(IMechE Conference) M. J. Moore-Micro-turbine Generators-Wiley (2002)

Micro-turbine Generators
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Micro-turbine Generators
Edited by
M J Moore
Professional
Engineering
Publishing
Published by Professional Engineering Publishing,

Bury St Edmunds and London, UK.
First Published 2002
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© 2002 The Institution of Mechanical Engineers, unless otherwise stated.
ISBN 1 86058 391 1
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The Publishers are not responsible for any statement made in this publication. Data, discussion, and conclusions
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Contents
About the Editor ix
Foreword xi
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Micro-turbine Generators

A Bullin 1
Chapter 2 Micro-turbine Generators - Next Generation

S L Hamilton 21
Chapter 3 Analysis of Micro- and Mini-turbine Competitive and Supply

Markets in Europe
T Shane 27
Chapter 4 Future Potential Developments of Micro-turbine Generators -

Hybrid Cycles and Tri-generation
E Macchi and S Campanari 43
Chapter 5 Design Reliability of Micro-turbines

I J Stares and Q J Mabbutt 67
Chapter 6 Field Experience with Micro-turbines in Canada

R Brandon 73
Chapter 7 Design Problems in Micro-turbine Generators

K R Pullen, R Martinez-Botas, and K Buffard 85
Chapter 8 Tip-leakage Flow: A Comparison between Axial and

Radial Turbines
R Dambach, H P Hodson, and I Huntsman 97
Index 109
About the Editor
Michael Moore, a former Editor of the IMechE Journal of Power and Energy, was employed
for many years in the Research Division of the Central Electricity Generation Board. As Head
of Engineering Science Division and Programme Manager for Turbine Plant Research, he
gained wide experience of power station plant. In 1989, he became Commercial Development
Manager in National Power before retiring to become an independent consultant. Michael
Moore is the author of 25 papers and editor of two books on turbine and condenser plan
design.
Foreword
Since the introduction of electricity supply systems and distribution by a grid network the
economies of scale have been recognized. Generating plant have become progressively larger
culminating in unit outputs of 1300 MW from nuclear and even some fossil-fuelled plant. The
relatively recent availability of natural gas at economic prices has led to the development of
extremely large gas turbines in combined cycle generating at thermal efficiencies of up to 60
per cent. It is therefore surprising that a niche market has appeared for micro-turbine
generators (MTGs) with output power of 20-500 kW.
Their appearance on the generation scene has been made possible by the development of their
component parts. Tiny radial compressor and turbines are notoriously inefficient and prone to
excessive tip leakage. Modern precision manufacturing techniques and design methods using
computational fluid mechanics (CFD) has substantially improved their performance. High-
speed permanent magnet alternators and bearing systems have made possible the direct drive
arrangements, which remove the cost and complexity of gearboxes. Lastly, but most
importantly, modern, solid-state, power electronics has enabled the potentially unsteady kHz
output to be converted to a highly stable voltage at grid frequency.
Disadvantages remain. Even with exhaust gas heat recuperators, these small units achieve
only some 30 per cent thermal efficiency. Turbine entry temperatures, the key to gas turbine
efficiency, have limited development potential due to the difficulties of cooling such tiny
components. With this relatively high fuel consumption how can these devices penetrate the
market?
While the introduction of MTGs is in its early stages, their relative simplicity makes them
suitable for mass production with correspondingly low first costs. Where electricity is in short
supply, and grid strengthening is expensive and delayed, the advantage of such units as
distributed generation has been recognized. MTGs obviously have a role on remote oil rigs
where fuel is available and no grid connection is feasible. Combined heat and power (CHP)
projects are also potential applications and, again more recently, back-up power for computer,
internet, and IT installations benefit from the high quality supply from the power conditioning
units.
Their competitors are reciprocating gas engines and generators and the fuel cell. The former,
it is claimed, require more maintenance, and the latter is more complex and may be less
reliable. Looking ahead, the combination of MTGs and fuel cells could raise overall
generating efficiency to 60 per cent or higher.
The emergence of MTG technology prompted the IMechE to hold a Seminar in London,
December 2000, to introduce the concept. Since then the papers from the seminar have been
up-dated and are reproduced in this volume. They cover the field from the general
arrangement of components, the main design problems, the market envisaged, operating
experience to date, the fluid mechanics of small turbines, and the thermodynamic cycles for
their future application. I hope you find the volume a useful introduction to the subject.
M J Moore
Editor
1
An Introduction to Micro-turbine
Generators
A Bullin
Abstract
This Chapter identifies the main elements of a micro-turbine generator and the key enabling
technology. The elements include the micro-turbine engine, turbo alternator, recuperator,
power conditioner, and gas boost compressor. Features, advantages, and benefits of each
element, as preferred by Bowman Power Systems Limited, are described and alternative
solutions are discussed. The features and benefits of a micro-turbine cogeneration system are
presented and described.
1.1 Introduction
The following is a brief introduction to micro-turbine technology.
Micro-turbine generators (MTGs) are based on five key areas of technology: micro-turbine
engines running on liquid or gas fuel; turbo alternators to produce electrical power;
recuperators (heat exchangers) to achieve high engine efficiency; power conditioners to
convert the power to meet customer needs; and gas boost compressors to provide natural gas
fuel at an appropriate pressure.
There are various approaches to these areas of technology, but this Chapter concentrates on
the Bowman solution to the design challenges, although alternative solutions are mentioned
and discussed.
Development of micro-turbine and associated enabling technology has been market led; the
driving force being the customer need for competitively priced distributed power solutions
and the ease of installation and use of the equipment.
2 Micro-turbine Generators
1.1.1 Micro-turbine engines

These very small, high-speed, gas turbine engines are typically of radial design, closer in
concept to low-cost turbochargers than the more complex and costly axial designs of large
industrial gas turbines or power plants derived from aero engines. Conservative operating
temperatures eliminate the need to use high-cost sophisticated materials, which together with
simplicity of design is conducive to low cost when produced in volume.
In comparison with reciprocating engines, micro-turbine engines incur lower maintenance

costs, produce lower vibration and lower emissions, and are more compact.
Key features of Bowman micro-turbine engines are:
• single-stage centrifugal compressor;

• low emission combustor;
• single-stage radial turbine;
• pressure ratio typically about 4:1;
• single-shaft, twin bearings.
1.1.2 Turbo alternators

A conventional, small, gas turbine generator set consists of a high-speed turbine, operating at
say 50 000 r/min, coupled to a low-speed electrical machine (alternator), typically operating at
3000 r/min, through a reduction gearbox. However, the power output and size of an electrical
machine is proportional to speed. Consequently, if the electrical machine is run at turbine
speed it is so small that it can be integrated into the engine on the same shaft as the turbo
machinery forming a compact high-speed alternator, referred to as a high-speed generator or
turbo alternator. The gearbox is no longer required and the alternator also acts as a starter
motor to further reduce the size of the generator set.
Key features of the Bowman turbo alternator are:
• samarian cobalt, permanent magnet rotor integrated into the micro-turbine (mono rotor
design);
• carbon-fibre containment sleeve;
• very high efficiency (97.5 per cent).
The 'micro-turbine industry' definition of an MTG is where a high-speed generator running at

turbine speed is integrated on to a single or multi-shaft gas turbine engine system.
The primary power range for this turbo alternator technology is 25-500 kW. However, for
certain applications it is expected to be scaleable down to a few kW and possibly up to a few
MW.
Initial systems released to the market place cover the range 25-100 kW, with manufacturers
planning systems up to 500 kW for later development.
A typical micro-turbine general arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.1.

An Introduction to Micro-turbine Generators 3
Fig. 1.1 Turbogen cross section
1.1.3 Recuperators
Durable heat exchangers of high effectivity and low cost are needed to increase the efficiency
of gas turbines to the levels needed to compete with reciprocating engine-based power
generation systems. The function of these heat exchangers is to extract heat from the gas
turbine exhaust gases in order to preheat the air used in the combustion process, and thereby
reduce the amount of fuel used to reach operating temperature.
The Bowman recuperator is a primary surface type, manufactured from stainless steel for long
life. With an effectivity of about 90 per cent, the fuel consumption of the micro-turbine
engine is approximately halved, doubling the MTG efficiency from 15 per cent to about 30
per cent.
1.1.4 Power conditioners

The electrical output frequency of a turbo alternator is typically 1000-3000 Hz and must, in
most cases, be converted to a 50 or 60 Hz useable output. A microprocessor controlled power
conditioner carries out the frequency conversion in addition to other power conditioning and
utility connection functions, to provide electrical power of appropriate quality and features.
The power conditioner controls the output frequency independently of turbine speed and
facilitates the variation of speed with load to reduce fuel consumption.
The power conditioner provides the functionality to allow the MTG to operate in parallel with
the utility supply in various modes, or as a stand-alone system. Integrated engine control and
management capability, together with remote control and monitoring, is either a further
feature of this module or is provided by means of separate modules.
1.1.5 Gas boost compressors

Natural gas is the fuel of choice for stationary power plant. Pipeline gas is usually supplied to
small users at low pressure, typically less than 1 psi. An MTG requires gas at 60-80 psi;
therefore an efficient, low-cost, durable, gas boost compressor is needed.
Suitable technology is being developed in association with experienced air and refrigeration
compressor manufacturing companies and commercially acceptable units are available from
two suppliers subject to completion of certification. It is thought that more suppliers will offer
product as the MTG industry need grows.
1.2 Bowman Technology

1.2.1 Micro-turbine engines
These first generation, very small, high-speed, gas turbine engines are simple radial designs,
and as stated earlier, they are closer in concept to low-cost turbochargers than the more
complex and costly axial designs of large industrial engines, which are often derived from
aero engines.
A bearing system is required to support the high-speed rotating shaft; the bearing system also
has to oppose the axial forces generated by the aerodynamic load.
Any contacting/rolling element bearing will be life limited due to the contact forces the
bearing is exposed to; for a system with an installed life of circa five years between major
engine overhauls, contacting bearings should be avoided if possible.
There has been experimentation with gas turbines in the power ranges of 25-400 kW for
around 50 years. The earlier developers of engines in these power ranges include Rover,
Austin, Ford, GM, and Chrysler, all being automotive biased. These engines all used
reduction gearboxes and could not meet the efficiencies and manufacturing costs achieved by
reciprocating engines at the time, where a large component of the cost was the reduction
gearbox.
Although this type of technology has excelled in auxiliary power unit (APU) applications in
the aerospace industry, the production volumes have never been high. Typically, total
production numbers for aircraft APU's will be less than 10 000 units over 10 years, i.e. circa
1000 units per year. These engines are typically life limited to circa 10 000 hours, which is
not suitable for cogeneration and prime power application requirements and they are
expensive due to the aerospace quality production systems and accessories used, and their low
production volumes.
Micro-turbine production is benefiting from the technologies developed for automotive

turbocharger applications, where the worldwide production of these devices exceeds
50 000 000 units a year (KKK, Garret, IHI, Sultzer et al.).
The enabling technologies for micro-turbine systems has matured over recent years, becoming
more accessible and cost competitive. These include the electronics for power conditioning,
high-speed alternator, analysis and design of high-efficiency radial turbomachinery, and low-
cost production techniques of radial turbo machinery components.
The primary objectives of the initial MTG design are that the engine should be low cost,
durable, and of reasonable efficiency. There is little difference in the materials selected and
the manufacturing processes for the manufactured engine components used by the major
micro-turbine engine suppliers. One of the main differences in the alternative design concepts
is in the type of bearing system used in the machines.
It is widely accepted that the Capstone Turbine Company air bearing technology has
significant technical advantages, such as lower bearing losses than with oil lubrication and the
elimination of the oil system components. It is fair to say that in some quarters this is
considered to be current state of the art. However, there are successful alternative designs that
make use of a variety of oil-lubricated bearings to support the rotating element.
Bowman experience is that the use of an inboard, oil-lubricated, tilting pad bearing provides
long and trouble free life, while the alternatively used oil-lubricated plain journal bearing at
this location suffers high losses, and rolling element bearings will provide insufficient life.
The second generation engines will possibly use active magnetic bearings, which offer
advantages over air bearings in that the axial clearance of the compressor can be actively
controlled during operation to maximize the engine efficiency, and the bearing control system
can be used for real-time condition monitoring.
A major benefit of micro-turbines is the low emissions (NOX, CO) compared with
conventional reciprocating engines. The combustor design is critical to achieve low
emissions. The best emission values achieved by any micro-turbine manufacturer to date are
less than 10 ppm NOX, on gaseous fuels. No company is currently claiming better than 25
ppm NOX on liquid fuels.
Catalytic combustion is an alternative to conventional combustion and the progress of this

technology will be closely monitored over the next few years to determine its suitability for
use in MTG's. It is known that experimental machines using catalytic combustion have been
developed to prototype stage in USA and Japan although there has been no commercial
release of such machines.
1.2.2 Turbo alternator

1.2.2.1 Introduction
The high-speed turbo alternator is a key element in MTG technology. Over a period of seven
years, Bowman has worked with a number of different electrical machine companies, and
individual consultants worldwide, and has built on that experience, aiming always to
internalize its design capability and establish an independent expertise. These machines are
highly stressed electromagnetically, mechanically, and thermally, and complex in their detail;
there is much that needs to be understood before they can be designed with confidence for
long working life.
On the manufacturing side, particularly in the areas of core assembly and winding, magnet
provision and bonding, and sleeve construction and pre-stressing, there are a small number of
capable suppliers with the necessary capability and expertise to provide components and sub-
assemblies to the quality required. Several of these have come from the aerospace industry.
Bowman possesses a deep understanding of machine topologies alternative to the

synchronous permanent-magnet (PM) drum type. It has for a long time had an association
with Southampton University, cemented by a key dual appointment, and benefits in many
ways: e.g. finite element studies of machine configurations, modelling of complete electrical
system performance, development of proprietorial design software, a research programme in
certain types of rotor power loss, micro-structure examination of material sections, etc.
In terms of specific output (power or torque per unit volume or per unit mass) and efficiency,
the high-speed generator is far in advance of the conventional synchronous machine of similar
power output. Designs are currently being manufactured and supplied in quantity, at powers
from 40 to 165 kW, with speeds ranging from 105 000 r/min to 55 000 r/min. Confidence in
the technology is sufficiently high that machines have been designed at 300 kW, 500 kW, and
at more than 1 MW.
The values of power density and efficiency achieved in high-speed alternators are now both
sufficiently high that there is really little pressure - and also, it must be said, little scope - for
further improvement. The electro-magnetically active parts of an alternator providing
165 kW, for example, corresponding very roughly to the average power demand of some
35 domestic houses, pack into an overall length of about 270 mm and a diameter of about
120 mm, and produce little more waste heat (as loss power) than a two-bar electric fire.
Furthermore, because the machine is so small, there are typically no uncontrollable problems
due to resonant vibrations of the complete shaft system within the rated speed range;
centrifugal force is not so high as to prevent the rotor being held safely together by a
containing sleeve; and bearings are not made excessively large (and expensive) by an unduly
heavy supported rotor mass.
Figure 1.2 illustrates a 50 kW high-speed alternator rotor mounted with the gas turbine
compressor and turbine wheels and in the foreground an 110 kW high-speed alternator rotor.
(Length of this rotor is about 250 mm.)
Fig. 1.2 Turbo alternator

1.2.2.2 Technology comparison

1.2.2.2.1 PM drum-type heteropolar
The heteropolar drum-type machine, incorporating rare-earth permanent magnets, with
electro-magnetic stator-rotor interaction across a radial gap, is the industry preferred topology
having been adopted by most leading manufacturers.
It is known that as power rating increases, the optimum design speed for the
turbine/compressor necessarily reduces - principal constraints being the internal mechanical
stress due to centrifugal force and system dynamic considerations. Very similar effects apply
in the drum-type PM machine, and all design experience has shown that there is a good match
between the optimum speed of turbomachinery and alternator, which therefore mount
naturally together on a common shaft. This is true, in particular for the single-shaft
arrangement, in which the power turbine, and therefore alternator, rotate at the full speed of
that shaft. It follows that the alternator is also easily designed for the alternative, dual-shaft, or
free power turbine arrangement, in which the power turbine runs at an independent speed,
lower than that of the main turbine shaft.
1.2.2.2.2 PM disc-type
This alternative topology has it's champions and comprises a multiplicity of interleaved
stator-rotor discs, with axial gaps. The Bowman view is that the disc approach is limited in
speed and sub-optimal in other performance parameters. The disc-type alternator finds
practical application in combination with a free power turbine, as described above, rather than
in higher speed, and cheaper, single-shaft arrangements. Interleaving discs are awkward for
assembly/disassembly, and the structure is not cheap to manufacture. Magnet surfaces are
necessarily exposed or thinly covered, with risk of corrosion, disintegration, and dispersal of
this brittle material within the machine over time, whereas in the drum structure the magnets
are completely and tightly enclosed.
1.2.2.2.3 Bowman design features

Winding configuration
The preferred winding arrangement is not simple three-phase, but double three-phase with
two sets of three-phase windings lying in adjacent slots. The effect of this is greatly to reduce
important components of internal stray power loss. Side effects that must be accepted are a
doubling of the number of connection leads and a need for two (each half-rated) external
rectifier bridges instead of one.
Rotor structure and retaining sleeve

A pre-stressed retaining sleeve, to hold the magnets on to the steel hub against centrifugal
force, is essential. Preferred material is carbon fibre which offers, at present, the highest
lightness-strength combination of any established technology and is electrically inert.
Bowman conclusion, based on some six years experience, is that with proper control of sleeve
manufacture and assembly, and attention to simple but critical mechanical features, carbon-
fibre technology is the best currently available.
Alternative designs using inconel and titanium sleeves are available, and are used by other
manufacturers.
Thermal design and cooling

The standard cooling arrangement is an external cooling jacket to the stator core, with water
or oil coolant, and an internally forced flow of cooling air, typically at a few litres per second
flow rate. Inlet coolant temperatures are 70 °C as standard, allowing ample headroom for
remote heat exchange between the hottest design ambient of 45 °C and the inlets. Alternative
designs for external air-cooling are available, though possibly with some penalty on specific
output. Internal hot-spot temperatures are kept below about 160 °C, compatible with modern
wire enamels that offer good resistance to high rates of change of voltage.
Dynamics
To enable successful designs to be completed in a timely and cost-effective manner, it is
essential that capabilities for computer-modelling, mechanical, stress distribution and
dynamic vibration/resonance/unbalance effects are available. Dynamic studies of the
complete turbine/compressor/alternator assembly, and accurate modelling of bearing and
blade contributions to stiffness and damping, form an important component of necessary
technical expertise.
Design software
Over the years, Bowman has brought together its accumulated expertise in PM alternator and
motor design, and has codified this in a proprietary, advanced-software design package. This
is a highly supportive application, which guides the user in the process of entering raw data,
preventing for example the insertion of incompatible groups of dimensions; defines the
precise meaning and units of each displayed item; then draws a cross-section of the machine
and computes a large field of electrical, mechanical, and thermal performance parameters.
Alternative materials may be selected for the laminated core, retaining sleeve, conductor,
coolants, etc.
The work of developing this software has been substantial, and was undertaken because no
available software could be found that offered either sufficient accuracy or versatility.
The software has not only greatly accelerated the design process, but because so many cases
can be readily studied, it enables far more detailed exploration of possibilities and the
development of greater intuitive appreciation of parameter sensitivities in design.
1.2.3 Recuperators
Durable heat exchangers of high effectivity and low cost are needed to increase the efficiency
of gas turbines to the levels needed to compete with reciprocating engine-based power
generation systems. Their function is to extract heat from the gas-turbine exhaust gases in
order to preheat the air used in the combustion process and thereby reduce the amount of fuel
used to reach operating temperature.
The current Bowman recuperator is a 'primary surface recuperator' (PSR), manufactured

from stainless steel for long life. With an effectivity of about 90 per cent, the fuel
consumption of the micro-turbine engine is approximately halved, which doubles the MTG
efficiency from 15 per cent simple cycle to about 30 per cent recuperated cycle. (Refer to
Fig. 1.3.)
Fig. 1.3 Cycle arrangements
The majority of micro-turbine manufacturers consider stainless steel primary surface

recuperators and users to be the current state of the art, although there are users of an
alternative recuperator design utilizing brazed plate and fin technology.
hi the PSR design the plates forming the air and gas paths are not bonded (brazed) together.
They are welded around the edge, but are clamped together thus allowing movement due to
thermal expansion without the high stresses being transmitted to the joints as in the brazed
structure. This is considered to give potentially higher reliability and durability due to the
lower potential for thermal stress failure and consequential leakage. (Refer to Fig. 1.4.)
Fig. 1.4 Recuperators

A further difference is in the use of annular or box arrangements to integrate the recuperator
to the gas turbine engine.
• 'Annular' is a concentric recuperator that wraps around the engine and generally has all of
the interconnection pipe work as part of the casing.
• 'Box' is a cuboid shape that sits outside the engine envelope and requires interface
connection pipework.
There are pros and cons for both types of technology as detailed below.
Parameter Box Annular

