selected
italian sites characterized by different morphological
and geologic features, proposed some tentative
changes for the Annex A of EC8 part 5. In detail, a
topographic amplification factor at the crest ST ≥ 1.7
was suggested for 3D configurations having height >
60 m, similar dimension of the width W and length
L of the crest (1/3< L/W< 3), average and maximum
slope angle higher than 30° and 60° respectively.
It should be pointed out that Paolucci (2006)
adopted a homogeneous model for the numerical
analyses and defined a frequency-independent
topographic amplification factor as the average
value in the period range of interest (1-3 s).
Conversely, Pagliaroli et al. (2006) modelled a real
steep cliff as a 2D heterogeneous medium, finding
amplification factors in terms of peak ground
acceleration up to 35% higher than those suggested
by EC8. Further, the Authors remarked that ST
should be considered as frequency-dependent. The
same point of view was shared by Pitilakis (2006)
who suggested ST values increasing with frequency.
The estimation of topographic amplification
factors of tall and steep cliffs is especially relevant
for the Italian territory, where such morphological
configurations are particularly widespread. The
engineering relevance of this problem is even
greater, considering that several historical towns
with precious heritage are often located at the cliff
crest (Costanzo et al., 2007a). The aim of this study
is to quantitatively investigate the topographic
amplification of two of such configurations, namely
Nicastro and Gerace cliffs located in Southern Italy.
The topographic amplification factors, computed by
the numerical analyses, are compared to those
suggested by EC8 and by other numerical and
analytical literature studies.
2 THE CASE HISTORY OF NICASTRO
2.1 Site description and subsoil model
Nicastro cliff is located in Calabria (Southern Italy),
one of the most active seismic regions of the
Mediterranean area. The cliff is elongated in the NE-
SW direction, about 60 m high; the width at the
crest varies between 30 and 60 m moving from NE
to SW, while it is about 200 m at the base (Fig. 2).
The ridge flanks are quite irregular, with slope
angles varying generally between 20° and 50°, but
almost vertical in the northern side. Precious
remains of an ancient Norman-Swabian castle lie on
the crest.
The cliff is constituted by metabasitic rocks and
schists characterised by extremely variable degree of
weathering and jointing, which strongly affect the
mechanical behaviour of the cliff. From 1998 to
2003, several geotechnical investigations were
carried out (Fig. 2), including 31 boreholes drilled to
a maximum depth of about 40 m, 5 seismic
refraction surveys, and 2 down-hole tests (Pagliaroli,
2006). From the sections 1-1 and 2-2 reported in Fig.
2, it can been seen that the cliff is locally covered by
fill or debris, mainly gravel in a silty matrix, with a
maximum thickness of 5 m. Despite the high degree
of heterogeneity, it is possible to recognise some
“macro-zones” from bottom to surface: namely,
moderately weathered and jointed rock, moderately
weathered and highly jointed rock, highly weathered
and jointed rock. The physical and mechanical
material properties of the above materials are
reported in Table 1. The values of shear wave
velocity VS were taken from down-hole tests results
(Pagliaroli et al., 2006).
 2.2 Reference input motion
The historical seismicity of the area was
characterised by setting up a site-specific seismic
catalogue, based on the intensities either felt at
Nicastro, or estimated through attenuation
relationships (Pagliaroli, 2006). The most
destructive event was the earthquake of March 27,
1638 (M=7.1), producing a site intensity IS = XI
MCS. Two reference seismogenic zones were
identified: the Catanzaro strait (near-field condition)
characterised by a minimum source-to-site distance
d = 10 km and maximum historically observed
magnitude MS = 7.1; the Reggio Calabria fault
system (far-field condition), characterised by d =
100 km and MS = 7.3. The reference peak ground
acceleration on rock outcrop, aout, resulted 0.35g and
0.04g, using the attenuation relationships by
Ambraseys and Douglas (2003) and Ambraseys et
al. (1996), for the near-field and far-field conditions
respectively. The corresponding estimated mean
response spectra and their standard deviations are
shown in Fig. 3, together with those relevant to ten
accelerograms (five for near- and five for far-field
conditions), selected from European and world-wide
records on rock outcrops, matching the required MS-
d values and scaled to the expected aout.

mean from attenuation relationship

mean ± standard dev. from attenuation relationship
real accelograms
real accelograms average
1.6
near-field a)
1.4
Spectral acceleration, Sa (g)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Figure 2. Plan view and sections of the Nicastro cliff.
0
0.25
Table 1: Geotechnical properties of Nicastro subsoil. far-field b)
Spectral acceleration, Sa (g)