Initial development cost Lower Higher
Integration cost Higher Lower
Thermal soak back to No issue Potential issue requiring
engine core after prolonged shut down
prolonged operation phase to cool recuperator
Package thermal Higher radiated losses requiring Lower radiated losses
management more thermal insulation and requiring less thermal
hence higher cost insulation and lower cost
Package assembly time Higher Lower
Interface issues Three more interfaces with engine All recuperator interfaces
and recuperator to consider at are within the engine,
package level - engine casings therefore only one
have to be manufactured to interface (exhaust)
reasonable tolerances to required to be considered
guarantee interchangeability at package level
Bowman has considered all of the above interface issues at the recuperator design stage, and a
cuboid recuperator, close coupled to the engine, is currently their preferred approach. An
example of a cuboid recuperator close coupled to the engine is shown in Fig. 1.5.
Fig. 1.5 Cuboid recuperator

1.2.4 Power conditioner

1.2.4.1 Function of the power conditioning system
The power conditioning system converts the unregulated, variable-frequency output of the
alternator output into a high-quality, regulated waveform and manages the interaction with
any applied load both in stand alone (island) and utility connect modes. The waveform quality
surpasses general utility standards and is suitable for supplying sensitive equipment.
The system meets domestic conducted emission levels defined in EN 50081-1 (1) (the most
stringent limit defined in this standard). Output voltage and frequency are software adjustable
between 380—480 volts AC and 50-60 Hz, allowing the system to be easily configured for
operation in any country. The system can be selected to operate as a stand-alone power source
(island mode) and in parallel with a site utility supply (utility mode). Emergency power and
black start functions are also possible.
1.2.4.2 Power controller

The overall power conversion process is managed by an advanced microprocessor-based
control system.
Unique control algorithms and active filtering techniques are utilized, which allows the
system to maintain voltage distortion levels under three per cent even with severe non-linear
loads (crest factor of three). This electrical waveform quality exceeds 'top of the range'
uninterruptible power system (UPS) specifications, and is superior to the utility quality at
many sites which often exceed five per cent total harmonic distortion (THD). The control
system optimizes the capability of the power conditioning electronics and achieves a robust
and tolerant supply, which surpasses the performance available from many UPS systems.
An intelligent fault-clearing feature permits the supply of sufficient, short duration, overload
current to operate appropriately sized circuit breakers. This feature prevents interruption to the
remaining site load in the event of localized load faults.
Other real-time intelligent algorithms are used to cope with a variety of overload conditions
commonly experienced in island mode. These include de-offset control, and current limiting,
which optimize transformer energization and motor start capability.
Utility mode protection includes over and under voltage, over and under frequency, incorrect
phasing, and loss of supply. In this mode, the utilities network is protected from a reverse
power situation if a fault occurs on their network.
1.2.4.3 Island mode operation

Island mode operation allows the generator system to supply a load without a site utility
supply present. Typical applications include supply of electrical power in isolated locations,
mobile applications, and emergency power in the event of utility failure.
The output waveform is maintained within the limits defined by the computer and business
equipment manufacturers (CBEMA) curve during 100 per cent load application or rejection.
1.2.4.4 Utility mode operation

The system is capable of operating in parallel with the utility. This mode is particularly cost
effective as a site's base load can be efficiently supplied while planned long- or short-term
overload requirements are supported by the utility.
1.2.4.4.1 Export mode

The system can export power to the utility and meets current harmonic limits defined in
specification IEEE 519 (2).
1.2.4.4.2 Load following mode

A load following mode allows on-site power generation to be balanced with site demand
resulting in zero power flow to, and in some cases from, the utility. This maximizes the
benefits of embedded generation where no agreement has been made with the utility on
purchase terms for exported power, i.e. the optimum amount of low-cost, embedded
generation is always produced without consuming additional fuel to export power to the
utility.
1.2.4.4.3 Peak shaving mode

The system can be operated just during times of peak demand, which reduces the tariff paid
by the customer to the utility as this is usually set by his maximum site demand.
1.2.4.5 Dual mode switching

Switching between island mode and utility mode operation is available by means of a
proprietary switching unit. This enables the MTG to serve dual functions of prime power and
stand-by power generator from one rather than two systems.
1.2.4.6 Power conditioning system elements

The power conditioning system comprizes of a solid-state power converter assembly, power
filter, power controller, and management of the utility interconnection.
A typical system is shown in Fig. 1.6.
» High efficiency
* IGBT technology
* Solid state high reliability
» Air cooled
» Programmable voltage/current/
frequency
* Voltage (L-L rms.) 400-480, 3 phase,
50-60 Hz
* Integrated gas turbine start facility
Fig. 1.6 Power conditioning units (PCUs)

The solid-state power converter consists of rectification, power boost, and inverter stages.
Efficient power conversion and effective thermal management allow full power operation
over a wide temperature range.
Bowman has developed and patented an innovative cooling technique that achieves very
effective thermal transfer at low cost.
The power electronic assembly synthesises the high quality output waveform using a pulse
width modulating (PWM) switching technique. The power filter efficiently removes
modulation frequency components from the output waveform. Advanced materials are used
for the filter elements in order to minimize power loss and permit operation with severe
electrical loads.
1.2.5 Engine management and control

Bowman has over five years experience developing controllers for a variety of micro-turbine
engines. The features of the engine controller include:
• automated start sequence;

• battery or utility start;
• gas or liquid fuel algorithms;
• recuperated or simple cycle engines;
• fault detection and protection;
• advanced user interface.
The design is fully digital so it has the flexibility to be adapted for a range of engine types and
sizes. Each type of engine has its own fuel system, starting characteristics, running speed, etc.,
and all these variations are accommodated within the same controller.
Digital control also gives precise and repeatable control of engine speed and load transients.
Where appropriate the engine controller can also interact with other parts of the generator
control system, for example, by asking for the power output to be reduced if the engine is
running near its maximum permitted temperature.
All the engine systems are monitored to verify good health and correct operation. Critical
systems (oil pressure and engine speed) also have additional, software independent, backup
monitoring. This data may be accessed both locally and remotely, and is used extensively by
the technical and support teams, and is also available to the customer. Special software tools
have been developed in-house to assist with the development and proving of engines, starting
algorithms and control algorithms.
Advanced controls already developed include:
• constant exhaust gas temperature (EGT) running for optimum efficiency and emissions;
• variable speed operation to optimize efficiency and emissions at part load;
• bypass valve control for variable heat output;
• gas safety monitor.
1.2.6 Gas boost compressors (GBC)

The GBC must deliver natural gas at a pressure higher than the air pressure in the MTG's
combustion chamber. For example, if the micro-turbine engine's air pressure ratio is 4.5, then
the GBC should be capable of a pressure ratio slightly over 4.5. Therefore, a design pressure
ratio of 5 is assigned to the GBC.
The efficiency of the GBC impacts the MTG's overall efficiency. An increasing GBC power
draw lowers the turbo generator efficiency. The MTG's efficiency drops sharply when the
GBC efficiency fails below 0.20, therefore, to enable it to efficiently generate electricity at, or
about, the target of 30 per cent the GBC system efficiency must remain well above 0.20.
From calculations and test verification, it has been determined that about 2.5 per cent of the
power output of a 50 kW MTG is used to compress the fuel gas. This does not take into
account the motor or coupling efficiency. The electrical-to-mechanical efficiency of a 5 hp
motor is about 0.80 and when this is taken into account, the power requirement of the
compressor system is about 1.5 kW.
The MTG market will include power users, such as office buildings, apartment complexes,
and small businesses, where minimal involvement in the power source is a prerequisite. A
design requiring minimal maintenance is consequently needed if the MTG is to be well
received.
Bowman has evaluated two types of compressor for use with its range of MTGs. These are
the sliding vane and the scroll types of compressor; the merits of each are discussed as
follows. A typical sliding vane packaged unit is shown in Fig. 1.7.
» High reliability
» High efficiency
* Self contained package
* Compact
* Low cost
* Low oil consumption
* Low maintenance
* Acoustic attenuation
* Easy installation
Fig. 1.7 Gas boost compressor
1.2.6.1 Sliding vane compressors

These are positive displacement compressors that operate in the following cycle:
• gas is drawn into the suction side and isolated within a chamber;
• the gas is then compressed by reducing the chamber's volume;
• gas exits the compressor through discharge ports or valves.
Sliding vane compressors consist of a rotor, vanes, and a cylindrical easing. The rotor is
mounted eccentrically in the casing. Machined slots in the rotor guide flat, rectangular vanes.
These vanes are free to move in the slots and are held against the casing by centrifugal force.
As the rotor turns (typically at 250-1200 r/min), pockets, which increase then decrease in
volume, are created. Gas is drawn into the expanding pocket and compresses as its volume
decreases. The cross-section of a sliding vane compressor is shown in Fig. 1.8.
Fig. 1.8 Gas boost compressor (GBC) - rotary vane type
Vane wear is the greatest maintenance concern in sliding vane compressors (not bad though in
flooded types). The vanes remain in contact with the casing as they wear, but eventually they
run the risk of becoming too short and may break causing damage to the compressor.
Sliding vane compressors are a favoured GBC option because they meet the flow rate and
pressure ratio requirements. In lubricated versions, Pr = 4 may be reached in a single stage. In
addition, the discharge is nearly pulsation free, thereby reducing or eliminating the need for
an accumulator tank.
1.2.6.2 Scroll type compressor

The compression cycle of scroll compressors is less intuitive than most other compressor
types. There are three main parts - a stationary scroll, an orbiting scroll, and a casing. Both
scrolls are identical, with one rotated 180 degrees out of phase from the other. The orbiting
scroll is attached to an eccentrically mounted shaft. This shaft orbits the moving scroll about
the stationary scroll's centre. A sectional view of a scroll compressor is shown in Fig. 1.9.
Fig. 1.9 Gas boost compressor (GBC) - scroll type
A crescent shaped cavity is formed at the outside edge of the contacting scrolls. Gas enters
this cavity through the suction port. As the moving scroll orbits the stationary scroll, the
cavity's size is reduced until it reaches the discharge port at their centre. A graphic of this
motion can be found on Copeland Corporation's web page at http://www.copeland-corp.
com/airconditioning/scrollintro.html
Scroll compressors have several advantages that enhance their potential as suitable micro-
turbine gas boost compressors:
• their volumetric and isentropic efficiencies are high — in fact, scroll efficiencies exceed
reciprocating efficiencies;
• there is only one moving part;
• they are available for small capacities;
• there is no clearance volume.
Scroll compressors are widely used in refrigeration applications (air conditioners) and have
recently been converted to air and gas compressors. Pressure ratios reach as high as eight in a
single stage, while capacities are low compared to most compressor types. These features
make them suitable for MTG applications.
1.3 Bowman cogeneration (CHP) system

The Bowman cogeneration system consists of an MTG integrated with a waste heat recovery
boiler to provide a compact, high efficiency, low emission, and vibration free system
producing heat and electrical power. The system is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.10.
Fig. 1.10 BPS Cogen System
Cogeneration (CHP) systems burning natural gas incorporate two key areas of technology:
• waste heat recovery boilers;

• chillers/refrigeration systems.
High-efficiency, stainless-steel, waste heat boilers have been designed and integrated into the
cogeneration package to enable hot water, typically at 90 °C, to be produced from the exhaust
gas stream.
It is possible to produce chilled water from the exhaust heat through the use of an absorption
chiller driven either directly from the gas turbine exhaust stream or indirectly from the hot
water from the waste heat boiler. Several of the MTG manufacturers are evaluating alternative
designs of chillers, and alternative chiller suppliers, with an aim of commercially introducing
a suitable product in 2002/3 for air conditioning applications.
In order to increase the efficiency of the hot water absorption chiller the hot water is produced
at 110 °C for this type of application.
1.4 Benefits and advantages of the Bowman 'turbogen'

cogeneration product
1.4.1 Recuperated or simple cycle configuration
The micro-turbine engine can be configured in either of the above modes to enable the
cogeneration system to best match the customers site needs.
The recuperated machine provides a heat to power ratio of about 2:1 and an overall system
efficiency of about 80 per cent. Where a site has a need for more heat, up to a heat to power
ratio of 4:1, then a simple cycle system can be installed. In this latter case, although the
electrical efficiency naturally falls, the overall system efficiency can rise to around 90 per
cent. The use of a simple cycle system can be particularly advantageous if it enables a site
boiler to be decommissioned or eliminates the need for a new purchase.
1.4.2 Environmentally friendly

The Bowman cogeneration system is environmentally friendly in that the NOx emissions
from the machine, when operating on natural gas, are no more than 20 ppm by volume. It is
confidently predicted that this level will fall to single digit values within the next one to two
years and in fact some machines are already achieving this value.
The design target for diesel and kerosene fuels is to achieve below 25 ppm NOx although this is
a much more challenging target due to the more difficult atomization and combustion process of
these fuels, particularly when considering the low cost requirement of the fuel system.
1.4.3 Fuel flexibility

Natural gas is the primary fuel of choice although the need to burn propane fuel, light diesel,
and kerosene is essential to gain penetration of certain markets. It is now possible to select
engines to reliably achieve effective combustion of all these fuels.
To expand the market for the micro-turbine product then capability to bum digester gas,
landfill gas, coal seam gas, flare gas, and low calorific value manufactured gas, e.g. wood
gasification gas, is necessary. Progress is being made in the development of suitable
combustors to enable all these gases to be burned economically and with low exhaust gas
emissions. There are several pilot project schemes underway to address the combustion of all
these gaseous fuels.
1.4.4 Simplicity of design and operation

There are few moving parts in an MTG system, in some cases only the single rotating
element. This naturally leads to a highly reliable system with limited needs for routine
maintenance and low consumption of spare parts. When evaluating through life costs of a
system then these benefits and advantages are very significant in comparison with
reciprocating engine systems.
A further benefit of this simplicity of design is the tremendous potential for low-cost volume
manufacture. The parts count is dramatically reduced in comparison with alternative
technologies.
1.4.5 Modular design of compact size and low weight

The factory assembled and tested 'package' system is easy to install, it's compact size and
low weight being easily handled and requiring little specialist skills to install correctly. The
civil engineering costs are inexpensive due to the small footprint of the system and also due to
the fact that the machine is virtually vibration free. These features not only eliminate the need
for a costly foundation block but also eliminate the need for expensive isolation devices to
prevent the transmission of structure borne noise and vibration.
The standard modular approach to the package design allows the addition (or removal) of
further systems as an initial site load grows or reduces. Therefore the standard range of
packaged systems allows loads of 30 kW to 1000 kW to be effectively addressed both
technically and commercially and also in a timely convenient manner.
1.4.6 Modern electrical design

The use of advanced insulated gate bi-polar technology (IGBT), together with modern
flexible software algorithms, allow the electrical output from the system to be selectable
between 380 and 480 volts AC, 3 phase, 50 or 60 Hz frequency to match most of the worlds
low voltage systems.
The standard system has built-in protection for under and over voltage, under and over
frequency, and reverse power, which are normally required by the utility to allow permission
for parallel operation.
The widespread dispersal and need for cost effective despatch and maintenance necessitates
the supply of a remote control and monitoring system. All Bowman cogeneration systems are
capable of being so monitored and the Customer Support Department uses this tool as a key
element in the provision of a range of support programmes tailored to suit the specific needs
of it's wide range of customers.
1.5 Conclusions
The micro-turbine industry is rapidly becoming established although the projected high
volume manufacturing levels are yet to be realized.
There are in 2002, four or five companies making commercial shipment of systems
worldwide. Systems are available from approximately 30 kW to 150 kW electrical output,
suitable for operation on a variety of gaseous and liquid fuels.
The distributed power generation market (DG) is being addressed in several key 'high added
value' sectors such as cogeneration and trigeneration, Waste gas utilization, secure power, and
mobile power. As sales volumes increase then the MTG cost will reduce enabling further
more cost conscious sectors of the DG market to be addressed.
The technology is largely proven and this Chapter sought to identify and describe some of the
generic and alternative technologies in use.
There remain several significant regulatory market barriers to be crossed to facilitate

extensive market penetration by small DG systems. For example, access and connection to the
utility networks requires new standards and regulations, which recognize the new technology
and the different way of doing things. Similarly, there is currently little commercial
recognition of the low emission features and environmental benefits resulting from the use of
these systems. However, these obstacles are being addressed through trade associations and
by manufacturers, and will be overcome in due course.
Acknowledgements
To Bowman Power Systems Limited, for giving permission for this Chapter to be published
References
(1) EN 50081-1 Electromagnetic Compatibility. General Emission Standard. Residential,
Commercial and Light industry.
(2) IEEE 519 Recommended practical requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical
Power Systems.
A Bullin
Bowman Power Systems Limited, Southampton, UK
2
Micro-turbine Generators - Next

Generation
S L Hamilton
Abstract
Micro-turbine generators (MTGs) have been identified by the US Department of Energy as
one of the 27 critical technologies for the United States. It has only been in the past three
years that MTGs have become commercially available for sale to end users, utilities, and
energy service providers.
Southern California Edison (SCE) has established an MTG testing programme for
manufacturers and others to evaluate the certain performance capabilities of the turbines. The
purpose of this programme is to provide an independent, third-party, testing assessment. This
project purchased, installed, operated, and tested micro-turbines to assess their performance.
Data was collected electronically and manually.
This Chapter will discuss the next generation of MTGs.
2.1 MTGS - next generation

Recently, the US Department of Energy (DOE) has identified turbines as one of the 27 critical
technologies for the US security and prosperity. As such the DOE offers funding for research,
development, and demonstration (RD&D) for MTG and MTG component development, such
as ceramic materials.
The DOE uses three important criteria to award funding:

1. reduction of energy consumption;
2. improvement in environmental conditions, such as emissions; and
3. improvement in the overall economics of the technology.
SCE conducts a unique micro-turbine testing programme for DOE, the California Energy
Commission, and EPRI. The testing is at SCE's host site. This site is at the Combustion
Laboratory at the University of California (UCI) in Irvine, California. UCI was chosen
because of its robust advanced power programme featuring both an educational and research
facility built around energy technologies. The programme relies on the National Fuel Cell
Research Center, the world-renowned Combustion Laboratory, and UCFs
Distributed/Dispersed Energy Technologies programme and demonstration facilities,
including the development of an inverter laboratory, all housed at UCI.
SCE's testing programme began in 1996. It has tested MTGs from Capstone Turbine
Corporation and Bowman Power Systems. Until recently, no other turbines have been
available for purchase and testing under the programme, although a Honeywell MTG has
arrived for installation and testing. The programme is attempting to purchase and test MTGs
from Elliott Energy and new models from Capstone.
Our programme tests the MTGs for machine performance. It tests MTGs performance against
its manufacturer's performance claims for efficiency, emissions, and noise. MTGs are also
tested against applicable industry standards, such as power quality and/or local requirements,
such as the South Coast Air Quality Management District's air quality standards. In addition,
qualitatively assessed are the ease of MTG installation and startup, maintenance and
operation, and overall machine performance. A daily log is maintained by the testing crew to
ensure the integrity of the testing results and to record events to explain the data captured.
Testing results include:

• Starts/stops - Ideally number of planned starts and stops are equal. A variation in the
number of attempted starts without a planned stop indicates that the machine is
experiencing problems.
• Overall unit - efficiency and net power output Based on actual conditions the machine
should provide - a level of efficiency, within a small tolerance, as predicted by, and
consistent with, the derating curves provided by manufacturer.
• Operability - Subjective assessment of the machine's ease of operation, performance
reliability, and consistency, and its ease of return to operations after experiencing
operational problems.
• Emission level monitoring - Within a small tolerance, emissions are expected to be within
manufacturer's claims for NOx and CO.
• Power quality monitoring — Measures distortion individually for current and voltage. Both
voltage and current distortion should be below the IEEE 519 standards under actual
consistent conditions as described in the standard.
• Endurance testing - Is a measure of longevity of the MTG. Most have an advertised life of
40 000 hours. NREC advertises 80 000 hours.
As a part of the testing programme, SCE has established facilities at UCI that provide a 'level
testing field' for all MTGs. MTGs are equipped with data acquisition equipment to ensure
that data is captured on a real-time basis. A veteran, on-site, three-person, testing crew also
reviews the electronic data capture with manual measurements to ensure that electronic
capture is consistent with physical experience.
The testing crew activity interacts with technical staff from the manufacturers. An essential
part of the testing programme is to provide written feedback to each manufacturer, on an
Micro-turbine Generators - Next Generation 23
individual basis, about the results of the testing programme. The testing crew offers
suggestions for consideration by the manufacturer for future product enhancements.
Another important value of the testing programme is that it provides independent, third-party
information for the public on the performance of the MTGs on a consistent basis under actual
operating conditions. 'Lessons learned' offers expert advice on operating experience and
observations that can be used by the public to consider how best to use MTGs under actual
operating conditions.
2.2 The micro-turbine technology summit

To advance MTG development, the DOE sponsored the micro-turbine technology summit in
December 1998. This summit was intended to surface issues so that a thoughtful roadmap
would emerge for focused and results-oriented research, development, and demonstration
(RD&D). The DOE successfully got valuable ideas and comments to help in its efforts to
develop a RD&D programme for micro-turbines. Both policy and market-related issues were
necessarily a major part of the discussions.
The summit identified that the market for MTGs is potentially quite large but the alternatives
that are competing to serve industrial power needs will be hard to beat with today's existing
MTG technologies. Likewise the favorable attributes of fuel cells, also an emerging
technology, put lots of pressure on MTGs.
The major findings of the DOE micro-turbine summit were as follows.
• Achieving the goal of increasing the overall efficiency of micro-turbines to 40 per cent or
greater could boost the appeal of micro-turbines substantially compared with competing
technologies, such as diesel gensets.
• A number of barriers are affecting the development of marketers for small-scale power
plants, including micro-turbines, not the least of which is uncertainty about the future of
the structure of electric power markets.
• A particular issue is the interconnection of distributed generation technologies, including
micro-turbines, with the utility grid. Interconnection specifications are not standardized
and vary by utility systems across the world.
• A focused RD&D programme can be a great help in improving the prospects for micro-
turbines.
• Lower-cost, more efficient micro-turbines with known performance and proven reliability
are needed.
• RD&D to lower cost and increase the reliability of equipment for fuel processing, gas
compression, recuperation, and power electronics is also important.
• Development of advanced materials that are less costly, more durable, and capable of
operating efficiently at higher temperatures could be one of the keys to making substantial
improvements in the thermal efficiency and environmental performance of micro-turbines.
As a result of the summit referenced above, DOE and others have developed funding
solicitations to provide for future RD&D funding focused on the findings above.
Based on the findings of the summit, MTGs can be expected to increase efficiency through
improved materials. This includes technologies such as ceramics and components like more
efficient recuperators and advanced power electronics.
2.3 The next three years

The next three years will expand existing niches by adding product applications.
MTG manufacturers during the next three years will add features targeted for expanding their
entry niche markets and developing.
This period will focus on enhancing the MTG's capability in key areas that make it a broader
based product. These capabilities are as follows.
• Plug and play enhancements will add to the user-friendliness and the MTG capabilities.
Such ease of use and expanded capabilities will be advantageous for small customers who
do not employ or expect to employ, highly technical staff. These customers will require
that the MTG be installed simply and operated unattended. The MTG must be smart
enough to trouble-shoot problems and call home with problems. The MTG must be able to
configure itself given the customer's physical requirements and constraints. It should be
able to advise of future maintenance, such as cleaning filters, replacement parts, at routine
intervals.
• Fuel flexibility with dual fuel capability. MTGs will need to operate efficiently on a variety
of fuels, including natural gas, diesel, propane, digester gas, etc. Most of the manufacturers
have realized the value of multiple fuel operations and have designed, or are designing,
future models which can operate on a variety of fuels. Additionally the MTG will need to
have the capability to switch between fuel types so as to provide back-up fueling
capability. Ideally, these capabilities will be provided transparently to the customer
requiring only simple modifications, if any.
• Tight, seamless integration to the grid will be important to micro-turbines' customer
economics. MTG manufacturers are working with software/firmware providers to provide
communications and controls that easily provide the ability to aggregate and centrally
dispatch many dispersed MTGs, if used as standby, and other standby distributed
generation technologies. Small generators located in constrained parts of the grid can be
dispatched and bring needed capacity during peak demand periods when spot prices can
soar.
• Environmental issues related to MTGs surround emission and noise. MTGs are expected to
be low in NOx but even so, large central plants are catching up so MTGs will continue to
push down the level of NOx. Meanwhile, low efficiency of MTGs relative to large,
combined-cycle, central plants make reducing MTG 'green house' emissions by increasing
efficiency a required goal. Most MTG manufacturers claim noise levels in the 65—70 dBA
at 10 m. In certain locations, such as city and urban areas, this level will need to decline to
55-60 dBA. Also, the high-frequency pitch from the high-speed turbine will require
sattenuation in some locations and some applications.
Micro-turbine Generators - Next Generation 25
2.4 The next five to seven years

For the next five to seven years, MTG manufacturers will add features that expand niches and
attack similar niche opportunities.
Initial niches for MTGs are commercial customers who value increased reliability due to
significant costs related to spoilage or lost business. MTG manufacturers should look for the
same type of customer in the industrial sector. To get this larger-size customer, MTGs will
need to be ganged up into multiple-unit packages.
Another attractive niche for MTGs is the customer who uses lots of energy in their production
process and wants to benefit from managing energy price volatility. As electric industry
deregulation continues, rates will move toward 'time-of-use'. Under time-of-use pricing,
electricity is priced and sold in discrete blocks of time. During peak periods of the day, prices
can escalate. In this instance, the MTG can provide a physical hedge against rising prices.
To survive into the next decade, there must be major improvement in overall product
robustness and performance so as to grow into broad applications and secure market
acceptance.
2.5 Improvements in the next decade

The most challenging and important aspect of future MTGs will be to increase the efficiency
of the MTG to 40+ per cent without raising the capital price, cost of maintenance, or
complicating the operation of the machine. Without this efficiency improvement, MTGs will
not be able to compete with emerging fuel cells, especially given the added environmental
benefits of fuel cells with no emissions and no noise.
Bibliography
Building Operating Management, March, 2000, page 12, 'Outlook, Minipower Plants:
Microturbines Draw Interest'
'Distributed Generation: Understanding the Economies', An Arthur D. Little White Paper,
1999.
'Advanced Microturbines,' DOE's Office of Industrial Technologies, Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy, Project Fact Sheet.
Watts, J. H. 'Microturbines: A New Class of Gas Turbine Engine,' Global Gas Turbine
News, Vol. 39: 1999, No 1.
de Rouffignac, A. 'Backing Up the Grid with Microturbines,' RDI Energy Insight, December
3, 1999.
Wheat, D. 'Distributed gen enhances the grid, but can't beat central power,' POWER,
November/December 1999.
Swanekamp, R. 'Distributed generation seeks market niches,' POWER,
November/December 1999.
Hamilton, S. L. 'The Buzz is from the Micro Turbine Generators,' Deregulation Watch,
7.31.99, Vol. 2, No 14.
'Distributed and Dispersed Energy Resources, A Paradigm Shift,' NFCRC Journal,

July/August/September 1998, Vol. 1, Issue 3.
Bahl, K. P. and Hamilton, S. L. 'Microturbines Under the Microscope,' Power Gen
International Conference, New Orleans, LA, November 30—December 2, 1999.
Zimmer, M. J. 'Distributed generation offers T&D cost management,' Electric Light &
Power, February 2000, Vol. 78, No 2.
S L Hamilton
Southern California Edison, USA
) Stephanie L. Hamilton 2002

3
Analysis of Micro- and Mini-turbine

Competitive and Supply Markets in
Europe
T Shane
Abstract
This Chapter provides a summary of research and analysis of the micro- and mini-turbine
market in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa (EMEA). The methodological approach
including extensive interviewing process is described. The analysis of the results from the
study shows that the market was originally over-hyped by the suppliers, and that unit sales
have not reached those early expectations. While market potential exists, some changes in
national provisions (such as in NET A or Germany's new CHP Law) are needed to facilitate
market growth. Market competitors are focused on overcoming key challenges, such as high
kW prices to help drive the market. However, the ratio between electricity and gas prices,
demand for cooling, and the regulatory position of the energy markets will significantly affect
installation potential.
This Chapter comprises excerpts from Frost & Sullivan's most recently published analysis of
the micro- and mini-turbine market.
3.1 Methodology
The methodological approach applied to the research into the European, Middle Eastern, and
African market for micro- and mini-turbines (Report # 3966-14) followed Frost & Sullivan's
twelve-step market engineering research methodology. The primary research, analyses,
surveys, comparisons, and forecasts are based on over 100 specific interviews carried out by
experienced analysts plus the results from research undertaken for other related market
analyses.
These 100 interviews were conducted with four groups of companies, each playing an
important part in future market development.
1. Manufacturers and developers of micro- and mini-turbines and components (multiple

interviews with nine companies).
2. Packagers/distributors/component suppliers (around 60 interviews).
3. End-users (interviews with nine respondents representing a range of operators).
4. Electricity and gas utilities (around 30 interviews with Europe's most important gas and
electricity utility companies).
The results also draw on several years of on-going discussions with companies involved in
supplying generating sets and components in Europe and North America as well as a large
number of utility and energy service companies.
The research strategy was constructed with the aim of providing detailed information
concerning the key issues affecting the market, strategic analysis, and specific issue-related
recommendations.
Interviews with manufacturers and developers of micro- and mini-turbines, packagers, and
component suppliers were aimed at gaining access to information on existing and planned
products, company insights, and strategies for growth and sales and expectations for future
markets.
Targeted end-user feedback allowed an analysis of the market from the bottom up providing
key information such as customer attitudes, expectations, and experience.
Utility survey information was conducted aimed at providing a highly important insight into
the attitudes of utilities towards their utilization of micro- and mini-turbines in future
Distributed Generation (DG) strategies.
3.2 European micro- and mini-turbine market

The micro- and mini-turbine market in Europe is now developing. Throughout the last five
years or so the mainly US manufacturers have been talking up the market prospects world-
wide, making promises for early delivery of efficient prime-mover technologies, designed to
revolutionize the Distributed Generation (DG) market. Initial forecasts for thousands of unit
shipments in the short-term have not been fulfilled, although market growth has been highly
significant.
Capstone and Elliott were the first to commercialize micro-turbine units in the United States
during 1997. However, it was not until 2000 that commercialization of micro-turbines took
place in Europe, although Kawasaki's 600 kW mini-turbine was launched during 1995 (this
has not been marketed for several years in Europe however). Six market participants are now
active in the European sector, offering products that range in output from 30 kW to 600 kW,
although three new entrants are expected in the short- and medium-term.
Analysis of Micro- and Mini-turbine Competitive and Supply Markets in Europe 29
During contacts with European energy service companies, and distributed energy studies
undertaken in the United States, it became evident that many companies anticipate making
multiple micro- and mini-turbine purchases in the short- to medium-term as units become
available, and maintenance strategies and distribution networks are developed. Also, by
assessing the market for those primary competing technologies, Frost & Sullivan has been
provided with a positive view of the market and expects it to develop rapidly during its first
years.
Views regarding the primary countries in which this technology will be significantly adopted
vary. However, the foremost European industrialized nations of Germany, France, Italy, and
the United Kingdom will account for the majority of units. However, the ratio between
electricity and gas prices, demand for CHP or air-conditioning, and the regulatory position of
the energy market in each country, will significantly effect installation potential in all
European countries.
3.2.1.1 Market definitions

3.2.1.1 Micro-turbines
Most micro-turbines are based on technologies that were originally developed for use in
auxiliary power systems, aircraft, or automotive turbochargers. Most are small, recuperated, or
regenerated high-speed combustion turbines that range from 20 kW to 500 kW in total power
output and have one moving part. This comprises a high-speed rotating shaft that includes the
compressor, turbine wheel, and generator. In some cases, the shaft is mounted on air bearings
rather than lubricated bearings, which are commonly used in conventional turbines.
3.2.1.2 Mini-turbines
Mini-turbines are generally based on traditional axial gas-turbine technology and are
essentially a scaled-down version of such. For the purposes of this study Frost & Sullivan has
excluded units with an output above 600 kW, based on the idea that they are not competing
within the same output range bracket and the market for larger units inhabits a relatively older
product life-cycle stage. However, mini-turbines are generally a non-viable proposition below
around 400 kW, because of performance compromises for lower output configurations.
Several original equipment manufacturer (OEM) companies have this type of turbine on the
market or in the latter stages of development, including Volvo Aero Turbines, Kawasaki Gas
Turbine, and OPRA (using radial-flow technology).
3.2.1.3 Product features

The adoption of a high-speed generator and a minimal number of moving parts provides a
number of beneficial features. For example, the set-up eliminates the need for a gearbox.
Some players, however, such as Ingersoll-Rand's PowerWorks and OPRA's Trial Units, adopt
gearbox systems. In addition, micro- and mini-turbines are highly reliable and require a much
reduced maintenance schedule that is understood to vary from between 8000 hours (for air-
filter replacement), to 16 000 hours (thermocouple replacement), to 30 000 hours (for turbine
hardware replacement).
The systems run on a range of fuels consisting of natural and other gases, such as landfill and
sour gas, diesel, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Emissions have proved to be relatively
low, companies claiming less than 9 ppm NOx for natural gas. Efficiencies from recuperated
thermal units range from 26 to 33 per cent (depending on the size of the recuperator). OPRAs
OD500 unit is reported to meet such efficiency levels without a recuperator. Units without a
recuperator have not achieved anything like these efficiencies, measuring less than 20 per
cent. The future development of ceramic gas turbines (such as Kawasaki's developmental
CGT300) are claimed to have efficiencies of 42 per cent, although these appear to be at least
several years from commercialization.
3.2.2 Market forecast

The market forecast is based on an analysis of production output forecasts of the manufacturers,
sales forecasts of distributors, experience from the more advanced US market, the existing
market in Europe for competing technologies, levels of expected demand defined by utilities and
end-user expectation, interest, and experience. The Middle Eastern and African markets began in
2000, but at very low levels and are not expected to develop as quickly.
In Europe, the market initially grew slowly with demand of around 50 units in 2000. This
figure was considerably lower than several companies predicted. Frost & Sullivan expect the
most significant periods of growth will be between 2001 to 2003 as confidence in the products
increases and the product range grows. In 2001, sales of units surpassed 2000 totals during the
second quarter and inquiries/orders were increasing in each month to the end of June. It is
calculated that annual growth will decline gradually to 2010, although figures will remained in
double figures to the end of 2001. Figure 3.1 shows three forecast scenarios. These are based
on the extent to which the various drivers and restraining factors occur in the region over time.
Based on experience of forecasting other new technology markets, Frost & Sullivan's forecast
is just above the low growth scenario.
Source: Frost & Sullivan (3966 - 2001)
Fig. 3.1 Micro- and mini-turbine market growth scenarios (Europe), 2001—2010
Unit shipments in the market are forecast to increase at a rate similar to revenue growth
generally throughout the forecast period. This is because of the anticipated increasing average
unit output juxtaposed to decreasing price rate per kW. Average prices are forecast to decrease
through a combination of price-cutting by manufacturers, and also because of increasing
production output.
3.2.2.1 Increasing unit output

Over the 2000-2010 forecast period, the average unit output will rise. Most companies in the
market are currently developing or at least have plans for significantly larger units than those
currently available or planned for launch, as shown in Table 3.1. As such, Frost & Sullivan
forecasts that the average unit output will increase and stabilize at around 150 kW in 2010.
This gives rise to an increase in total MW sales from around 3 MW in 2000 to around 900
MW in 2007.
Table 3.1 Increasing output of micro- and mini-turbines over time (Europe), 2001
Company kW Date
Capstone 28 1999
Elliot 50 2000
75 200Q
Elliot 80 2000
Turbec 100 2000
Capstone 56 2001
Ingersoll-Rand 70 2001
Elliot 200 2001
Turbec 200 2002
TurboGenset 400 2002
OPRA 500 2002
Honsvwsll 400 2QQ3
Ingersoll-Rand 250 2004
Kawasaki 300 2004
TurboGenset 1200 2005
Note: Honeywell exited the market in September 2001 and at time
of going to press, were still seeking a buyer for the technology.
Source: Frost & Sullivan
3.2.2.2 Customers and end-users

The primary customer group for micro- and mini-turbines in 2000 has been utilities and
process industrial end-users. Also, energy service companies (ESCOs) (especially those with a
natural gas element to their businesses) have shown significant interest. While gas companies
are most interested in increasing gas sales, electricity utilities are primarily interested in using
the units to supplement their output in peak shaving or baseload applications to improve
power quality and reliability, and to provide standby power in critical applications. Micro- and
mini-turbines will also be deployed to provide on-site power to industrial manufacturing,
residential, clinical, and commercial establishments.
3.2.2.3 Market drivers and restraints

The following lists the primary market drivers and restraints that Frost & Sullivan believes
will influence sales of micro- and mini-turbines in Europe. Other factors, such as increasing
electrical consumption are taken as read.
3.2.2.3.1 Market drivers

• Demand for smaller-scale combined heat and power (CHP).
• Decreasing unit prices.
• National environmental concerns and commitments.
• Electricity market deregulation.
• Increasing trend towards distributed generation (DG).
• High attainable efficiencies.
• Increasing demand for cooling.
• Availability of suitable absorption chillers for cooling.
• End-user friendliness.
• Utility interest in 'virtual' power plants.
3.2.2.3.2 Market restraints

• Increased natural gas prices.
• Decreasing electricity prices.
• Lack of viable generating incentives.
• Prices remain high.
• Unit lifetime is too short.
• Growth of alternative systems for on-site generation.
• Waiting for fuel-cells.
• Lack of trust in technology.
• Customer awareness.
3.2.2.4 Key European markets

There is a multitude of factors that will determine sales levels for micro- and mini-turbines in
each European country. Such factors include:
• the relationship between prices for electricity and gas;

• the state of deregulation;
• the extent to which monopoly utilities are unbundled;
• available subsidies for co-generation;
• demand for high temperature heat with electricity;
• combined demand for air-conditioning/cooling, heat, and electricity;
• ageing transmission and distribution;
• environmental prerogatives;
• the co-generation installed base, its age, and its replacement potential.
Frost & Sullivan considers the European countries identified in Table 3.2 to be those most
likely to meet some of the conditions as laid out above and, therefore, where potential demand
is likely to be highest. A short synopsis of key national issues is also provided in the table.
Table 3.2 Countries in which micro- and mini-turbines most likely

to be adopted (Europe), 2001
Country Synopsis of key national issues

Germany High CHP base, industrial demand for trigeneration output, highly
competitive marketplace, utilities interested, unfavourable gas:electricity
price ratio, environmental concerns.
Denmark Very high electricity prices, subsidy for CHP, extensive CHP,
environmental concerns.
United Kingdom Highly competitive, increasing CHP demand, industrial demand for
trigeneration output, unfavourable gas:electricity price ratio.
Italy Increasing CHP demand, industrial demand for trigeneration output,
unfavourable gas:electricity price ratio.
Spain Increasing CHP demand, growing industrial base with trigeneration
output demand, increasingly competitive, high demand for cooling.
France Increasing CHP and cooling demand, although re-legislation for CHP
end-user certification required.
Netherlands Very high CHP installed base with high replacement potential,
distributed energy strategy, environmental concerns.
Source: Frost & Sullivan (3966-14)
3.3 Competitive analysis

The structure of the micro- and mini-turbine market in Europe is in the process of developing.
OEMs are currently forming or building on newly formed relationships with companies to act
as distributors, service providers, and installers. Products in the marketplace during 2000
included: Capstone's 30 kW unit; Elliott's 45 kW, 60 kW, and 80 kW models; Honeywell's
75 kW unit; Turbec's 100 kW unit; Volvo Aero Turbine's 600 kW unit; and Kawasaki's 600
kW unit. In 2001, Capstone added a 60 kW unit and Elliott withdrew their 45 kW and 60 kW
units in 2001 in order to concentrate on the production of their 80 kW unit. Bowman Power
Systems, who packages the Elliot micro-turbine unit in to a CHP gen set, has just signed a
distribution agreement with one of Europe's leading CHP specialists, Nedalo.
3.3.1 Existing EU players

Companies with micro- and mini-turbines, either currently available or close to
commercialization in Europe, are listed below.
• Honeywell (now exited market).