0.2
Material γ VS D0
ν
(kN/m3) (m/s) (%) 0.15
cover 21 0.35 350 1
highly weathered 23 0.25 700 1 0.1
and jointed rock
moderately 24 0.25 900 -1000 0.4
weathered, highly 0.05
jointed rock
moderately 26 0.25 1200 0.4 0
weathered and 0.01 0.1 1
jointed rock Period, T (s)
bedrock 27 0.25 1500 0.1 Figure 3. Real accelerograms selected for (a) near- and (b) far-
field conditions.
2.3 Seismic response analyses section 2-2. Overall, such factors are 15% higher
than those calculated for the homogeneous model.
The seismic response of the cliff to both reference
earthquakes was simulated by the finite difference 3.5 1.4

normalized topographic profile

code FLAC (Itasca, 2005). The input motions were 3
homogeneous model
1.3
heterogeneous model
applied to the base of the model as vertically 2.5 1.2

amax/aout
incident SV waves. Due to the high stiffness of the 2
1.1
materials, only linear analyses were carried out. The 1.5
1 1
dynamic response of the cliff was investigated for 0.5 0.9
both sections in Fig. 2, characterised by different 0
topographic profile
0.8
shape ratios H/L (where H is the average cliff height 0 40 80 120 160 200 240
and L is the half-width at the base), equal to 0.55 distance (m)
1A
and 0.8 for sections 1-1 and 2-2 respectively. The 1-1 cross-section

steeper section 2-2 is also characterised by stiffer a)

material with respect to the 1-1 section. A simple
homogeneous model was examined first; thereafter,
a more realistic heterogeneous model was analysed.
In the homogeneous model, the values of γ=26
kN/m3, VS=1200 m/s, ν=0.25 and D0=0.4% were
assumed as representative of the main properties of
the subsoil and the half-space beneath the cliff. The 3.5 1.4

normalized topographic profile

homogeneous model
3
finite difference meshes adopted for the heterogeneous model 1.3
2.5
heterogeneous model are shown in Fig. 4.The related 1.2
amax/aout
2
geotechnical properties are reported in Table 1. 1.5
1.1
The horizontal profiles of the peak surface 1 1
acceleration, amax, normalized to the corresponding 0.5 0.9
topographic profile
value at the outcropping bedrock, aout, are reported 0 0.8
in Fig. 4 a,b for both sections and stratigraphic 0 40 80 120 160 200
models. The profile for the heterogeneous model 2A distance (m)
was computed averaging all the analyses outputs, 2-2 cross-section

without distinguishing between near- and far-field b)