• Capstone Turbine Corporation.
• Elliot Energy Systems (packaged by Bowman Power Systems).
• Ingersoll-Rand.
• Kawasaki Heavy Industries.
• OPRA Optimal Radial Turbine.
• Pratt & Whitney (packaged by The TurboGenset Company).
• Turbec.
• Volvo Aero Turbines.
3.3.1.1 New entrant

In 2001 a new competitor announced its entry to the market in the United States, ALM
Turbine (North American Microturbines Subscription Service 9325). ALM Turbine plans to
commercialize a 300 kW micro-turbine in the United States sometime in 2002. The timing of
the commercial release of this turbine enables ALM to form a strategy based on the success
and failures of those companies before them. The company is looking to create a market niche
based on prime power applications versus the competition, which must focus on cogeneration
and resource recovery to be cost effective to the end user. While the company does not have a
beta unit for testing available, prototype tests of core componentry and design have been
encouraging.
For example, the combustor and closed cycle configuration are expected to deliver efficiency
in the 33 to 37 per cent range, with emissions of less than 9 ppm. These product attributes
allow ALM to position its micro-turbine for prime power applications, competing with the
electric grid, as opposed to direct competition with micro-turbine manufacturers.
ALM is also developing a low emission (<5 ppm NOx), 37.5 per cent efficient, 300 kW
micro-turbine for stationary power applications and a 50 kW unit for automotive applications.
Stationary generation applications include peak shaving, grid support, resource recovery,
remote power, standby/back-up, UPS, CHP, and base load. ALM has 16 patents, and patents
pending which the company believes will shelter it from would-be competitors.
NOx emissions of between 5 ppm and 10 ppm in the open cycle mode are achieved without a
catalytic device. Testing the engine in semi-closed mode should reduce NOx emissions to
below 5 ppm utilizing exhaust gas recirculation ('EGR').
Over the next several years ALM will complete its prototype and assemble a management
team. This will require a shift from research and development to manufacturing and
marketing. At the same time ALM will learn from other manufacturers, benefiting from
increased deployments by the industry and advanced manufacturing techniques.
The new entrant expects to sell 1000 units of the 300 kW micro-turbine by the end of 2003 or
2004. As production levels reach 1000 units, ALM believes it can significantly lower the price
per kW from the initial expected price of $1000 per kW to $500 per kW.
A greater goal for ALM is to bring its product to market. This feat will require the refinement
of existing technology, maintaining adequate finance levels, and establishing a manufacturing
process and assembly facility.
ALM recently received a $2.8 million grant from the California Energy Commission (CEC),
matched by approximately $3.4 million of its own funds. The grant is awarded to developers
of low emissions electrical generating technologies. The project funds will be used to develop,
test, install, and demonstrate commercially viable 300 kW micro-turbine units. Under the
project, ALM plans to install a number of units at partner sites which include
SoCalGas/Sempra, Big Bear Area Regional Waste Water Agency, Big Bear Electric, and the
University of California at Irvine.
3.4 Customer analysis

3.4.1 End-user case studies
The micro-turbine market is at such an early stage of its product lifecycle that very few end-
users, with reasonable experience with a unit, yet exist. Their views on unit performance and,
most importantly for market development, views on the benefits that such a product brings
them, is highly valuable both in terms of assessing the likely direction of the market in the
future, and to help existing suppliers ensure their products meet customer requirements.
As part of Frost & Sullivan's analysis undertaken in 2001, nine customers were interviewed to
obtain their views. Unfortunately, the majority of responses are from just one company;
Capstone, although they are packaged by two companies; G.A.S. Energietechnik of Germany
and Advantica of the UK. Responses came from the following customers.
• Three end-users of Capstone, 28 kWe; system integrator/distributor: Advantica; United

Kingdom.
• Three end-users of Capstone, 28 kWe; system integrator/distributor: G.A.S.; Germany.
• One end-user of Capstone, 28 kWe; no intermediary; the Netherlands.
• One end-user of Turbec, 100 kWe; no intermediary; Germany.
• One end-user of Turbec, 100 kWe; no intermediary; France.
Table 3.3 provides a summary of the findings from the end-user interviews and case studies.
By and large, end-users and operators stressed the reliability of the generators, low
maintenance costs, and a sufficiently high electrical efficiency as particular strengths of their
applications.
Compressor technology and control system software were mentioned among other features on
which manufacturers would need to improve.
3.4.2 Customer facing survey

The results of the end-user case studies provide for an interesting reflection when compared to
the results of the customer facing survey undertaken in 1999. The main respondent groups of
this survey were generating-set assemblers and suppliers. This group of companies, as well as
agents and distributors, are those closest to the customer. Together, these groups comprised
58.0 per cent of respondents. A high proportion of the companies categorized as OEMs were
engine companies that were also generator-set assemblers and therefore are also customer
facing. A total of 40 responses were received.
Table 3.3 Micro- and mini-turbine market - summary of case study results (Europe),
2000-2007
Price(f/KWe; Perceived/expected
End-user Operation Testing/ without
company OEM Supplier Application specifics commercialized installation) Strengths Weaknesses
ASEAG Capstone G.A.S Residential Min. 5500 Commercialized N/A Maintenance; Low gas
CHP full load H emissions; pressure
PA technically affecting
advanced compressor;
noise
Durham Capstone Advantica CHP (County Full load: Commercialized 1500 Availability; Noise
County Hall) 24 H/day in reliability;
winter, 7 easy
H/day in Installation
Summer
Bayerngas Capstone G.A.S Trigeneration 6000 full Commercialized 1400 Maintenance; None so far
load H PA emissions;
no
alternative
Thyssengas Turbec Turbec Residential Not yet Testing; to be 1100 Efficiency; None so far
CHP decided transferred as superior to
commercialized recips
unit after 9
months
Gasunie Capstone Capstone CHP Full load for Commercialized 1400 Reliability of Heat side
(System (swimming base load (operated on core genset; and control
Integration pool) electricity behalf of local emissions system
by utility) immature
Gasunie)
Leonard Capstone Advantica CHP (home Full Commercialized N/A Efficiency; Noise;
Cheshire for disabled) load/base emissions; 'scary'
load maintenance technology
electricity
W.J. Findon Capstone Advantica CHP + CO2 Mostly full Commercialized 1300 Emissions; Sensitivity to
use for load; 5000 use of energy
greenhouse HPA exhaust gas; prices
reasonable
payback
period
NOWUM Capstone G.A.S CHP (Diesel Different Testing (Tested on Handling None
Energy Fired) modes of behalf of and
operation G.A.S.) maintenance;
marginal
efficiency
losses on
reduced
load; thermal
efficiency
Gaz De Turbec Turbec CHP Mostly full Testing 700 Electrical Thermal
France application, load efficiency; efficiency;
but heat not shirt gas
used between compressor;
load levels capital
expenses;
control
system
Table 3.4 shows the percentage of respondents answering questions concerning their opinion
of how their customers perceive the value of a range of product attributes. The product
attributes selected were based on interviews with micro-turbine companies. They tended to
promote certain aspects of their products they believed were highly important. In addition,
Frost & Sullivan looked at the promotional literature of micro- and mini-turbines to establish
what features are pointed out. The aggregation of this information provided the basis upon
which the generator-set opinion survey was based. The aim was to test the micro- and mini-
turbine companies' assertions that the attributes they are promoting are those desired by the
customer.
Table 3.4 Micro- and mini-turbine market - competing technology market and opinion
survey-value to customer of generating-set product attributes (Europe), 2000
Percentage of respondents answering in each category

Very
Product attributes high High Medium Low Very low Total
Purchase price 40.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
Running costs 54.5 9.1 36.4 0.0 0.0 100.0
Engine reliability 72.7 27.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
Footprint 0.0 40.0 30.0 30.0 0.0 100.0
Power to weight ratio 0.0 18.2 45.5 18.2 18.2 100.0
Fuel efficiency at full load 36.4 36.4 18.2 9.1 0.0 100.0
Fuel efficiency at aggregate load 28.6 42.9 14.3 14.3 0.0 100.0
Sound levels 20.0 30.0 40.0 10.0 0.0 100.0
Low emissions 27.3 36.4 18.2 18.2 0.0 100.0
By attributing points to responses given, Frost & Sullivan converted this data into Fig. 3.2,
from which it is clear that the primary attributes that customers are concerned with are engine
reliability, followed by running costs, and fuel efficiency.
Fig. 3.2 Importance to customer of generating set product attributes (Europe), 2000
3.4.2.1 Purchase price

Purchase price was ranked fourth in terms of importance. Most respondents suggested that
micro- and mini-turbine packages would need to be sold at between $300 and $500 per kW in
order to effectively compete with reciprocating engine generator-sets. There were an equal
number of respondents who suggested prices should be between $500 to $700 and between
$100 and $300 per kW. However, the latter group of respondents were from companies
specializing in back-up compression generator-sets.
3.4.2.2 Running costs

Running costs attained the second-highest importance in ranking. In particular, these costs
relate to the expense of ongoing servicing and regular maintenance activities, excluding fuel
costs covered in thermal efficiency measure. The intervals for this work ranged from 100 to
3000 hours for ongoing servicing, between 250 and 8000 hours for minor maintenance,
between 5000 and 60 000 hours for major maintenance, and between 9000 and 75 000 hours
for complete engine overhaul.
3.4.2.3 Engine reliability

This category attained the highest importance ranking, polling 17 per cent higher scores than
any other parameter. Reliability is key to all end-users and is the primary feature of this
market. End-users must be guaranteed that they will be provided with extremely reliable
energy supplies. This is often one of the main reasons driving the end-users purchase decision
in the first instance.
3.4.2.4 Footprint
The footprint attribute received the third-lowest ranking with just 31 points. The size of the
generating-set unit is evidently not an important factor to most end-users, according to this group
of suppliers. Of those respondents that provided relevant data, the footprint (length times width)
varied between 1 m2 to 81 m2. However, it would appear that most units are in the region of 2 to
4.5 metres long and 1 to 2 metres wide. Micro- and mini-turbines offer a significant size saving
in this respect, although it does not seem to be a highly ranked parameter. Frost & Sullivan
suspect that for some end-users, footprint will be a very important attribute, because they may
have to 'squeeze' a unit in a tight space, while for others, it is completely irrelevant.
3.4.2.5 Power-to-weight ratio

The average weight of reciprocating engine generator-sets varies according to size, with a modal
weight of several tonnes. Micro- and mini-turbines are certainly a much lighter option, although
the value to end-users appears to be of generally marginal importance. Power-to-weight ratio is a
similar attribute to that of unit footprint. In other words, for some end-users it will be an
absolutely essential criterion, while for others it will be completely irrelevant. Frost & Sullivan
suspects that commercial end-users will be more susceptible to these two attributes, owing to the
generally higher cost of commercial space, and often installation on rooftops.
3.4.2.6 Fuel efficiency at full load

This parameter achieved the second-highest rating of all attributes. The fuel efficiency relates
directly to the quantity of fuel used and is the most important determinant of overall power
costs. The average electrical efficiency of generator-sets appears to be between 40 and
45 per cent. As such, micro- and mini-turbines are seriously lacking in respect of the quantity
of fuel used for like-for-like electrical output.
3.4.2.7 Fuel efficiency at aggregate load

The measure of fuel efficiency at aggregate rather than full load is given the lowest ranking of
all parameters. Aggregate load measures are a much more important criteria for grid-displaced
distributed energy requirements. In these situations, power is required at varying loads in
order to meet the fluctuating demands of the consumer. Efficiency is always lower at
aggregate loads, compared to measured full-load measurements. Reciprocating engine
generator-sets are rarely used for this purpose, and as such, the attribute is given a lowly rank
by these companies. However, several of the micro- and mini-turbine suppliers are interested
in supplying the distributed energy market, but will need to improve aggregate load
efficiencies to do this successfully. As such, the lowly rank is only applicable to end-users in
the parallel, rather than displacement market.
3.4.2.8 Sound levels

The sound level from generating facilities is a similar attribute to weight and size, namely that
it is irrelevant to some customer groups, while being essential to others - more often than not,
commercial end-users. Most micro- and mini-turbine companies promote low-sound levels as
an important attribute, although it only received a rating of 36 - fourth lowest among all
attributes. Decibel measurements varied between suppliers, ranging from 104 dB @ 1 metre to
85 dB @ 1, and 65 dB @ 10 metres. Should customers of reciprocating engine generator-sets
require lower noise levels however, additional proofing does not add to costs significantly.
3.4.2.9 Low emissions

Emissions signatures are another aspect promoted heavily by micro- and mini-turbine
companies. Currently, all suppliers claim 25 ppm of NOx with a target to reduce levels to at
least 9 ppm. Some already offer this facility as an additional feature. As an attribute, it was
ranked as being fairly important, at fourth highest. However, of the NOx levels provided by
generator-set suppliers, most are significantly higher.
3.4.3 Customer satisfaction summary

Overall, the perceived requirements of micro- and mini-turbines highlighted in the customer
facing survey were largely in-line with results of the end-user case studies. In particular, there
was absolute correlation between demand and provision of reliability. Further analysis of
these results has helped the clients of Frost & Sullivan to focus their attention on both
developing and promoting the most valuable product attributes to each customer group.
3.5 Conclusions
There is significant scope in the European market for the widespread adoption of micro- and
mini-turbines. Demand will not be as rapid as that first envisaged by those OEMs pursuing the
market however. The primary customer group during the short-term is likely to be energy
companies, such as utilities and ESCOs using the units for new facilities or to
supplant/support their existing generating facilities. The unit may or may not be located on a
particular customer's premises. End-users in the industrial and commercial sectors are the
other primary customer group. A significant number of end-users are likely to adopt the units
for trigeneration purposes.
We forecast a fairly moderate rate of market realization (considered as total CHP market for
Europe) of approximately 13 per cent in 2010. This conclusion was reached based on the
analysis of an array of information. The primary sources consisted of Frost & Sullivan's
various US surveys, European cogeneration market report, and the primary research
undertaken with micro- and mini-turbine OEMs, distributors, and other interested third-party
companies, as well as a number of electricity and gas companies around Europe, hi addition,
the European competing technology survey, specifically undertaken for Frost & Sullivan's full
report, also provided valuable input.
The companies that Frost & Sullivan believe will succeed in this market will be those that best
address the following primary challenges.
• High micro-turbine prices that limit market potential.

• Over-ambitious sales targets that risk dampening the entire market.
• The medium- and long-term threat from continuing fuel-cell development.
• Technological fear and lack of knowledge dissuading end-users from adopting this new
technology.
• Lack of a strong distribution network.
• Products being late to market that face losing out to more established competitors.
• Start-ups that face additional challenges compared to larger, better known competitors.
• Availability of trusted, cheap, and reliable alternatives that threatens to dampen entire
market.
• A lack of intelligent systems that will result in failure of successful micro-gas turbine grid
connection.
• Maintaining highest possible electrical efficiencies for non-remote market.
3.5.1 Strategic development

From the analysis of the market prospects, the identification of the specific challenges facing
market entrants and participants, and the analysis of the external and competitive
environment, Frost & Sullivan has derived a number of strategic recommendations. These
need to be used to help formulate and implement a corporate or business strategy, which must
be tailor-made for a particular OEM or distributor according to their internal competencies
and overriding business model.
The five forces analysis shown in Fig. 3.3 is a classical corporate strategy tool to analyse the
competitive environment a market participant is exposed to. It is usually applied to established
or even mature markets, but nevertheless perfectly fits as a strategic tool to shed light on the
anticipated competitive situation the market for micro- and mini-turbines is going to enter.
The five forces analysis has been dedicated to OEMs, rather than packagers or system
integrators.
Fig. 3.3 Mini- and micro-turbine market: analysis of competitive forces
The forces that may threaten market participants in the realization of adequate sales and
profits or, eventually, in their ability to stay in the market, are attributed to five categories that
allows systematical exploration of the gravity of issues characteristic for a specific market.
Each of these is analysed with brief comment made regarding our analysis of such.
The strategic recommendations were derived from the analysis of all the market
measurements developed for our analysis.
Strategic recommendations are distinguishable, according to a company's functional unit,

which is usually in charge of the particular issue to which the recommendation refers. The
recommendation headings are segmented according to the business functions.
• Strategic recommendations for research and development, and technology:

— reduce costs to bring prices down;
- go for larger output;
- increase efficiency.
• Strategic recommendations for marketing, distribution, and sales planning:

- improve customer after-sales service;
- emphasize geographic expansion;
- find optimal distribution structure;
- build brand image;
- undertake political lobbying.
• Strategic recommendations for corporate and business strategy:

- examine value of strategic alliances and joint ventures;
- examine value of mergers and acquisitions.
3.6 Acknowledgements
The analysts Terry Shane, Klaus Huhn, and Ian French of international market consulting
company, Frost & Sullivan, London undertook the research for this Chapter. Further
contributions were made by Frost & Sullivan, USA.
T Shane
Frost & Sullivan, London, UK
© Frost & Sullivan 2002

4
Future Potential Developments of

Micro-turbine Generators - Hybrid
Cycles and Tri-generation
E Macchi and S Campanari
Abstract
Cogeneration may help micro-turbine generators (MTGs) to achieve significant fuel energy
savings, when compared to a reference scenario composed by centralized electric power plants
and boiler heat production. However, real applications are characterized by time-variable
electrical and thermal demand, so that part-load operation, and/or partial heat recovery, deteriorate
MTG energy balance. Simulation on a yearly average basis shows that often the situation can
reverse, leading to a fuel requirement for the distributed energy solution larger than that of the
centralized one and the MTG can not, therefore, be regarded as an 'energy-saving' device.
This Chapter investigates two possibilities of ameliorating the MTGs energetic performance,
by combining them to two other advanced technologies: (i) high-temperature fuel cells, either
solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) or molten-carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) with 'hybrid cycle'
configurations; and/or (ii) a refrigerating/heat pump compressor, coupled to MTG by a
variable speed 'electrical shaft'.
The first option enables a dramatic enhancement of the net electrical efficiency of the system,
yielding great energy-savings and environmental advantages even towards the most advanced
combined cycle technology. However, in absence of a strong increase in the fuel costs, economic
feasibility can be achieved only by a substantial reduction of the fuel cell investment costs and/or
by stipulating adequate tariff incentives (carbon taxes or penalizations for polluting emissions).
The second option enables an efficient use of the cogeneration unit, particularly in the so-
called 'tri-generation' mode, i.e. the combined generation of electricity, heat, and cold. The
presented results indicate that the best solution for a tri-generation plant based upon an MTG
is the combined use of an absorption chiller and a variable-speed compressor, yielding
advantages both in terms of lower capital cost and lower fuel input, and CO2 emissions
towards a simpler MTG cogenerative plant. However, these configurations still can not
compete with modern large-scale, natural-gas fired, combined cycles from the point of view
of energy-saving and carbon dioxide emissions.
Nomenclature
Exfuei specific exergy of fuel (kJ/kg)
Exgth heat exergy (kW)
Fuf fuel utilization factor (equation 4.3)
m mass flow rate (kg/s)
p pressure (Pa)
Pei electric power (kW)
Q, Qth thermal power (kW)
T temperature (K or °C)
r|n second law efficiency (equation 4.3)
r|ei electric efficiency (equation 4.2)
nth thermal efficiency
Subscripts
cool cooling
el electric
ref reference
Acronyms
AC absorption chiller
COP co-efficient of performance
COPhp HP heat production/HP electric consumption
COPcooli cold production/compressor electric consumption
DC/AC direct/alternating current
FC fuel cell
GT gas turbine
HP heat pump inverse cycle (chiller in summer)
IRE index of primary energy-savings (equation 4.5)
LHV lower heating value (kJ/kg)
MCFC molten carbonate fuel cell
MTG micro-turbine generator
O&M operation and maintenance
PEC primary energy consumption (MWh/y)
SI, S2 reference scenarios for separate generation of electricity and heat (see Table 4.5)
SOFC solid oxide fuel cell
4.1 Introduction
The net electric efficiency of a state-of-the-art micro-turbine generator (MTG) is much lower,
about half of that of modern, large-scale combined cycle. The latter benefits from a high firing
temperature, high-pressure ratio, gas turbine cycle, built around high-efficiency, multi-stage,
Future Potential Developments of Micro-turbine Generators - Hybrid Cycles and Tri-generation 45
axial-flow turbomachines, combined with a sophisticated multi-pressure steam bottoming cycle,

while MTGs adopt a less efficient recuperative gas turbine cycle, working at the relatively low
firing temperatures required by an uncooled turbine. Losses related to electricity transmission,
distribution, and voltage transformation from central power station to final consumer do not
invalidate the thermodynamic superiority of a combined cycle over an MTG.
Cogeneration, i.e. heat recovery from gas turbine exhaust, ameliorates the MTG energy
balance. Let us consider the example of Fig. 4.1. The upper part of the figure represents the
energy balance of a 100 kWei micro-turbine: 333 kW of fuel (LHV) are converted into
electricity with a net efficiency of 30 per cent; the recovery boiler generates about 150 kWth,
while the remaining (333 - 100 - 150 = 83 kW) are lost (stack, auxiliaries, electrical, and
mechanical losses, etc). The lower part of the figure represents the energy balance of the
combination of a state-of-the-art centralized electric station (combined cycle) and boiler. To
provide 100 kWei at customer site, about 105 kWei should be generated by centralized power
station: assuming a net fuel efficiency of 55 per cent, the fuel power required is about
191 kW. A 90 per cent efficient natural gas boiler requires an additional 167 kW to generate
150 kWth. Thus, thanks to cogeneration, the MTG is capable of saving some fuel energy
(333 versus 358 kW, i.e. 7 per cent) when compared to the centralized solution, even if a
high-efficiency combined cycle is considered for the comparison.
Fig. 4.1 Energy balance comparison for a cogenerative MTG and separated generation
(same electric and thermal power to the final user) - reference is made to a high-tech
scenario, where the centralized power plant is a state-of-the-art combined cycle
and the boiler efficiency is 90 per cent
However, this statement holds only under the rather ideal assumptions (MTG at full load,
nominal conditions, and complete heat recovery from exhaust gases) made in Fig. 4.1: in real
applications, characterized by time-variable electrical and thermal demand, part-load
operation, and/or partial heat recovery deteriorate MTG energy balance. On a yearly average
basis, the situation can easily reverse: the fuel required by the distributed energy solution
becomes larger than that of the centralized one and the MTG can not, therefore, be regarded
as an 'energy-saving' device.
This Chapter investigates two possibilities of ameliorating the MTGs' energetic performance
by combining them to two other advanced technologies:
1. high-temperature fuel cells, either solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) or molten-carbonate fuel
cells (MCFCs); and/or
2. a compressor operating with an inverse cycle, coupled to an MTG by a variable speed
'electrical shaft'.
The first option, usually referred to as 'hybrid cycle', enables a dramatic enhancement of the
net electrical efficiency of the system. While, as discussed above, it is questionable whether
present 'state-of-the-art', gas-fired, micro-turbines are energy-saving devices when compared
to modem high-efficiency, large-scale combined cycles, there are no doubts about the great
energy-savings and environmental advantages achievable by hybrid cycles.
The rationale of the second option, i.e. the addition of a refrigerating/heat pump compressor
that uses part of the electrical energy generated by the micro-turbine to generate either low
temperature heat and/or cold, is the great flexibility added to the system. The
electrical/thermal power ratio, unequivocally fixed in micro-turbines as well as in hybrid
cycles, can be varied over a wide range. This enables a much more efficient and cost-effective
use of the cogeneration unit, particularly in the so-called 'tri-generation' mode, i.e. the
combined generation of electricity, heat, and cold.
A good understanding of primary energy-saving potential of the various technology options

considered can be drawn by the inspection of the net electric efficiency-net thermal efficiency
diagram of Fig. 4.2. Points Al and A2 represent the net electrical efficiency of the reference
central power stations considered in this Chapter as 'scenario 1 (low tech)' and 'scenario 2
(high tech)' respectively: considering yearly average data and transmission and distribution
losses, the net efficiency span is the range 35-52 per cent. Points Bl and B2 represent the net
thermal efficiency of boilers, again referred to the two scenarios (75 per cent for low tech and
90 per cent for high tech). The straight line connecting Al to Bl represents the performance
of cogeneration plants that do not yield any energy-saving against the separated generation of
scenario 1, the line A2-B2 against scenario 2. Any cogeneration plant with a combination of
electrical and thermal energy that is located in the diagram above these lines saves energy.
The amount of energy-saving is best defined by the 'Energy-saving index', defined as (see
also equation 4.5 in the following):
PEC (reference spearated generation) - PEC (cogeneration plant)

IRE (4.1)
PEC (reference sepatted generation)
which compares the primary energy consumption 'PEC' of the cogenerative system with the
primary energy consumption of the reference separated generation of electricity (centralized
power stations) and heat (boiler) required to fulfill the electricity and heat balance.
Fig. 4.2 Electric efficiency versus thermal efficiency diagram
Let us refer to scenario 2: as shown in Fig. 4.2, lines at constant IRE are parallel to A2-B2,
that is the line with IRE = 0. As anticipated, a 'state-of-the-art' MTG operating at nominal
conditions and with full heat recovery (point MTGn0m) has a positive (even if small, 7 per
cent) IRE. The more efficient hybrid solution described in the next section (point
SOFC + MTG) yields much higher IRE.
The situation for real case applications are much less favourable: yearly average net electrical
efficiency is lower than nominal, due to part-load operation; the same happens to the thermal
efficiency, due both to part-load operation and partial heat recovery. The point representing
MTG yearly average operation (point MTGyearly average) moves into the IREs2 < 0 zone, i.e. the
distributed generation would yield an increase of primary energy consumption, if compared to
high-efficiency, combined cycles.
The adoption of a heat pump that uses part of the electricity generated by MTG to increase the
plant thermal output (MTG + H) improves the situation: for usual COP values, the net overall
electrical efficiency decrease is more than counterbalanced by the increase of the thermal
efficiency.
4.2 The 'hybrid cycle' technology

It is well known that the combustion process, present in all conventional fossil-fuelled power
systems, is highly irreversible. Moreover, all thermodynamic cycles are limited in efficiency
due to the so-called Carnot efficiency, related to the maximum operating temperature of
system components. The adoption of a fuel cell, i.e. a device where the fuel oxidation occurs
in a nearly reversible mode via electrochemical processes, makes it possible to avoid these
limitations. Very high conversion efficiencies can be achieved by properly combining fuel
cells with gas and/or steam power cycles, in the so-called 'hybrid' cycles. This Chapter deals
with the two most promising high-temperature fuel cell options, SOFC and MCFC.
In the following figures and tables the performances of such plants are presented [most of the
figures are derived by previous papers published by the authors (1-5)].
The reference MTG shown in Fig. 4.3 is based on a recuperated gas turbine cycle
arrangement, with a single-stage gas turbine, with radial compressor and radial turbine, and
with an inlet mass flow rate of 1.0 kg/s. Together with the calculating assumptions of Table 4.1,
this is representative for the 100 kW-class micro-turbines actually developed by many
manufacturers (6-8).
Fig. 4.3 Plant scheme, operating conditions, and energy balance of the 'reference' MTG
adopted in this Chapter
Table 4.1 Assumptions for the performance calculation of reference MTG (Fig. 4.3)
Gas cycle inlet air flow 1 kg/s

Ap/p inlet/outlet 1%/1%
Ap/p recuperator hot/cold side 6%/3%
Heat loss recuperator 2%
ATmin recuperator 45 °C
Compressor isentropic efficiency 0.80
GT isentropic efficiency 0.85
GT mechanical efficiency 0.99
GT electric efficiency 0.92
GT combustor pressure drop 6%
GT fuel pressure drop at combustor 50%
Fuel compressor isentropic efficiency 0.7
Fuel compressor mech.+el. efficiency 0.9
The high rotating speed of these compact machines requires a rectifier + inverter power control
system, flattening the high frequency AC output of the high-speed generator and subsequently
generating the requested grid frequency from the rectified direct current. It is interesting to note
that this kind of process could be suitable for integration with the power conditioning system of
a fuel cell, typically generating an AC output starting from the cell DC electrical generation.
For the SOFC technology reference is made to the latest generation of the tubular SOFC, the
Siemens-Westinghouse air electrode supported (AES) fuel cell, with operating temperature of
1000 °C, which has been recently tested up to a 110 kW stand-alone SOFC plant and in a
220 kW hybrid plant size (9-12).
The SOFC is fed by an oxidizer (air) and a fuel (Fig. 4.4). The two fluxes flow in contact with
cathode and anode porous surfaces, separated by a solid electrolyte which is a good O~ ion-
conductor at the high SOFC operating temperatures. The reduction of molecular oxygen to O~
takes place at the cathode, while the fuel is oxidized to steam and carbon dioxide at the anode.
The prevailing oxidization reaction is the hydrogen consumption. Hydrogen is generated by
internal steam reforming and water-gas shift reactions starting from the natural gas feeding
and exploiting the fuel cell high-temperature heat production. Steam is obtained by recycling
a fraction of the anode exhaust gases. The tubular SOFC system is provided with anode
recycling, sustained by an ejector using fresh fuel as driving flow, and with a small pre-
reforming step cracking the higher hydrocarbons and reducing carbon deposition problems. The
exhaust air and fuel flow, partially consumed by the cell, react up to complete fuel oxidization
with an auxiliary combustion; the high-temperature gases preheat the inlet air flow before being
delivered to external components.
Fig. 4.4 Concept scheme of MCFC and SOFC
Advanced MCFC plants with nominal power up to 2 MW have conversely been experienced by
different manufacturers (13-15). Reference is made here to the fuel cell energy DIR (direct
internal reforming) configuration (13), where the MCFC is fed with a mixture of steam and
desulphurized natural gas as a fuel. Other details on the FC models can be found in literature
(3, 4,16).
The oxidizer and fuel flow in contact with cathode and anode porous surfaces, separated by a
liquid electrolyte (molten carbonate) which is a good COs= ion-conductor at the high MCFC
operating temperatures. The reduction of molecular oxygen to O~ takes place at the cathode
while hydrogen is oxidized to steam at the anode.
The oxidant flow shall contain a mixture of oxygen and carbon dioxide to sustain the
transport of COs= ions across the molten carbonate electrolyte (Fig. 4.4).
Figure 4.5 shows the SOFC + GT hybrid cycle arrangement considered in this work (2,17,18);
a similar plant configuration has been adopted for the first-of-a-kind 220 kW hybrid plant of
Siemens-Westinghouse (9, 11). It is substantially a recuperative gas turbine cycle, where the
combustor is substituted by the SOFC system, fed with preheated and compressed air, and with
preheated and desulphurized natural gas as a fuel; fuel is compressed up to the pressure required
to drive the anode recycle ejectors (3). The fuel cell exhaust gases are directly expanded by the
gas turbine and subsequently cooled by the recuperator. This cycle configuration can lead to
extremely high performances, with a net electric efficiency approaching 65 per cent even at the
small scale of some hundreds-kW system capacity (17-20).
Fig. 4.5 Plant scheme and operating conditions of a hybrid SOFC plant: the
recuperated gas turbine operates at conditions very similar to conventional
MTGs; hence, commercially available turbomachinery could be easily
adapted for the application
Under the assumptions listed in Table 4.2, it is also possible to set up a MCFC hybrid cycle
with a plant scheme similar to the SOFC hybrid plant, as discussed in detail by many authors
(21—24), reaching a system net electric efficiency very close to 65 per cent.
Table 4.2 FC operating conditions assumed in the calculation
Fuel cell model assumptions MCFC SOFC

Ap/p air/fuel side 1%/3% 5%/2%
Heat loss 2%
Catalytic combustion efficiency 99.5%
Catalytic combustion pressure drop 2%
DC-AC efficiency 94%
Fuel utilization factor (global) 78.5% 85%
Air utilization factor (oxygen) 55.6% 25%
Air utilization factor (CO2) 76% -
Operating temperature 650 °C 1000°C
2
Current density (mA/cm ) 260 250
Cell voltage (p = 1 bar) 0.76V 0.65V
Steam-to-carbon ratio 1.5 1.8
Oxygen-to-carbon ratio 1.5 2.1
Fuel (natural gas) composition: CH 4 91%-C 2 H 6 3.7% -C 3 H 8 0.9%-
C4H10 0.4% - N2 2.9% - CO21.1 % - sulphur compounds 50 ppmv
Fuel pressure (network supply) 1.05 bar
Fuel lower heating value 46 065 kJ/kg
The main difference towards SOFC hybrids are that:
• either operating the MCFC at atmospheric pressure or under moderate pressure ratio, the
resulting gas-turbine equipment (recuperated or recuperated and reheated) operates at
pressure ratios higher than conventional MTGs, thus requiring specially developed
turbomachinery;
• the plant scheme is generally somewhat more complicated because of the presence of
recirculated flows which are dedicated to the CO2 enrichment of the cathode inlet gas and
to steam recirculation for hydrocarbons reforming; the SOFC technology allows a simpler
cycle configuration thanks to the concept of ejector-sustained partial anode
recirculation (5);
• higher specific power outputs are obtained thanks to the higher utilization rate (i.e. oxygen
consumption) of the air flow which is typical of MCFCs.
An example of such cycle configuration is given in Fig. 4.6. Cycle arrangement is based on a
recuperated gas-turbine cycle, whereby the compressed air is directly used in the catalytic
combustion and the MCFC is fed with the gas-turbine exhaust gases. The cycle pressure ratio
is selected to obtain the desired fuel cell inlet temperature. Steam for hydrocarbon reforming
is generated in this case using water condensed in the cooling process of the anode exhaust,
thus not requiring an external water source; a fuel compressor is required before the catalytic
combustion, which is operated under pressurized conditions.
Fig. 4.6 Plant scheme and operating conditions of a hybrid MCFC plant - the
recuperated gas turbine operates with unconventional pressure ratios
An alternative configuration is proposed by fuel cell energy (13) relying on an 'externally fired'
configuration, which decouples the air loop of the gas turbine (both compressor and turbine
operate with pure air) with the gas loop of the fuel cell. The balance of plant is probably
somewhat simpler but suffers the requirement of a high-temperature heat exchanger, which
limits cycle performances due to constraints on maximum allowable material temperatures.
The reason for the spectacular performances of both MCFC and SOFC hybrid cycle with
respect to the reference MTG cycle of Fig. 4.3 can be evidenced by a second-law analysis
(5), showing that:
• the main MTG cycle loss takes place at the combustor, where 33 percentage points of
second law efficiency are lost - the sum of the electrochemical and combustion losses of
the hybrid cycles is in the range of 17-18 per cent;
• all of the other MTG losses related to conventional components (compressor, expander,
heat exchangers, stack) are reduced by a factor of two or more in the hybrid cycles,
because of their more-than-double fuel input for the same inlet air flow rate. The hybrid
cycle specific power output is two or more times higher than the MTG one.
Among the other advantages of the hybrid plant configuration, is its good partial load
efficiency. In fact the hybrid cycle benefits of the fuel cell intrinsic performance gain at
reduced current output and of the variable speed operation of the turbine. Moreover, gas
turbine performance reduction at increased ambient temperatures causes only a slight decrease
in the hybrid system electrical efficiency, thanks to the prevailing contribute of the FC (not
affected by ambient temperature variations) on the system power output.
The MTG and the SOFC + MTG system electrical efficiency variation versus load are shown in
Fig. 4.7(a), computed according to reference (2); quite similar features are expected from a
MCFC + GT cycle. Figure 4.7(b) addresses the variation versus load of the two plants of the so-
called first law efficiency (or fuel utilization factor) as well as of the primary energy index
variation. It can be seen that the hybrid cycle is superior to MTG also in terms of first law
efficiency, due to lower stack losses.
Fig. 4.7 Partial load performance of the MTG and of the hybrid SOFC + MTG cycle
(see also equations 4.3, 4.5, and Table 4.5 in the following section)
4.3 MGT and hybrid cycles combined with variable speed

compressor and/or absorption chillers
Aiming to investigate the application to cogeneration of the integrated fuel cell-micro gas
turbine technology, the attention has been focused on the SOFC technology. However,
comparable overall performances are expected by the MCFC + GT technology.
Three plant schemes have been considered, where the prime mover (MTG or SOFC hybrid
system) can be joined with an absorption chiller and/or with an inverse cycle heat pump/chiller
system, with the aim of creating a tri-generation (heat, cold, and electricity) plant.
1. The simplest plant scheme for a tri-generation plant based upon an MTG is the one
considered in Fig. 4.8, where, in addition to a fraction of recovered heat, a fraction of the
MTG exhaust gases can be used by an absorption chiller to generate a cooling power.
2. In the configuration of Fig. 4.9, two inverters are employed to generate both a grid
frequency output and a variable frequency output used to drive the compressor of a HP unit.
When the prime mover is switched off, a rectifier connects the HP inverter to grid. Ambient
air used as heat source1; heat is generated at a relatively low temperature (40 °C), certainly
adequate for a new building installation, using water as a heat carrier medium. Water is
heated in sequence by the heat pump condenser and by the gas turbine economizer; the
auxiliary boiler, when used, has an average efficiency, which is set to 85 per cent.
3. The third configuration, shown in Fig. 4.10, combines the adoption of an absorption chiller
and of a reversible heat pump/chiller system.
Fig. 4.8 Tri-generation plant made of an MTG, a recovery boiler, and an absorption
chiller - the plant can contemporarily generate electricity, heat, and cold [the heat
(and/or cold) generation is strictly related to the electricity output]
' The assumption of water or ground as a heat source/sink would yield much better co-efficients of performance
and avoid penalties related to frost formation on evaporator heat transfer surfaces.
Fig. 4.9 Tri-generation plant made of a hybrid cycle (or a MTG) and a recovery boiler -
part of the DC electricity generated is used to drive a variable speed compressor that
can act as a heat pump (winter configuration) or a chiller (summer mode) — the heat
(and/or cold) generation can be varied independently from the electricity output
Fig. 4.10 Tri-generation plant made of a hybrid cycle (or a MTG), a recovery boiler,
and an absorption chiller - part of the DC electricity generated by the MTG is used to
drive a variable speed compressor that can act as a heat pump (heating mode) or a
chiller (cooling mode) - the heat (and/or cold) generation can be varied independently
from the electricity output
The last two plant configurations have the possibility of varying the heat and/or cold
generation independently from the electrical output. It is then possible, for example, to
generate only heat, using all of the MTG or hybrid plant electrical output to drive the heat
pump and recovering the system exhaust heat, leading to the energy flow diagram shown in
Fig. 4.11.
Fig. 4.11 Energy flow diagram of a hybrid plant acting as a 'heat multiplier' - the
energy balance refers to an air-water heat pump operating at two ambient
temperatures: —5 °C (with penalization due to frost formation) and 7 °C;
negligible performance variation occurs in the hybrid plant electric output
(dashed lines). Better performance (higher COP) can be obtained at higher
ambient temperature or with more favourable heat sinks (water or ground)
4.4 Simulation of a real case

The simulation of a real case is carried out. The electric, thermal, and cooling load are
described in Fig. 4.12 and in Table 4.3.
Fig. 4.12 Electric, thermal, and cooling loads assumed for the simulations
Table 4.3 Electric, thermal, and cooling load characteristics
Peak winter heat demand (kW) 600

Peak summer cooling demand (kW) 700
Peak electric demand (kW) 210
No. winter days (weekday/weekend days) 42/17
No. summer days (weekday/weekend days) 58/23
No. half season days (weekday/weekend days) 140/85
Electric load annual equivalent hours* 3067
Thermal load annual equivalent hours* 1990
Cooling load annual equivalent hours* 1169
* Total annual energy delivered/peak power.
Table 4.4 synthesizes the assumptions for the winter and summer peak conditions as well as
nominal heat exchangers temperature differences.
Table 4.4 Winter and summer load peak conditions (assumed for system capacity
calculation) and other heat exchangers parameters
Design peak Ambient temperature -5°C

winter load Required water temperature 40 °C
(heating) Return water temperature 30 °C
Required internal air temperature 21 °C
Design peak Ambient temperature 32 °C
summer load Relative humidity 60%
(cooling) Required water temperature 7°C
Return water temperature 12 °C
Required internal air temperature 26 °C
Required internal relative humidity 50%
Heat Nominal AT, refrigerant-air 8°C
exchangers Minimum AT water-refrigerant 5°C
The performance parameters adopted to evaluate the system efficiency include the prime mover
net electrical efficiency, the fuel utilization factor, the second law efficiency, and the index of
primary energy savings, respectively defined as:
where the fuel flow considered (mrLei), and the electric power (Pei), refer to the prime mover in
equation (4.2), and to the whole plant (thus including the electrical consumption of the
refrigerating compressors and auxiliaries and the fuel consumption of auxiliary boilers) for
equations (4.3)-(4.5). Thermal load, Qth, refers to the contributes of MTG heat recovery, heat
pump, and auxiliary boiler.
The calculation of IRE is based on reference values for the separate generation of electricity,
heat, and cooling, which are presented in Table 4.5. We will consider two different scenarios;
the first (SI) refers to a realistic average present situation in most industrialized countries, and
the second (S2) refers to state-of-the-art technology.
Table 4.5 Assumptions for reference technology scenarios (yearly average values) - for SI
CO2 specific emissions due to electric generation refer to a carbon + oil + natural gas
fuel mix, while emissions due to heat generation to a naptha + natural gas mix; for S2 all
emissions refer to natural gas only
Scenario 1 Scenario 2
Fuel-to-grid LHV electric efficiency - r|eiiref 38% 55%
Grid electric efficiency - r|grid 92% 95%
Boiler LHV efficiency - T|th,ref 75% 90%
COP refrigerating unit - COPcooi.ref 2.5 4
CO2 specific emissions g/kWhei 600 389
CO2 specific emissions g/MJfuei 72 56
A tri-generation plant faces the necessity to cover the three independent loads, with very
different situations all over the year. The plant could be applied either to:
• supply electricity, heat, and cold following the requested loads;

• export excess electricity to the grid, running continuously at full load;
• intermediate operation strategies.
The alternative investigated here is the first; the system capacity is always set to fulfill peak
demands, thus frequently operating at partial loads. The system is thus completely
independent from the grid, except for backup.
The results of the annual simulations are shown in Table 4.6. All the systems generate the same
amount of electricity, heat, and cooling during the year, but have different nominal sizes. They
reach the maximum power fraction (accounting for the effects of the ambient temperature on
the MTG) during summer; their nominal size is set to operate at about 90 per cent of the system
maximum power during the summer peak conditions, thus with a reserve capacity of
withstanding the occurrence of 10 per cent higher peaks.
Table 4.6 Comparison of the four considered systems
System MTG + AC MTG +HP MTG + HP + AC SOFC + MTG + HP