input motions, because minor differences were
observed (Pagliaroli, 2006). The shaded area
represent the average ± one standard deviation
values. For the homogeneous model, the normalised
surface profile was obtained using only one
representative input motion. The topographic
profiles of the sections are also plotted in Fig. 4, by
cover (VS= 350 m/s)
normalising each elevation with respect to that at the
left boundary of the mesh. highly weathered and jointed rock (VS= 700 m/s)
For both sections, the amplification increases moderately weathered, highly jointed rock (VS= 900-1000 m/s)
from the base to the crest of the cliff, with maximum moderately weathered and jointed rock (VS= 1200 m/s)
values generally varying between 1.3-1.6 for the
bedrock (VS= 1500 m/s)
homogeneous model, and increasing to 2-2.5 for the
heterogeneous subsoil. Note the similarity of the Figure 4. Normalised horizontal peak accelerations computed
resulting profiles to the surface topography, with the at the surface of 1-1 (a) and 2-2 (b) cross-sections for the
homogeneous and heterogeneous models.
normalised elevations slightly lower than the
homogeneous amplification factors.
In the frequency domain, the topographic
In order to scale out the magnitude of the
amplification for the heterogeneous case was
stratigraphic amplification from the heterogeneous
estimated by the so-called TAF function, expressed
model results, 1D analyses were carried out for the
in terms of the ratio between 2D over 1D smoothed
soil columns corresponding to two representative
Fourier spectra at the crest nodes 1A and 2A (Fig.
nodes at the crest of the cliff (1A and 2A in Fig. 4).
5). The curves were computed as average values for
In the time domain, the topographic amplification
all the selected input motions, as they did not
factor, ST, was then evaluated as the 2D over 1D
significantly affect the variation of TAF with
ratio of amax. The resulting average values for all the
frequency (Pagliaroli, 2006). For comparison, the
selected near-field and far-field accelerograms were
transfer functions evaluated in the same nodes for
about 1.5 for section 1-1, and 1.9 for the steeper
the homogeneous model are reported. The maximum
peak spectral amplification occurs between 3-5 Hz
for both sections. The amplitude of spectral
amplification at crest is about 1.8 and 2.5 for
sections 1-1 and 2-2 respectively, thus increasing
with H/L ratio, analogously to amplification factor
ST. These amplification coefficients are up to 30%
higher than those computed on the homogeneous
model. In Fig. 5 the fundamental frequency of
vibration (f2D) of the cliff, estimated by the Rayleigh
method applied to homogeneous triangle-shaped
asymmetric ridges (Paolucci, 2002) and the
fundamental frequency of potential triangular-
shaped sliding mass (fS) proposed by Bray (2007)
are also reported. It can be noted that peak spectral
amplification satisfactorily matches the fundamental
frequency of vibration of the cliff (f2D). Therefore,
topographic amplification can be interpreted as a
two-dimensional resonance phenomenon.
4
3.5 H f2D = (0.6-1.0) VS/(2L)
(Paolucci, 2002)
3 L
VS = cliff average shear wave velocity
fS = 0.38 VS/H
2.5
1A - homogeneous
TAF
marls, which in turn rests on a relatively thinner
layer of interbedded sands and conglomerates. The
slab floats on a deep layer varicoloured clay shales,
with an estimated thickness of about 200m. The
current geomorphological setting is the result of the
intense erosion processes, producing the progressive
removal of the soils overlying the clay formation
(Monteleone, 1993).
The longitudinal and transversal subsoil models
for the seismic response analyses (see Figs. 7a,b)
were characterised combining data collected from
previous investigations and experimental results of
on-purpose dynamic in situ (Down-Hole, MASW
and SASW) and laboratory tests (RC and TS)
(Costanzo, 2007). A synthetic picture of physical
and mechanical material properties, used in the
analyses, is reported in Table 2.
3.2 Reference input motion
In less than sixty days during 1783, since February,
(Bray, 2007)
5 to March, 28, Southern Calabria was struck by five

2 1A - heterogeneous strong earthquakes, with magnitudes between 5.9

1.5 and 6.9.
1
0.5 2A - homogeneous
2A - heterogeneous
0
0.1 1 10
Frequency, f (Hz)
Figure 5. Average TAF (heterogeneous model) and transfer
functions (homogeneous model) computed at the crest of
sections 1-1 (node 1A) and 2-2 (node 2A).