Plant size and yearly loads
Plant nominal power (15 °C, kWei) 360 370 310 350
SOFC nominal power (kWei) — — — 280
GT nominal power (kWei) 360 370 310 70
HP nominal electric power (kWei) - 120 70 120
AC nominal cooling power (kW) 350 — 300 —
Net electric demand (MWh/y) 643.9
Heat demand (MWh/y) 1193.9
Cooling demand (MWh/y) 818.3
Energy balance
System fuel input (LHV) (MWh/y) 3860 3544 3374 1842
Total fuel exergy (MWh/y) 3961 3636 3461 1890
Purchased electric energy (MWh/y) 48.3
Total electric production
775.6 808.2 791.9 922.1
(load + HP/chillers + aux, MWh/y)
Exhaust gas heat recuperated (MWh/y) 704.0 799.7 660.5 196.3
Boiler heat requested (MWh/y) 577.4 90.5
HP heat production (MWh/y) - 303.7 442.7 907.1
Reversible HP cold production (MWh/y) - 818.3 508.0 818.3
AC cold production (MWh/y) 291.1 - 310.3 -
Chillers cold production (MWh/y) 527.3 - - -
Efficiency and energy-saving index
Yearly average prime mover r|ei 0.215 0.244 0.252 0.571
Yearly average COPHp - 3.7 4.75 4.19
Yearly average COPCOoi - 5.49 4.7 4.48
Yearly average fuel utilization factor 0.688 0.750 0.787 1.442
Yearly average II law efficiency 0.192 0.210 0.220 0.403
Yearly average IRE (S1) 0.097 0.169 0.208 0.559
Yearly average IRE (S2) -0.308 -0.201 -0.144 0.376
Primary energy-saving (toe/y), S1 43.8 71.1 85.6 217.4
Primary energy-saving (toe/y), S2 -78.3 -51.0 -36.4 95.3
CO2 reduction (t/y), S1 141.9 205.9 240.2 549.7
CO2 reduction (%), S1 15.4 22.3 26.1 59.6
CO2 reduction (t/y), S2 -183.9 -119.8 -85.5 223.9
CO2 reduction (%), S2 -30.9 -20.1 -14.3 37.5
Four systems are considered.
1. MTG + AC - The micro-turbine generator nominal output (360 kW) is selected in order to
generate all electricity demand, including that required by remote chillers. Thermal power
recovered by MTG is used in winter for heat demand, and in summer to feed an absorption
chiller (AC). Winter peaks are covered by auxiliary boiler, and summer peaks by remote
chillers.
2. MTG + HP - the MTG electrical output is partly used by a variable speed compressor that
can act as a heat pump and/or as a chiller (nominal electric power 120 kW). MTG nominal
output is slightly higher (370 kW), since all cooling capacity must be generated electrically
(no AC). The auxiliary boiler operates only for back-up.
3. MTG + HP + AC - is a combination of the two previous cases, with both AC and HP: the
electrically driven chiller operates when the cooling power generated by AC is not
sufficient. Both MTG and HP nominal power are lower (310 kW and 70 kW respectively).
4. SOFC + MTG + HP - the hybrid cycle has a nominal output (350 kW) lower than the
MTG + HP case, due to the lower power decrease at high ambient temperature.
For all cases, it has been assumed a global 92.5 per cent reliability to simulate a total plant
availability of 90 per cent (with a 5 per cent loss for plant unscheduled out-of-service periods
and 5 per cent for maintenance time, the latter being distributed on low-load periods with a
2.5 per cent equivalent effect on the reliability). System electric and heat output are
consequently reduced, while auxiliary boiler heat is used to cover the entire thermal demand
during plant unavailability; the purchased electricity consumption to cover the electricity
demand is computed under the same assumptions. The primary energy consumption is
therefore calculated as the system fuel input for the yearly operated hours, increased by the
primary energy consumption requested to cover the electric, thermal, and cooling load during
system unavailability.
The following comments can be drawn from the results shown in the tables.
• The comparison of the yearly average COP shows that higher values are obtained by those
configurations where the heat pump system works more continuously and closer to its
nominal capacity; the hybrid plant is penalized in the cooling COP with respect to the
MTG plant because of the more frequent necessity of a contemporary heat and cool
production .
• The yearly average IRE, if referred to the 'advanced' scenario (S2), is positive only for the
hybrid system, showing that even with the adoption of variable-speed heat pumps and
absorption chiller, a 'prime mover' for distributed power generation with electrical
efficiency in the range of 30 per cent can not compete from the point of view of primary
energy savings and CO2 reduction with a state-of-the-art efficient centralized power
distribution. The results are very different for the 'conventional' scenario (SI), where the
micro-turbine system always gives the possibility of achieving significant energy savings
and CO2 reductions, with a yearly average IRE close to 20 per cent.
• The yearly average fuel utilization factor of the hybrid system (Table 4.6) exceeds 144 per
cent thanks to the extremely high average electric efficiency (0.57) and to the heat pump
operation. All the MTG systems show much poorer performances, primarily because of the
lower electrical efficiency (with a yearly average close to 0.25). Even exploiting the heat
pump and the absorption chiller, the annual balance shows a fuel utilization factor, which
does not exceed 0.8. During both summer and half-season, 30 -H 35 per cent of the daily
operating hours show a negative IRE, due to the very low load requested.
• Not surprisingly, the GT + HP + AC configuration achieves better performances, thanks to
the much more efficient use of the exhaust-gas heat recovery during summer operation.
Thanks to the lower heat pump nominal power required (70 versus 120 kW), this system can
furthermore utilize a smaller gas turbine, working with higher average loads. These
advantages are partially compromised by two factors:
- (i) during half season operation it is necessary to operate the heat pump both for heating
and cooling (thus with lower COP than for the simple cooling of the GT + HP system),
due to the large amount of heat subtracted to the exhaust gases by the absorption chiller;
'in these cases, the condensing temperature increases, thus COP decreases.
- (ii) the operation of a double cooling system (HP + AC) instead of a single system (HP
only) is penalized by higher auxiliary losses. As a global result, the difference in the
total fuel input of the two systems (MTG + HP + AC versus MTG + AC) is close to
12.5 per cent.
4.5 Economic analysis

As all the plants considered are connected to the same loads, and would therefore have the
same economic income whatever is the tariff scenario, it is possible to compare their
economic merits simply by their investment and operation costs.
The most relevant assumptions related to the cost of components and to the parameters
involved in the financial analysis are indicated in Table 4.7. For the MTG a 'target' specific
cost of 600 S/kWel is assumed (25), while SOFC investment assumptions are consistent with
the mid-term projected cost evolution of current manufacturers (26); conventional component
costs are assumed based on a recent survey of commercial products (27).
Table 4.7 Plant specific investment costs and operational costs
Investment specific costs

SOFC ($/kWd) 2500*
Micro-turbine ($/kWe!) 600
Heat pump ($/kWe!) 800
Absorption chiller ($/kWCOO|) 280
Distributed chillers ($/kWe,) 600
Fuel and O&M costs
Fuel (LHV=34.06 MJ/Sm3, density
0.694 kg/Sm3at 15 °C, 1.013 bar, $/Sm3) u 5
^
O&M ($/kWhei) SOFC+GT 0.008
O&M ($/kWhei) GT 0.006
* Inclusive of fuel cells substitution costs at
operating life end.
With the hypotheses of Table 4.7, considering an operating life of 10 years and 5 per cent
interest rate, the most cost effective configuration is the GT + HP + AC system, which has the
lowest investment costs, thanks to the reduced micro-turbine and heat pump size. This plant
configuration has an advantage on the total annual costs of about 4 per cent over the GT + HP
system and of about 18 per cent over the more expensive hybrid system. Only with a much
lower investment cost (1500 versus 2500 $/kW) or with a higher fuel cost (0.45 versus 0.25
$/Sm3) the hybrid configuration could exploit its lower consumption and achieve the first
position in this comparison.
It should be pointed out that this comparison does not account for the great advantages
yielded by the hybrid configuration with respect to CC>2 emissions (ranging between 41.8 and
61.3 per cent with respect to the conventional scenario of Table 4.5) and primary energy
savings. These merits should call for the adoption of incentives to help this technology to
achieve economic feasibility.
A further way to improve the plant economics, which involves tariff discussion and which is
not considered here, could be to operate the micro-turbine or the hybrid at full load during
electricity peak demand periods (when the utility company rates are higher), exporting excess
electricity to the grid. The load diagrams suggest also the alternative opportunity to shut down
the system during very low load periods (i.e. night hours in summer and half season),
purchasing electricity from the grid, to avoid operating with very low electrical efficiency.
4.6 Conclusions
The electric, heating, and cooling demand of residential and tertiary buildings is generally
characterized by large variations during the day, the week, the season. A one-degree-of-
freedom device, like an MTG (featuring a single value of thermal output for each value of
electrical output), is not the best solution to fit this request.
The presented results indicate that the best solution for a tri-generation plant based upon an
MTG is the combined use of an absorption chiller and of a compressor driven by a variable-
speed 'electrical shaft' (third column in Tables 4.6 and 4.8). The ratio between electric and
heat (or cold) output can thus be varied from zero to infinity and the high COPs achievable
improve the 'thermodynamic quality' of the system. Advantages are in term of lower capital
cost (about 15 per cent), lower fuel input (about 12 per cent), and lower COa emissions,
towards the simpler MTG cycle of Fig. 4.8 (first column in Tables 4.6 and 4.8).
Table 4.8 Breakdown of annual costs
G7 + HP SOFC + GT+HP
Plant investment costs
GT or SOFC + GT ($) 216 000 222 000 186 000 745 000
Heat pump1 ($) - 144 000 84000 144 000
Absorption chiller ($) 98 000 — 84 000 -
Distributed chiller units ($) 66000 - - -
Total plant investment costs ($) 380 000 366 000 354 000 889 000
Annual costs
Fuel annual costs ($/year) 102020 93 645 89 158 48 673
O&M annual costs ($/year) 4654 4849 4751 7377
Total fuel + O&M annual costs ($/year) 106 674 98 494 93 910 56 050
Capital annual costs2 ($/year) (*) 49 210 47 397 45 843 115 126
Total annual costs ($/year) 155 884 145 891 139 753 171 176
Cost savings
Fuel and O&M annual cost saving
0.0 7.7 12.0 47.5
(% of GT+AC term)
Capital annual cost variation
0.0 3.7 6.8 -133.9
(% of GT+AC term)
1
At least three units (3*50 per cent) are always present, to insure redundancy
2
Operating life 10 years, interest rate 5 per cent
However, even exploiting all the thermodynamic benefits of the addition of variable speed
heat pumps, MTGs can not compete with modern large-scale, natural-gas fired combined
cycles (scenario 2) from the point of view of energy-saving and carbon dioxide emissions.
The adoption of 'hybrid cycles' (a technology not yet commercially available, with
unpredictable investment costs) would greatly improve the energetic performance of the
system and would be a much more environmentally benign solution. Hybrid systems can
reach net electrical efficiency well above the best combined-cycle, with negligible pollutant
emissions. At the stipulated natural gas specific cost (0.25 $/Sm3) the savings in fuel expenses
are anyway not sufficient to justify the stipulated SOFC specific investment of 2500 $/kW, a
figure often stated by manufacturers as a projected cost. The simulation indicates that only
with a substantial reduction of the investment costs (i.e. below 1500 $/kW) or with adequate
incentives (carbon taxes or penalizations for polluting emissions, in absence of a strong
increase in the fuel costs), the hybrid SOFC + GT technology can reach an economic
advantage.
References
(1) Campanari, S. and Macchi, E. (1998) 'Thermodynamic analysis of advanced power

cycles based upon solid oxide fuel cells, gas turbines and Rankine bottoming cycles',
ASME paper 98-GT-585.
(2) Campanari, S. (1999) 'Full load and part-load performance prediction for integrated
SOFC and microturbine systems', ASME paper 99-GT-065.
(3) Campanari, S. (2000) 'Thermodynamic model and parametric analysis of a tubular
SOFC module', Journal of Power Sources, Vol. 92, pp. 26-34, Nov. 2000.
(4) Campanari, S. and Macchi, E. (2001) 'The integration of atmospheric molten
carbonate fuel cells with gas turbine and steam cycles', ASME paper 2001-GT-382,
ASME Turbo Expo, New Orleans, June 2001.
(5) Campanari, S. and Macchi, E. (2001) 'Comparative analysis of hybrid cycles based on
molten carbonate and solid oxide fuel cells', ASME paper 2001-GT-383, ASME Turbo
Expo, New Orleans, June 2001.
(6) Barker, T. (1997) (editor) 'Power-gen international '96: micros, catalysts and
electronics', Turbomachinery International, Vol. 38, No 1, pp 19-21, Jan/Feb 1997.
(7) De Biasi, V. (1998) 'Low cost and high efficiency make 30 to 80 kW microturbines
attractive', Gas turbine world, Pequot Publishing Inc., No 1-1998.
(8) Carno, J., Cavani, A., and Liinanki, L. (1998) 'Micro gas turbine for combined heat
and power in distributed generation', ASME paper 98-GT-309.
(9) Veyo, S. and Forbes, C. (1998) 'Demonstrations based on Westinghouse's prototype
commercial AES design', Proc. of the Third European Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Forum,
pp 79-86.
(10) Sukkel, J. (2000) 'Two years experience with the 100 kW SOFC cogeneration unit at
Arnhem' proc. of the 4th European SOFC Forum, Lucerne, Switzerland, pp 159—166,
July 2000.
(11) Vora, D. S. (2000) 'Southern California Edison 200 kWe pressurized SOFC power
system', proc. of the 4th European SOFC Forum, Lucerne, Switzerland, pp 175-183,
July 2000.
(12) Veyo, S., Shockling, L. A., Dederer, J. T., Gillett, J. E., and Lundberg, W. L. (2000)
'Tubular solid oxide fuel cell/gas turbine hybrid cycle power systems - status', ASME
paper 2000-GT-550.
(13) Bently, C., Farooque, M., Maru, H., and Leitman, J. (2000) 'Direct fuel cell™
commercialization', Fuel Cell Seminar, Portland.
(14) Farooque, M., Kush, A., Leo, A., Maru, H., and Skok, A. (1998) 'Direct fuel cell
development and demonstration activities at energy research corporation', Fuel Cell
Seminar, Palm Springs.
(15) Torazza, A., Dufour, A., Perfumo, A., Gegundez, J., Sanson, F., and Moreno, A.
(1998) 'MOLCARE development towards commercial power plants based on 500 kW
standard modules', Power-Gen Europe '98, pp 317-331, Milan, Italy, June 1998.
(16) Hirschenhofer, J. H., Stauffer, D. B., Engleman, R. R., and Klett, M. G. (1998)
'Fuel cells Handbook (4th Ed.)', Parsons Co. for U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).
(17) Day, M. J. (2000), 'Solid oxide fuel cells for power generation', 4th European SOFC
Forum, Lucem, July 2000.
(18) Massardo, A. F. and Lubelli, F. (1998) 'Internal reforming solid oxide fuel cell-gas
turbine combined cycles (IRSOFC-GT) - Part A: cell model and cycle thermodynamic
analysis', ASME paper 98-GT-577.
(19) Leeper, J. D., (1999) 'The hybrid cycle: integration of a fuel cell with a gas turbine',
ASME paper 99-GT-430.
(20) Stephenson, D. and Ritchey, I. (1997) 'Parametric study of fuel cell and gas turbine
combined cycle performance', ASME paper 97-GT-340.
(21) Lobachyov, K. and Richter, H. J. (1997), 'Addition of highly efficient bottoming
cycles for the Nth-generation molten carbonate fuel cell power plant', ASME Journal of
Energy Resources Technology, Vol. 119, pp 103-108, June 1997.
(22) Braun, R. J., Gaggioli, R. A., and Dun bar, W. R. (1999) 'Improvements of a molten
carbonate fuel cell power plant via exergy analysis', ASME Journal of Energy
Resources Technology, Vol. 121, pp 277-285, Dec. 1999.
(23) Massardo, A. F. and Bosio, B. (2000) 'Assessment of molten carbonate fuel cell
models and integration with gas and steam cycles', ASME paper 2000-GT-174.
(24) EPRI (1993) TR-102931, 'Nth generation 2 MW carbonate fuel cell power plant', Final
Report, Sept. 1993.
(25) De Biasi, V. (2001) 'DOE developing technology base for advanced microturbine
designs', Gas Turbine World, Pequot publishing, Vol. 31, No. 4, July 2001.
(26) Veyo, S. (2001) 'Solid oxide fuel cells: the Siemens-Westinghouse technology',
seminar 'Advanced technologies for distributed cogeneration', Politecnico di Milano,
April 2001.
(27) Bombarda, P. (2001) 'Survey of commercial absorption and electrical chiller units',
Technical report, Dept of Energetics, Politecnico di Milano (in Italian).
E Macchi and S Campanari

Energy Department, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
5
Design Reliability of Micro-turbines

I J Stares and Q J Mabbutt
Abstract
The micro-turbine or small gas turbine potentially offers the user a wide range of benefits in
terms of operational and fuel flexibility, reliability, service performance, and maintainability
for small-scale, local power generation applications. In the UK where primary narrow fuel cost
ratios are the norm, it is likely that most micro-turbine-based installations will be configured to
utilize both the electrical and thermal energy [combined heat and power (CHP)].
To realize the full potential of the technology, it will be necessary to convince the generally
sceptical audience that either has experience of small-scale, reciprocating-based CHP or
knows of its pitfalls. Much of this audience has felt almost disenfranchised from the small
scale CHP market. The micro-turbine now offers a technology which will potentially re-dress
this balance.
As with all disruptive technologies, there are a number of issues that will need to be addressed
before the technology is widely accepted. Some of these issues, such as the political/economic
climate, the impact of climate change legislation, and NETA (new electricity trading
arrangements), are beyond the scope of this Chapter. In truth, many of the issues are not within
the direct control of the micro-turbine manufacturer, packer, or distributor. What concerns the
majority of these is the marketing of the technology: its performance, longevity, and
serviceability. All these are, to a greater or lesser extent, determined by the initial design,
quality of manufacture, and subsequent installation.
5.1 The micro-turbine

The generic micro-turbine can be divided into three primary sub-systems:
• mechanical - including turbine, compressor, generator, and recuperator;
• electrical - incorporating main control software, inverter, and power firmware;
• fuel - incorporating fuel delivery and combustion chamber.
Each manufacturer or packager has to integrate all three sub-systems using sound pragmatic
engineering and robust software. The success of this will largely determine the viability of
their respective product range and in what is likely to be a highly competitive market place. It
is not the intention of this Chapter to implicitly compare product X with product Y, it is only
intended to highlight where some design decisions may impact on performance and
serviceability. Some of the integration sub-systems, such as:
• gas compressor (internal/external);

• waste heat recovery unit;
will also have an impact on the through-life performance of the package and, therefore, needs
to be included in any design reliability study of micro-turbine-based systems.
5.2 Mechanical sub-system

The generic micro-turbine has been derived from the auxiliary power unit (APU), or air
starter, for the aircraft industry. In these applications they have seen many millions of
cumulative run hours.
Irrespectively, the micro-turbine for stationary and vehicular applications must be regarded as
a distant cousin, as the latest variants usually incorporate advances in inverter, recuperator,
and generator technologies and adopt different control philosophies to cater for their intended
operating environment. Mechanically, the micro-turbine is generally a single-shaft, gas turbine
with compressor, power turbine, and permanent magnet alternator being mounted on the same
shaft.
Generally, the micro-turbine incorporates centrifugal flow compressors, and radial inflow turbine.
From a design, performance, and durability point of view this makes good sense, as it ensures:
• single-stage compressor and expansion;

• simple and rugged construction;
• less performance drop due to the foreign object entrainment;
• wider range of stable operating conditions between surge and choke limits.
The comparatively low operating temperature of the turbine (usually less than
1000 "C/1832 °F) is very benign metallurgically. This allows the use of uncoated hot end
components, usually from wrought alloys, such as inconel or hastalloy, improving tolerances
and production costs, irrespective of the turbine geometry. The lack of exotic alloys with
thermal ageing properties, thermal barrier coatings, and other direct blade-cooling
requirements should ensure a uniform through life performance.
Compressor materials range from cast iron, aluminium, to stainless steel. Again most casting
and machining techniques ensure a precision component with high tolerances and good
through-life performance.
The normal generator configuration is a two-pole permanent magnet alternator which is

mounted on the cold end of the compressor turbine shaft. The alternator is usually that of a
drum construction with Samarium cobalt magnets, aligned axially, being the normal core, with
Design Reliability of Micro-turbines 69
a copper-wound iron stator. This arrangement offers efficiencies of 92-93 per cent at 50 kW,
improving slightly as power output increases. Despite the cost penalty of Samarium cobalt
over neodymium, the former has improved power density (reduced core weight) and thermal
and magnetic stability.
The shaft of the micro-turbine is supported on either airfoil or conventional oil-lubricated

mechanical bearings. Capstone and Honeywell (GE) manufacturers, both of which have
significant propriety technology in this field, favour the former. While airfoil bearings are
considered a new technology, this is erroneous, as they have been widely used in the
aforementioned APU applications. There is considerable debate surrounding the longevity,
and durability of the airfoil in comparison to the oil-lubricated, mechanical-bearing system.
The experience of the MiniGen, powered by Capstone product is that:
• there has been no air foil-bearing failures;