3 THE CASE HISTORY OF GERACE

3.1 Site description and subsoil model

Gerace is located at about 480 m a.s.l. on a cliff
oriented in direction NW-SE (Fig. 6), between the
basins of two rivers, characterised by continuous
gully erosion affecting the slope instability of the
Figure 6. Geological map of Gerace (modified after
valley borders. The upper part of the cliff is formed Monteleone, 1993).
by a soft rock slab, constituted by calcarenites and
sandstones, overlying a deep formation of clayey
Table 2. Geotechnical properties of Gerace subsoil.
Material γ VS ν G D0 φ' c' γr γv
(kN/m3) (m/s) (MPa) (%) (°) (kPa) (%) (%)
Fractured calcarenites 16.69 400 0.250 267 0.5 35 7
Linear
Calcarenites 16.69 750 0.250 939 0.5 40 700
Sandstones 16.94 400 0.322 271 0.5 35 54 0.100 0.048
Clayey marls 18.05 800 0.332 1155 1.5 32 34 0.140 0.060
Conglomerates 19.51 750 0.285 1097 0.5 30 1000 0.300 0.160
658 0.400 909
Varicolour clay (cliff) 21.00 1.5 25 0 0.164 0.068
725 1104
454 0.361 430
Varicolour clay (valley) 20.87 3.0 25 0 0.103 0.040
643 863
Bedrock 22.00 1500 0.300 4950 Linear
The sequence caused the destruction of many towns
(Carbone-Grio, 1887), as well as widespread
environmental damage (Cotecchia et al., 1986),
including significant ground movements and maybe
slope failure in the historical town of Gerace
(Romeo and Delfino, 1997).
From the analysis of the site seismic history
(Costanzo, 2007), the first event of the sequence
could be assumed as the maximum historical
earthquake. The reference seismic motion was
simulated through two methods: one based on
macroseismic data (estimated epicentre and
magnitude) and the other on seismogenic parameters
(position and geometry of the possible sources). The
acceleration and frequency content of the reference
motion were evaluated by means of different
attenuation relationships, yielding very close
evaluations of the motion amplitude. The estimate of
synthetic ground motion parameters allowed to sort
out a set of compatible acceleration time histories
(Costanzo, 2007).
On the basis of the reference parameters, fixing
suitably restricted ranges of magnitude and distance,
compatible seismic records were selected as possible
input motions from on-line databases. To select the
most reliable accelerogram, the approach suggested
by Bommer and Acevedo (2004) was followed,
computing the amplitude scale factor, Fsc, and the
root mean square parameter, Drms, that supplies a
quantitative evaluation of the similarity between the
frequency contents. The most suitable seismic
motion was the record of the Landers earthquake of
1992 (M=7.5, de=21km) at the Morongo Valley -
Fire Stn 461 (Fig. 7), that showed the better spectral
compatibility to the reference response spectrum,
estimated through the relationship by Pugliese and
Sabetta (1989).
1.0
spectral acceleration, Sa (g)
0.8
P&S(89) mean
P&S(89) mean ± σ
0.6
LANDERS 1992
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 1 2 3
period, T (s)
Figure 7. Landers earthquake of 1992: spectral compatibility
with the reference motion.
3.3 Seismic response analyses
The numerical simulations of the seismic response
of the cliff to the first event of the sequence, have
been carried out by FLAC (2D), along the two
orthogonal sections of the cliff, and EERA (1D), at
their crossing point.
Both heterogeneous and homogeneous modelling
was considered, as for Nicastro case study. Linear
analyses were carried out on the homogeneous
subsoil model, characterised by a VS of 675 m/s,
computed as the mean value with reference to the
thickness of the different formations along the cliff
axis. Conversely, non-linear analyses were carried
out on the heterogeneous model.
Fig. 8a,b report the horizontal profiles of surface
amplification, for both stratigraphic models, along
with the normalized topographic profiles. For the
heterogeneous models, the coloured dots indicate the
stratigraphic contacts between different soils.
On the average, the amplification factor profiles
seem to reproduce the trends of the corresponding
topographic profiles, with oscillations and
discontinuities more pronounced for the non linear
heterogeneous model.
The surface motion amplitudes along the NW-SE
section (Fig. 8a), characterised by a smoother
topographic profile, show that the amplification is
visibly affected by the impedance contrasts, and
enhances across the more deformable sandstone
layer. Also, the interaction between incident and
diffracted waves induces oscillating amplification
factors and out-of-phase motion. In the narrower
SW-NE section (Fig. 8b), wave focusing at the
hilltop induces a pronounced topographic
amplification; the ST factor, again evaluated as the
2D over 1D ratio of horizontal peak acceleration,
results of the order of 1.6.
As for the case of Nicastro cliff, the net
topographic effect at the hilltop was evaluated by the
TAF function, again defined as 2D over 1D Fourier
spectral ratio (Fig. 9); the arrows indicate the mean
2D fundamental frequency for the homogeneous
models evaluated by means of both Paolucci (2002)
and Bray (2007) relationships. Whatever the section
considered, in the homogeneous models the TAF
shows a fundamental peak amplification around
0.8Hz, i.e. falling between the simplified estimated
values. For the heterogenous models, the
amplification results more pronounced at higher
frequency values, i.e. in the range between 2 and 5
4 Hz, and an apparent tendency to increase beyond 6
Hz is shown. Likely, these effects are due to the
excitation of higher vibration modes, associated to
seismic impedance contrasts related to the presence
of the uppermost layer of fractured calcarenites and
of the intermediate soft sandstones. At the crest of
the longitudinal cliff section (NW-SE), the TAF is
2.8 for a frequency of about 5 Hz; at the apex of the
narrow section (SW-NE), the TAF shows a peak of
3.4 for a frequency around 3 Hz.
 (a)
3.0 1.8
homogeneous

normalized topographic
2.5 1.6
heterogeneous
2.0 Topographic profile 1.4
amax /aout

profile
1.5 1.2

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.8

0.0 0.6
-1800 -1600 -1400 -1200 -1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
distance, d (m)

0 0.5 1 km
C1
500 m NW
fractured calcarenites (435ms.l.m.)
calcarenites
sandstones
clayey marls SE
250
conglomerates & sands

varicolour clay shales

0

(b)
3.0 3.5
homogenous

normalized topographic
2.5 heterogeneous 3.0
topographic profile
2.0 2.5
amax/aout

profile
1.5 2.0

1.0 1.5

0.5 1.0

0.0 0.5
-1600 -1400 -1200 -1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

distance, d (m)
0 0.5 1 km
C2
500m
(435m s.l.m.)

SW NE
250

0
Figure 8. Horizontal peak acceleration profiles along NW-SE (a) and SW-NE (b) sections, for the heterogeneous
and equivalent homogeneous models.