• potential customers see the benefit of an air-cooled, lubricated system;
• air bearings have a reliable technology image (which is compatible with the micro-turbine
image of a clean, reliable power and energy source);
• in some emission-critical applications (horticulture) the long-term performance of oil-
lubricated bearing systems and seals may preclude their use in these applications.
In truth, the bearing debate will only be fully resolved when comprehensive in service
performance has been achieved. Both bearing systems should offer good through life
performance, although the maintenance of an oil inventory must have implications on
maintenance costs. Loss of oil lubrication is inevitably terminal at the high shaft speeds
(>30 000 r/min) associated with the micro-turbine.
The thermal efficiency of the simple cycle gas turbine (air standard cycle) increases with
increasing pressure ratio. Most micro-turbines operate at pressure ratios of between three to
five to one, which equates to a maximum theoretical thermal efficiency of between 27 and
37 per cent. Most micro-turbine manufacturers see maximizing the electrical generating
efficiency as a key performance criterion, thus most systems incorporate an integrated
recuperator. Excepting for purely simple cycle units for power or low quantity steam
production, even in systems where the ratio between electrical and thermal output is varied,
some form of recuperation is always employed.
The recuperator is normally metallic of a matrix or honeycomb-type construction. Normal
design constraints are the need for a cost-effective, high-thermal effectiveness ratio. Long-
term recuperator performance will be a function of fuel type and thermal cycling history.
Under normal operating conditions, engine start and stop procedures should be defined so as to
reduce the build up of high thermal stresses within the recuperator. Even in instances of rapid
engine shut down, there should be enough control/monitoring to ensure a minimization of
thermal excursions. Another feature that may improve recuperator life will be the allowable
thermal mechanical deformation due to creep/fatigue interactions. Experience suggests that
good through-life recuperator performance is more likely to be cost effective with an
integrated design where the mass flows and temperatures are carefully controlled. Good
maintenance-testing procedures will be important, particularly on engines that operate on fuels
other than natural gas.
With low natural gas distribution pressures, cost-effective, gas fuel compression will be
necessary for the majority of UK applications. A range of internal and external units is being
proposed and marketed. Currently the rotary vane-type compressor is beginning to be
specified for a number of UK projects. The unit, derived from a standard air compressor, has
demonstrated a good performance and safety record. Other units, whether rotary flow or screw
devices, are still being evaluated.
The gas compressor was seen as the Achilles heel of the micro-turbine. This is, however, not
proving to be the case. The practical engineering of good basic designs, with reference to the
relevant codes of practice, are resulting in highly effective units, contributing significantly to
the viability of the micro-turbine technology. Good installation and maintenance should result
in long service lives, similar to those of a pure air compressor.
The heat recovery unit is normally a two-media device (water/exhaust product) that is either
integrated in to the micro-turbine package or forms a modular component of the system. In
general, they are designed to heat exchange from moderate exhaust temperatures of less than
400 °C, with moderate water side pressures (< 10 barg), and in most cases modulate the ratio
of thermal output. The heat exchanger is an important item for the majority of installations as
it has a significant impact on payback periods. Good installation and maintenance of water
quality should ensure high levels of through-life performance.
5.3 Electrical sub-system

The electrical sub-system incorporates both the engine control/monitoring hardware, software,
and power conditioning. Engine control software is normally a proprietary issue for each
manufacturer. In general, most utilize a main central processing unit (CPU) which co-
ordinates, via communication highways, to other discreet processor units. Most durability and
performance criteria will concern the real-time operating software (RTOS) and its ability to
deal with all the operating modes under service conditions. The key features of the software
and its functionality will be concerned with:
• engine protection and control;

• power conditioning;
• grid protection;
• user/emergency shutdown;
• operation of fault logging;
• diagnostic capabilities;
• remote and local communication;
• upgrade ability;
• user interface.
The control software, whether for the engine or power electronics, is powerful, but normally
incorporates conventional chip set architecture, running at normal clock speeds. Differing
manufacturers have differing control protocols although these are normally controlled by the
turbine capabilities. Some engines, such as the Elliot turbine, are fixed-speed units with
variable output power being controlled by the power conditioning electronics and engine
fuelling sub-systems. Others, such as the Capstone micro-turbine, are variable speed engines
which the power demand is controlled by engine speed. Both control philosophies, as such,
Design Reliability of Micro-turbines 71
present no long-term performance issues from a software point of view. However, there are
some issues over combustion stability when running a fixed-speed turbine part-load. Most
users have little interest in the control software but appreciate the comprehensive and
understandable user interface offered by the Capstone micro-turbine and some other
manufacturers. To fully realize the potential of the micro-turbine/CHP systems in the UK, it
will be necessary to demonstrate the climate change levy compliance. For integrated packages
such as the Bowman TG, Turbec T100 units, this should pose no real problem. For other
manufacturers and distributors who wish to retain the flexibility of the modular concept,
communication channels will need to be incorporated into the user front-end software. This
approach has the advantage that the software can incorporate user-determined profiles and
facilities.
The main feature of the micro-turbine is the integrated power electronics, which are utilized by
all the major manufacturers. As with the control software, the exact details of the power
conditioning modules are proprietary to each manufacturer, although, again, the basic
principles are usually similar, in that the high frequency AC signal from the generator is
rectified (DC Bus) and inverted to the required AC output. The manufacturers can or will offer
a range of output configurations, in direct or alternating current mode, both parallel with, and
stand-alone from, the utility supply. The durability of the power condition electronics will
depend upon:
• built quality;
• power densities and transients;
• reliability heat management of the electrical components.
At present, too little public domain information exists on the in-service issues with power-
conditioning electronics. It is expected that as build numbers increase, power electronics-
conditioning module quality will improve further. This, in parallel with the advances in solid
state electronics in areas such as matrix invertors and gallium based semi-conductors, will
ensure that the exact configuration of future power electronics conditioning is likely to change.
Whether these advances become available to the existing customer base is unclear although
the basic interface between the mechanical and electrical sub-systems will be similar, so
upgrade ability should be possible.
5.4 Fuel sub-system

Generally, the reliability of the fuel sub-system will be dependent upon:
• fuel filtration;
• robust fuel metering;
• injector and ignitor performance.
Normally, the filtration and injectors will form part of the standard maintenance procedure.
The fuelling of the micro-turbine is normally by some form of PI (proportional/integral)
control loop which maintains either turbine exhaust temperature and/or speed. The operating
temperatures of the engine should ensure long-term combustor life under
normal operating conditions. However, durability of the hot end components will depend upon
fuel quality and type and in any event should be part of the visual examination within the
normal maintenance schedule.
5.5 Summary
The basic micro-turbine is being promoted as offering a range of benefits for the user.
Whether these benefits are realized will be the result of good design and technical support of
the various products on offer. The MiniGen product utilizes the Capstone micro-turbine, as
this engine offers great flexibility with high levels of proven performance over a wide range of
operating conditions. The modularity of the MiniGen concept enables a wide diversity of
potential applications.
True assessment of micro-turbine technology will be easier following in-service experience

across a number of sites. The Advantica Technologies Limited, MiniGen product has, at
the time of writing, cumulative, fleet-operating run hours in excess of 43 000 hours. This
corresponds to a total net output of approximately 1.25 GWeh. While it is appreciated that
these headline figures are almost meaningless (the mere action of writing them down makes
them out of date), they do illustrate that micro-turbine-based systems are beginning to
demonstrate long-term performance and reliability.
I J Stares and Q J Mabutt

Advantica Technologies Limited, Loughborough, UK
6
Field Experience with Micro-turbines in
Canada
R Brandon
Abstract
The CANMET Energy Technology Centre (CETC) in Ottawa, Canada has been involved in
the development of micro-turbine technology over the last four years. CETC has identified
heat recovery systems and the use of low British Thermal Unit (BTU) fuels as two key areas
to be developed. This Chapter will review the experience to date of several field trials of
micro-turbines and associated heat recovery systems at installations in institutional buildings.
Some of these projects have been initiated by utilities interested in evaluating the equipment.
In Canada, the initial market for the technology has been the use of oil-field flare gas as fuel
with over 40 units in place in Alberta. An additional potential market would be the use of
landfill gas as a fuel at small or older landfill sites. The experience that CETC has gained with
a Honeywell 75 kW unit at an Ottawa landfill site will be reported on, as well as reliability
and O&M experience.
6.1 Introduction
Micro-turbines can be defined as small, recuperated, gas turbines in the range of 30—500 kW.
The initial commercial units are now available in the 30-100 kW size range with a second
generation of equipment being developed in the 200-400 kW size range. CETC is the
Canadian National Energy Laboratory and is located in Ottawa, Canada. It has been involved
with the testing of early versions of micro-turbine technology since 1998. CETC has a
mandate to support the development of technologies that have the potential to reduce
greenhouse-gas emissions when deployed in Canada and in other countries. Micro-turbines
have an electrical efficiency that is in the range of 22-30 per cent based on fuel LHV. CETC
has focused on developing heat recovery systems that could be used with the micro-turbines
exhaust to increase system efficiency to 70 per cent1 or higher. CETC has also identified
electric and gas utilities as key partners to work with in evaluating the performance of this
technology. The transaction costs associated with the interconnection of small generating
units with the distribution system is also a key issue which will be touched on later in the
Chapter. Over the last two years, CETC has participated in the installation of three field
installations of micro-turbines. This Chapter will present the general experience that is being
accumulated with micro-turbine applications.
6.2 Experience in the period 1998 to 2000

It would be reasonable to state that initially, all micro-turbine suppliers (with the exception of
Turbec) allowed their marketing groups to get ahead of the proven ability of the micro-turbine
product to deliver reliable power. Capstone experienced failures of the bearings of their rotary
vane compressor when using low (less than 2 psig) gas inlet pressures. Honeywell had several
mechanical and power electronics issues that delayed the release of their pre-production units
(Block 2)2. Elliott had problems also with their power electronics systems. However, from the
start of 2000, the reliability of units in the field has improved. This Chapter will concentrate
on reporting the experience with systems that have been installed after January 2000.
6.3 Systems now available

Commercial equipment is now available as presented in Table 6.1. Performance data here
have been taken from manufacturers' data sheets using natural gas. Some of the suppliers also
have models available that operate on fuels such as propane and light fuel oil. The Capstone
330 and the Honeywell 75 units have been available for about a year. The 100 kW unit from
Turbec has about 30 pre-production units operating in Europe and will not be available in
North America in 2002. The Elliott 80 kW unit is in pre-production field testing with
availability expected to be in late 2002. The Ingersoll-Rand turbine is also in pre-production
unit testing and will be available commercially early in 2002.
1
The efficiencies quoted in this report are based on higher heating value (HHV), which excludes the heat of
condensation of the water vapour in the combustion products. This is the common method of reporting the
efficiency of power generating units. Fuel is often reported on a HHV basis which, in the case of gas, is about 10
per cent greater than the LHV. When comparing the total system efficiency with boiler systems make such they
are compared on the same fuel basis.
2
In November 2001 following the failure of the Honeywell-GE merger, Honeywell Power Systems was closed
and the units were taken back by the supplier.
Field Experience with Micro-turbines in Canada 75
Table 6.1 Currently available micro-turbines
Unit Power rating Efficiency % NOx 15% O, Exhaust Temperature

(ISO) kW (LHV) °C
Capstone 330 with 28 25 (+/- 2%) <9 ppm 261
internal gas
compressor
Capstone 330 with 30 27(+/- 2%) <9 ppm 261
no gas compressor
Capstone 60 with no 60 26 (+/- 2%) <9 ppm 343
gas compressor
Mariah Heat plus 60 <9 ppm
power
Honeywell 75kW 75 27 50 ppm 280 (max)
with no gas
compressor
Elliott 80 N/a N/a 288
Bowman with no gas 80 26 N/a 95 (1 50 kW hot water
compressor at 70 °C inlet water
temperature)
Ingersoll-Rand 70 33 <9 ppm 204
TurbecTlOO 105 30 <15 ppm 85 (1 67 kW hot water
CHP(ABB/Volvo) supply at 50 °C inlet
with gas compressor water temperature)
6.4 Heat recovery systems

6.4.1 Honeywell 75 kW with Unifin International heat recovery system
As stated earlier CETC decided to concentrate on developing heat recovery systems for
micro-turbines. This was based on the premise that such technology was likely not to be cost-
effective without heat recovery and environmentally was also not appropriate. CETC
identified Unifin International of London, Ontario as a fabricator of specialized heat transfer
systems and funded the early design work needed to develop a system that could be retrofitted
to any commercial micro-turbine. This heat recovery system includes a damper system that
allows the turbine exhaust to bypass the hot-water fin tubing when there is no requirement for
heat. An early version of the heat recovery system was installed on a Honeywell 75 kW Block
2 unit in June 2000 at a Health Canada Laboratory in Toronto. This installation is shown in
Figs 6.1 and 6.2. Of note is the fact that the building return water was routed through the heat
recovery system without installing a glycol intermediate loop. Two pumps are installed on the
water loop connected to the emergency power circuits so that water flow is not lost if grid
power is lost. The piping is sloped to allow for drain down of the system. In two years of
operation, the unit operated for 5400 hours. Downtime was experienced with two change outs
of gas compressors, as well as spark plug, and cooling module replacement. A major
downtime of close to two months occurred in mid-winter when the project team obtained a
special approval for uncertified equipment approval from the regulatory body TSSA due to
concern about the certification of the gas compressor. Enbridge Consumers Gas, Kinectrics,
Public Works Canada, and CETC have funded this project. Mercury Electric of Calgary
supplied the Honeywell micro-turbine. With the return of the Honeywell 75 kW turbine in
February 2002, the group is planning to replace the turbine with a Cummins/Capstone 60 kW
turbine coupled with a second generation Unifin heat recovery system.
Fig. 6.1 Henywell 75 kW installed at Midland Road Health Canada Laboratory,

Toronto
Fig. 6.2 View of Unifin International Heat Exchanger

6.4.2 Emission performance

Low NOx emissions will be very important for micro-turbine technology, which will be
installed in cities, and must not add to urban air quality issues. The critical emissions are CO
and NOx. ORTECH Environmental carried out the emission testing of the turbine on January
4th 2001. The results are shown in Table 6.2 with emissions referenced to the gross power
output. Since this testing was done, Honeywell has announced a low NOx version of their
micro-turbine. For comparison, tests carried out for Kinectrics by ORTECH on a Capstone
330 kW in November 1999 showed much better performance as shown in Table 6.3. It is
expected that most micro-turbines should be able to meet the 0.1 g/kWh level for NOx
emissions.
Table 6.2 Emission data Honeywell 75 kW Turbine
Power level ( KW) Carbon monoxide g/kWh NOxg/kWh

75 2.35 1.7
50 23.9 1.2
25 85.4 1.3
Table 6.3 Emission data Capstone 30 kW Turbine
Power level ( kW) Carbon monoxide g/kWh NOxg/kWh

28 0.129 0.03
14 0.746 2.1
7 2.3 10.8
6.4.3 ENMAX Installation

Another Honeywell 75 kW unit was installed by ENMAX at its South Service Center in
Calgary. This was connected to the building heating system. A picture of this installation is
shown in Fig. 6.3. This unit has about 4100 hours of operation to the end of February 2002.
Fig. 6.3 Honeywell 75 kW and Unifin International Heat recovery unit
6.4.4 BC Hydro Installation

A third Honeywell 75 kW unit was installed by BC Hydro at their Powerex Laboratory. This
unit has had relatively little operating experience as the utility was using the unit primarily to
evaluate its electrical performance.
6.4.5 Mariah Energy Corporation CHP system

A Canadian company based in Calgary has developed a combined heat and power concept
based on both the Capstone 30 kW and 60 kW natural gas units. A prototype 30 kW CHP
system was installed in a multi-unit apartment and office complex in Calgary. Two pre-
production units have been fabricated; one using natural gas has been installed in Calgary, and
the other using light-fuel oil has been tested at CETC's laboratory. The light-fuel oil unit is
shown in Fig. 6.4. The light-fuel oil unit is a joint project of Nova Scotia Power and CETC.
The turbine and heat recovery unit was tested at CETC and was found to have a total system
efficiency of 70 per cent at a water inlet temperature of 30 °C. The turbine was then moved to
Halifax, Nova Scotia, and installed in the Tuft's Cove generating station. The turbine has
accumulated 1500 hours of operation with an electrical efficiency of 25.5 per cent and a total
efficiency of 70 per cent with an average water inlet temperature of 30 °C. The plan is to
move the unit to a small commercial site for an extended field trial in the fourth quarter 2002.
Experience with the light-fuel oil at CETC has been good in terms of unit reliability. Fuel
system problems have been found in Halifax and have delayed the deployment of the unit.
The unit is a standalone unit, which means it has the capability of operating grid parallel or
grid independent.
Fig. 6.4 Mariah Energy Corporation CHP 30 kW unit
6.5 Experience in the oil and gas industry

One of the first market areas that micro-turbines have been deployed in any numbers has been
in the oil and gas industry, mainly in Alberta. There are several reasons for this. The first is
that deregulation has reduced, but not eliminated, the high interconnection and transaction
costs which are a critical barrier for the economics of small power projects. The second has
been high power costs due to the capacity shortage in the Province. The Alberta Government
has also been encouraging oil producers to reduce the amount of gas flared at oil battery sites.
This source of free- or low-cost fuel, combined with reasonable power prices, offers an
economic opportunity. Of course realizing distributed generation with new technology has not
been without its problems. There are three Canadian companies that have been working in this
area and their activities to the end of 2001 are shown in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4 Micro-turbine installations in Western Canada
Company Technology Number Fleet operational

of units hours to June 2001
in field
Mercury Electric Honeywell 46 85000
PanCanadian Energy Services Capstone 19 60 000
Secure Power Elliott 6 17 000
6.5.1 Experience with Honeywell 75 kW

Mercury has skid mounted the 75 kW unit in numbers up to twelve at a site. It is noted that at
these unit numbers the capital cost impact and operating cost of the gas compressor is
reduced. An early problem was found to be separating out gas liquids and the variable volume
of the flare gas. This has been solved using a large gas receiver, which cools the gas enabling
the gas liquids to be separated and then pumped away. Of note is that Mercury does not
enclose the turbines in a self-framing building as Secure and PanCanadian do. This reduces
the capital cost but leads to winter maintenance challenges. Honeywell is now stating that the
engine core should be changed out at 10 000 hours. Excessive cooling of the turbine enclosure
in very cold temperatures has been noted.
Fig. 6.5 Example of skid-mounted Honeywell 75 kW micro-turbines using flare gas,

location Otter Battery, Red Earth Creek, Alberta
Fig. 6.6 PanCanadian Energy Services 5 Pack Capstone Installation - Robin-Travers

Booster Compressor Site showing the very remote locations at which stand-alone
power units have to serve
6.5.2 Experience with Capstone 30 kW

The 60 kW micro-turbine is only starting to be deployed so all the field experience, to date,
has been with the Capstone 30 kW. Most experience to date has been pioneered by
PanCanadian Energy Services. The longest continuous operation (to January 2001) has been
with one unit that has logged over 20 000 hours of continuous operation. Regular
maintenance has been limited to the changing of oil filters and data recording. The majority of
these units are operating on sweet gas and are installed in both grid connect and grid
independent sites. These units replace reciprocating engines. The initial indicators are that
although the micro-turbine first cost is higher, the lower O&M costs result in a more
economical installation.
6.5.3 Experience with Elliott

Secure Power's first installation was with a 45 kW Elliott that was unrecuperated but used a
Unifin heat exchanger to recover heat for use at a gas processing plant. This unit has since
been replaced by an Elliott 80 kW unit, which is recuperated, but again has heat recovery. A
second installation uses five Elliott 80 kW units to operate a submersible pump. Of note is
that the use of waste heat at gas processing plants can be shown to be a very cost-effective
strategy because oil field heating systems can have low thermal efficiency and the gas saved
in the processing plant can be sold. Elliott had some significant technical issues in early
versions of their micro-turbine but are now using power electronics from Bowman Power of
the United Kingdom with more success.
Fig. 6.7 Secure Power's installation of five Elliott Energy Systems 80 kW units
6.6 Discussion and conclusions on oil field experience

At this stage of development of micro-turbine technology it has been advantageous for the
turbine equipment to be owned and operated by an experienced and knowledgeable operator.
The small size of these micro-turbine units means that O&M and operational support has to
be managed efficiently to ensure that operations are supported and small problems are dealt
with quickly. There have been some early experiences with sour gas operation where division
of responsibilities between the site owner and the equipment supplier has led to project
difficulties. Although the micro-turbine suppliers state that they can be used with sour gas,
operational hours with this type of fuel are low. It is expected, however, that experience in
this area will be accumulated over time. Since many of the flare sites can support multiple
units then, as larger micro-turbines (such as the DTE 400 based on the Pratt &Whitney ST-5)
become available, these would be expected to be installed rather than large multiples of
smaller machines. That being said, increased power plant availability due to the installation of
multiple units has value. A cost and reliability concern is the fuel compression and pre-
treatment which is more expensive than the system required for reciprocating engines.
6.7 Testing with landfill gas fuel