4
SE-NW homogeneous
SE-NW heterogeneous

3
SW-NE homogeneous
SW-NE heterogeneous 4 COMPARISON WITH EC8 PROVISIONS

The topographic amplification factors derived from

Paolucci, 2002
TAF

2
numerical and analytical studies available in
1 literature were compiled and analysed by Pagliaroli
et al. (2006). The gathered data, referred to the crest
0
Bray, 2007
of the topographic features, are displayed in Fig. 10.
0.1 1 10 In particular, the variation of the topographic
frequency, f (Hz) amplification factors versus the shape ratio H/L is
Figure 9. TAF computed at the crest of sections NW-SE and SW- shown in Figg. 10a and 10b in terms of horizontal
NE, for the heterogeneous and equivalent homogeneous models. peak acceleration and peak spectral values,
respectively. It is apparent from the figures that
spectral amplification data are more limited and
scattered (Fig. 10b). Linear regression analyses of
the data was carried out and the resulting best trends
are plotted in Fig. 10 as dashed lines. Fig. 10a also
reports with a solid line the analytical solution by
Sanchez-Sesma (1990) for a triangular shaped ridge
subjected to incident SH waves, which satisfactory
approximates the whole set of data. Note that the
topographic amplification factors ST suggested by
EC8, for ridges with crest width significantly less
than the base width, fall at the lower bound of the
literature data.
Figure 10. Topographic amplification as a function of shape
ratio H/L in terms of (a) horizontal peak acceleration and (b)
spectral values.
For comparison, Fig. 10 also reports the topographic
amplification factors obtained in this study at the
crest of the cliffs, for the heterogeneous models. In
Fig. 10a these data are located in correspondence of
the average literature trends (and therefore well
above those specified by EC8), with the exception of
the amplification computed on the SW-NE section
of Gerace cliff. The topographic amplification
factors ST obtained for the Nicastro hill are about
25% and 35% higher than the EC8 recommended
values for section 1-1 and 2-2, respectively;
analogously, ST is 35% higher than EC8
recommendations for the SW-NE section of Gerace
cliff. The underestimation provided by the EC8
specifications is even greater, if the comparison is
made in terms of spectral values (Fig. 10b).
5 CONCLUSIONS
Seismic amplification of ground motion due to
topographic effects was investigated through
numerical analyses carried out on two cliffs located
in Southern Italy (Gerace and Nicastro). These
effects were estimated via the 2D over 1D ratio of
ground motion parameters, namely amax and Fourier
spectra.
The two cliffs are characterized by different
geometric configurations, with Gerace cliff having
higher dimensions than the Nicastro hill. The
mechanical properties are also quite different:
Nicastro cliff is essentially constituted by rocky
materials with an average shear wave velocity
VS=1200 m/s, while Gerace cliff is formed by a
succession of soft rocks and soils with an average
VS=675 m/s.
These geometric and mechanical differences lead
to different physical phenomena responsible for
topographic site effects. In the case of Nicastro, the
predominant incident wavelengths are comparable
with the base width of the cliff, thus resulting in a
2D resonance with an amplification increasing from
the toe towards the crest. In the case of Gerace, the
incident wavelengths are significantly smaller than
the base width; therefore focusing and interaction
between direct and diffracted waves, shown by
enhanced fluctuations of ground motion surface
profiles, are probably responsible for topographic
effects.
In both sites, the topographic amplification
factors calculated for the heterogeneous models are
higher than those obtained for the homogeneous
analyses, especially for the Nicastro cliff. This
behavior can be attributed to the more complex
wavefield which develops in an heterogeneous
medium. Moreover, this comparison between
homogeneous and heterogeneous subsoils
highlighted the capability of TAF function to capture
the main features of the topographic amplification,
i.e. the frequency range in which it occurs and its
magnitude.
From a quantitative point of view, computed
amplification factors are generally higher than those
suggested by EC8, up to 35% in terms of amax. This
underestimation is even greater, if the comparison is
made in terms of spectral values. This happens
because the topographic amplification in frequency
domain is band-limited, being concentrated around
frequency values depending on the physical
phenomena involved.
 Therefore, a more realistic topographic
amplification factor should be defined as a
frequency-dependent parameter. However, because
of the inherent difficulties in generalizing the effects
of topography due to the several and complex
associated physical phenomena, the definition of a
related spectrum seems premature. In this respect,
significant improvements might be obtained with
experimental data, that can be extremely helpful to
validate predicted topographic amplification factors.
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