CETC has an agreement to use landfill gas at the Trail Road Landfill site in Ottawa. A 75 kW
Honeywell turbine has been installed at the site together with a Quincy 270 PNG gas
compressor. The landfill gas (LFG) can be spiked with propane for starting and fuel heating
value augmentation. Full power has been achieved with fuel heating values down to 50 per
cent that of natural gas. The methane content of the LFG at the site has fallen over the last two
years and is currently at 29 per cent methane. This has caused problems, as the Quincy gas
compressor is now undersized. At present it is intended to operate with some propane addition
in order to explore the issues associated with siloxane deposits/erosion that has been reported
in other small turbine installations using LFG.
Fig. 6.8 Honeywell micro-turbine located at Trail Road Landfill Site, Ottawa
6.8 Overall conclusions

Canada is starting to accumulate a significant amount of field experience with the use of
micro-turbines in oil field applications. One of the Capstone installations has accumulated
over 20 000 hours of continuous operation on sweet flare gas. The special situation of
high power costs and waste fuel means that the technical risk of using this unproven
technology is mitigated to some extent. The micro-turbine suppliers are continuing to refine
their products based on field experience. The initial premise of lower O&M costs with micro-
turbines compared to small reciprocating engines has been shown to be true but the advantage
is reduced by the cost of hot component replacement. Some units have been shown to have
very low NOx emissions. The lifetime of micro-turbine hot-end components and performance
with sour gases however remain to be determined and is a critical economic parameter. In the
building integration and CHP area the high power cost area such as Alberta and perhaps
northern communities show the most promise at this time. The technology component that is
the weakest remains the gas compressor. Better economic potential can be shown in building
applications when an additional value such as backup or emergency power can be credited to
the micro-turbine project.
R Brandon
CANMET Energy Technology Centre, Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, Canada
7
Design Problems in Micro-turbine

Generators
K R Pullen, R Martinez-Botas, and K Buffard
Abstract
This Chapter commences with a discussion of the background of micro-turbine generators

(MTGs), the engines for which have been available for over 50 years yet have only recently
found a mass market application. This has mainly been due to the recent availability of direct
drive high-speed generators (HSGs) and associated power conversion electronics. HSGs are
particularly attractive for distributed power schemes where ultra-low emissions (gaseous and
sound), low maintenance, and high reliability are paramount. However, the design of MTG
systems is very involved and requires careful optimization of thermodynamics, aerodynamics,
structural analysis, bearings, shaft topology, and electrical engineering. Some of the design
choices and difficulties are explained in this Chapter in which the major system components
are discussed. Improved efficiency and reduced cost are essential if the micro-turbine is to
penetrate the power generation market and these requirements place an even greater demand
on the design. A recent review of current MTG technology by Southern California Edison (1)
also highlighted the need to reduce the cost and improve the reliability of ancillary systems
such as fuel processors, gas compressors, recuperators, and power electronics. These issues
must all be addressed if MTG systems are to be competitive.
Notation
heat exchanger effectiveness
Rc compressor pressure ratio
TET turbine entry temperature (K)
nth cycle thermal efficiency
nisen,c, compressor isentropic efficiency
nisen,i turbine isentropic efficiency
wsp engine specific power (kJ/kgK)

APU auxiliary power unit
CFD computational fluid dynamics
FOD foreign object damage
HSG high-speed generator
MTG micro-turbine generator
7.1 Introduction
Micro-turbine engines, generally considered to be in the size range 10-500 kW, have been in
development for over 50 years but until recently commercial applications were few and
mainly for low-volume niche markets. One major drawback was the high shaft speed of the
engine and limited speed range which made mechanical transmission difficult, in the
application of vehicle propulsion units, and drive of a synchronous generator unattractive.
Most engines did not go further than the R&D stage, hence research investment in micro-
turbine engines has been significantly less than on internal combustion engines. All of this has
changed with the development of efficient high-speed generators (HSGs) capable of taking
power directly from the shaft. There are now significant opportunities for innovative engine
and alternator designs although there are still many design problems which must be
overcome. In particular a thermal efficiency level of 40 per cent is widely seen as the barrier
which must be broken if MTGs are to compete against diesel technology and large-scale
power generators (1).
A micro-turbine generator consists of the following major components.
• A gas turbine engine.

• A direct drive high-speed alternator.
• Power conversion electronics.
This Chapter describes the design options for the gas turbine engine and high-speed alternator
with a focus on the limitations which must be overcome in the design of these devices. Power
electronics issues are not addressed here although it must be stated that this subject is far from
trivial and has its own difficulties and opportunities for improvement. It is the availability of
low-cost power electronics which makes the use of high-speed alternators possible.
7.2 The gas turbine engine

A micro-turbine engine consists of the following major components.
• A compressor.
• A combustion chamber and fuel control system.
• A turbine.
• A heat exchanger or recuperator.
• A bearing system.
Design Problems in Micro-turbine Generators 87
It is not possible to design any of these in isolation but rather the engine must be treated as a
system. However, the combustion chamber and the heat exchanger can be separated out to a
certain extent. These two subjects will not be covered in detail here but rather the focus is on
the engine core, the compressor, turbine, and bearings. Recuperator design issues will only be
addressed within a systems design context and no detail is given on detailed construction
options. The design issues for recuperators are covered in detail in reference (2).
The engine can be modelled as a system by means of thermodynamic analysis and this must
be the starting point. This analysis, denoted cycle analysis, can be used to predict the
performance of the engine in terms of efficiency and power output for a given mass flow rate.
It is possible to calculate these values as a function of the following major parameters.
• Compressor pressure ratio, Rc

• Turbine entry temperature, TET
• Heat exchanger effectiveness, Hxeff
The results of these calculations are given in Figs 7.1 and 7.2 for typical micro-turbine design
data based on the conservative performance parameters listed in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Values assumed for the cycle analysis parametric study
Intake pressure ratio 0.9850

Total comp pressure ratio 4:1
Compressor interduct pressure ratio 1.0
Turbine interduct pressure ratio 0.99
Burner exit temperature (K) 1200
Burner efficiency 0.99
Fuel heating value (MJ/kg 49.86
Mechanical efficiency 0.99
Burner pressure ratio 0.98
Turbine exit duct pressure ratio 1.00
Compressor isentropic efficiency 0.85
Turbine isentropic efficiency 0.85
Nozzle pressure ratio 1.03
Heat exchanger effectiveness 0.78
Heat exchanger cold side pressure ratio 0.98
Heat exchanger hot side pressure ratio 0.97
The beneficial effect of increasing turbine entry temperature (TET) is apparent from Fig. 7.2
for both specific power (wsp) and thermal efficiency (nth)- TET can be as high as 1600 K in a
large engine afforded by use of a highly complex cooling system. However, due to the small
size of blades in a micro-turbine, cooling is either impractical or basic, limiting TET to about
1200 K. Substantial research effort has been put into the development of ceramic materials in
order to overcome this limitation although so far, turbine rotors have not been produced which
can reliably resist brittle fracture. Problems with foreign object damage (FOD) mean that
thicker blading is required which in turn compromises aerodynamic performance (3).
Efficiencies of above 30 per cent, can be achieved with a modest TET using a high-
effectiveness heat exchanger (Fig. 7.1). This widely-adopted development route initially
meant that a low Rc was acceptable and simple turbocharger-based systems became widely
available on the market with Rc of around 4:1. Unfortunately, Hxeff is not proportional to
recuperator volume, and for a primary surface recuperator, it has been shown that increasing
effectiveness from 87 to 95 per cent would mean increasing recuperator size by a factor of 2.8
(2). This represents an exorbitant increase in material costs and explains why the recuperator
alone typically accounts for around 25 per cent of total MTG system costs (4). Furthermore,
the need to run at ever-increasing temperatures has meant using exotic materials, further
increasing material costs (2). Using this development route, Fig. 7.1 shows how achieving 40
per cent efficiency has so far proved to be an illusive goal.
Fig. 7.1 Thermal efficiency (nth) versus specific power (wsp) for varying Rc and Hxeff
and constant TET
There are alternative development routes which do not hinge on the development of new,
expensive, or risky technology. A good understanding of the MTG system is essential. For
example, in order to make full use of recent developments in turbine materials (increasing
TET), Rc should be increased to its new optimum level as suggested in Fig. 7.1. It should be
noted that Rc for highest efficiency (nth,) does not coincide with Rc for highest specific power
(wsp) hence a compromise is always needed. Nevertheless, it is known that increasing wsp will
reduce recuperator size (2) and so there is a two-fold benefit of going to higher Rc. System
synergies such as this should be understood and fully explored. This is currently the focus of
R&D at Imperial College where cycle analysis and compressor design are brought together to
offer a new, low risk development route.
Design Problems in Micro-turbine Generators
Fig. 7.2 Cycle efficiency and specific power for varying TET and Rc and constant Tjeff
Ultimately, for a given Hxeffw& TET, the only way in which performance can be improved is
by increasing compressor and turbine isentropic efficiencies, T]ism.c and T/ise^,. The effect of the
latter on engine efficiency is plotted in Fig. 7.3 and is substantial. This then leads to a
consideration of the compressor, turbine, and shaft arrangements. Although the combustion
chamber is an extremely important element, it does not directly affect engine performance,
assuming high combustion efficiency, but rather levels of toxic emissions.
Fig. 7.3 Effect of nisen,c, Tiisen,t on engine thermal efficiency

7.3 Compressor
In all but the larger sizes of MTGs, centrifugal or mixed-flow compressors are preferred to the
axial type on the grounds of efficiency and development cost. A typical example of such a
compressor is shown in Fig. 7.4. Pressure ratios of 4:1 are easily achievable in a single
aluminium alloy stage readily obtained from turbo charger technology. Going to higher Rc in a
single stage would require more expensive materials such as stainless steel or titanium. The
latter is not yet suitable for mass production and would lose out on high-volume economics. A
multi-stage centrifugal compressor (industrial style) could be used to avoid material issues but
this approach requires a thorough understanding of rotor dynamics issues. Also, inter-stage
passages lead to extra losses and added complexity.
Fig. 7.4 A typical centrifugal compressor used in a micro-turbine engine
In general, once the mass-flow rate and pressure ratio have been specified, shaft speed can
then be chosen. The choice of shaft speed dictates the cross sectional shape of the rotor which
ultimately dictates rotor efficiency. Essentially there is an ideal rotor speed for any given
specification and it is here that design difficulties become apparent. This speed can be
estimated initially by means of specific speeds and in essence, the lower the power output of
the MTG, the higher must be the shaft speed in order to obtain an efficient compressor. At
50 kW, the optimal compressor speed for 5:1 pressure ratio is around 100 000 r/min and
anything lower in power means even higher speeds. This has immediate implications for the
bearing and shaft system and the high-speed alternator. Given that high-speed alternators are
currently unable to operate at such speeds and powers, the two main solutions are:
• sacrifice compressor efficiency and operate at lower speeds;

• use a two-shaft engine, drive the alternator using a free power turbine and accept higher
engine costs.
At MTG powers of less that 50 kW, production of an efficient compressor presents a

fundamental problem even if shaft speed is not limited since the physical size is so small that
relative tip clearances and manufacturing accuracy are difficult to control. Furthermore, in
order to maintain tight tip clearances, it is vital to understand rotor dynamics and general
shaft/bearing design.
7.4 Turbine
Turbine design in an MTG imposes a number of challenges which make the selection of the
component type rather dependent on the overall layout of the machine. It is clear from the
previous sections that a very high speed of rotation may be expected on the gas generator
turbine to provide acceptable levels of power; this requirement is somehow relaxed if a power
turbine is introduced. A two stage turbine design allows a different shaft speed and thus a
lower and more acceptable angular velocity can be imposed on the power turbine. The choice
of type of turbine can be axial, radial, or mixed flow. Axial turbines at very small sizes have
not been investigated in great detail, particularly in respect to reliable experimental data. A
challenging research program is underway at Imperial College to address this issue, but
problems in detailed measurements and validation with CFD are foreseen. Radial turbines
have generally been used for the small sizes of MTG and have the advantage that a single
stage can accept a high-pressure ratio. However, both radial and axial tip clearances must be
controlled leading to mechanical design difficulties. The advantage of a mixed flow turbine is
that it is capable of handling a higher mass flow rate for the same expansion ratio, and it is
more compact than the equivalent radial, the inclusion of well designed nozzles to this
machine will lead to an improved efficiency characteristic.
Recent work on a 3:1 pressure ratio small (70 mm diameter) turbine (5) shown in Fig. 7.5 has
demonstrated the difficulties of measuring accurately the flow velocities at high speeds of
rotation (60 kr/min). Some results obtained from these measurements are shown in Fig. 7.6.
The influence of tip leakage flow on the flow is very significant and should be minimized by
tight clearances and tight fit bearings. Comparisons with CFD have been performed and good
agreement in circumferentially average quantities demonstrated; equivalent comparisons for
blade to blade velocities measured using a gated technique show significant discrepancies.
Fig.7.5 The mixed flow turbine on test using LDA and with cross section geometry (left)
Fig. 7.6 Contours of deviation angle based on gated LDA measurements for 50 per cent
(left) and 70 per cent design speed (right)
Finally, it is clear that at these small sizes the turbine would be uncooled, so the maximum
turbine entry temperature is limited. An interesting and challenging problem would be the
design of a small radial/mixed-flow turbine with cooling. This is possible in this type of
machine as there is more room in the base of the blades; cooling a small axial blade would be
out of the question.
7.5 Bearings
The choice of bearings can be divided into the following categories listed in increasing
complexity of technology:
• oil film;
• high-speed rolling element;
• gas film;
• magnetic.
The first two are used exclusively for large gas turbine engines and in all known cases, the
alternator is mounted on separate bearings and driven via a gearbox unless the engine size is
large.
Oil film bearings have been applied to MTGs and have the benefit of long life if the lubricant
is clean and they also exhibit good damping characteristics. However, the shaft must have a
low diameter and large clearances if losses are to be acceptable. A large oil system must be
used with cooling and oil leakage must be taken care of.
Rolling element technology has developed dramatically in recent years mainly for the
machine tool industry. Large diameter bearings can operate at high speeds using ceramic
hybrid technology and costs are not high. Typical rolling element bearing types are shown in
Fig. 7.7. However, what is needed are high-speed bearings more suited to gas turbines such as
cylindrical roller bearings (g) and double acting thrust bearings (a) and (c) which are
commonly used in large gas turbines. These will probably come when the market for MTGs is
firmly established.
Fig.7.7 Typical rolling element bearing types for high-speed operation

Typically only angular contact bearings (b) and (e) are available and these either need to be
used in a back to back configuration which reduces speed capability or need to be spring
loaded, which is not ideal. Oil seals are still required and an oil system must be provided
which is a disadvantage. Arduous temperatures normally preclude the use of grease-packed
bearings, an alternative to oil lubrication.
Air bearings have been developed specifically for MTG application with much of the
technology being a spin off from aerospace applications such as auxiliary power units (APUs)
and air cycle machines. The favourite technology appears to be self activated foil bearings and
these exhibit good damping characteristics. A typical foil bearing is shown in Fig. 7.8.
Fig. 7.8 A typical foil air bearing design
There are other types which may be suitable but damping is a major issue which must be
addressed and clearances must be reasonably high to cope with thermal growth and
distortions. The great advantage of air bearings is the elimination of the oil system saving cost
and increasing reliability.
Magnetic bearings offer many of the advantages of air bearings although cost is a major
barrier. The bearings can be electromagnetic requiring active control or passive using
permanent magnets. At least one axis of the bearings must be actively controlled for reasons
of stability.
7.6 Shaft layouts

If the gas turbine is a single-shaft engine, then the engine and alternator can be integrated
together or on separate shafts coupled together — Fig. 7.9(a) and (b).
(a) Single-shaft integrated (b) Single-shaft coupled (c)Two-shaft-free power turbine
Fig. 7.9 Common shaft layout options

In the option (b), it is possible to operate both engine and alternator shafts below the first
bending critical speed which is desirable if high-speed balancing is to be avoided. A half way
house option is to use three journal bearings and a semi-rigid coupling. The ultimate in low
cost and simplicity is the integrated system but this can lead to rotor dynamic problems and
sacrifices which ultimately cost efficiency.
If the gas turbine engine has a free power turbine [Fig. 7.9(c)] then a shaft is already available
on to which the alternator can be mounted. Separating the alternator from the gas turbine,
which already has a free power turbine, would lead to a three-shaft system which is not
desirable for reasons of cost.
7.7 High-speed alternators

There are two main types of efficient high-speed alternator, radial flux and axial flux as
illustrated in Figs 7.10 and 7.11 (6).
Fig. 7.10 A radial flux high-speed generator topology
Fig. 7.11 The axial flux topology

Both types employ high-strength, rare earth magnets for rotor excitation and can be used in
reverse for engine starting. Radial flux machines have a longer history of development since
this topology is used in conventional generators to a much greater extent than the axial type.
Much of the standard manufacturing 'know how' can be adapted for such machines hence this
has been the most popular choice to date. However, high centrifugal stresses force down
diameter and shaft length leading to a machine which must be, by nature, highly compact.
Since the machine inevitably has losses which are manifested as heating, this leads to very
high heat densities. This problem is compounded by the fact that the magnets and insulating
materials can not take high temperatures and the resistance of the copper windings increases
with temperature. These arduous conditions make the axial flux machine attractive since it has
a much higher surface area from which heat can be extracted. This is borne out by the very
high power densities now achieved in axial flux machines with simple air-cooling.
7.8 Conclusions
This Chapter has highlighted many of the design difficulties associated with micro-turbine
generators. There are many subjects and technologies which need to be addressed in the
design stage and all need to be considered for an optimized solution to be realized. This
creates an exciting challenge for engineers to solve and the demand and market for micro-
turbine generators is certainly there for those companies which succeed.
References
(1) Hamilton, S. L. Micro-turbine Generators (MTGs) The Next Generation, Southern
California Edison, MTG seminar IMechE, Dec 2000.
(2) McDonald, C. F. Low-cost primary surface recuperator concept for micro-turbines,
Applied Thermal Engineering Vol 20, Issue 5, 1st April 2000.
(3) Rodgers, C. and McDonald, C. Automotive Turbogenerator Design Options, IMechE
C529/024/98.
(4) Micro-turbines: Applications and opportunities - Escovale Consultancy Services,
Report No 5050, PR/25/01, July 2001.
(5) Karamanis, N. K., Martinez-Botas, R. F., and Su, C. C. 'Mixed Flow Turbines: Inlet
and Exit Flow under Steady and Pulsating Conditions', Trans. ASME, Journal of
Turbomachinery, {\bf 123}, pp. 359-371, (2001).
(6) Pullen, K. R. The design and development of a small gas turbine and high-speed
generator - PhD Thesis and DIG, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial
College, 1991.
K R Pullen, R Martinez-Botas, and K Buffard

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College of Science, Technology,
and Medicine, London, UK
8
Tip-leakage Flow: A Comparison

between Axial and Radial Turbines
R Dambach, H P Hodson, and I Huntsman
Abstract
A brief review is given on the nature of tip-leakage flow in radial inflow turbines. A
comparison is made of tip-leakage loss in a single-stage radial turbine and a two-stage axial
turbine. A simple tip-leakage loss model, based on physical insight, is applied to both types of
turbine for a given duty that is typical of micro-turbine generators. For the axial turbine a loss
model from the literature is applied based on discharge co-efficients in the tip gap. For the
radial turbine the same model is adapted to account for the scraping effect, which can
dominate the tip-leakage flow in parts of this type of turbine. The discharge co-efficients,
which govern the amount of leakage flow and therefore the loss, are determined from
experiment. The comparison of the models shows that the scraping effect can reduce the tip-
leakage loss for a radial turbine by up to a factor of four compared with an axial turbine for
the same duty.
Nomenclature
m mass flow rate

p static pressure
v velocity
t tip gap height (z-axis)
CD discharge co-efficient
Sm meridional length
U blade speed
Aho work done per kg of mass flowing though the turbine
p density
Subscripts
3 rotor inlet
n blade normal
p passage
tf pressure driven tip-leakage flow
sf scraping flow
ss suction surface
ps pressure surface
8.1 Introduction
The operation of unshrouded steam and gas turbines requires a clearance between the rotating
blades and the stationary casing. This gap gives rise to leakage flow that is driven through the
clearance gap by the pressure difference between the pressure side and the suction side of the
blades. The leakage flow is largely unturned by the blades, so no work is done on this flow. The
leakage flow exits the tip gap with a magnitude of velocity similar to that of the mainstream
flow relative to the rotor, but in a direction almost perpendicular to the mainstream flow. The
mixing of the mainstream and tip-leakage flows gives rise to the loss of efficiency.
It is possible to change the effect of tip clearance by mounting a shroud on the tip of the
blade. In a shrouded rotor, the driving force of leakage through the seals is the pressure
difference between rotor inlet and rotor exit as opposed to the pressure difference between the
pressure and suction surfaces of the blade. Fitting a shroud to a rotating blade usually
increases the aerodynamic efficiency of the rotor. It may also facilitate the active control of
the tip gap, as the blade height varies with the expansion caused by temperature changes in
the turbine. However, the mass of the shroud also requires the rotor to rotate at a lower speed.
For a given expansion rate, therefore, the shrouded turbine results in less work output per
stage than the unshrouded turbine, because, for a given stage loading co-efficient, the specific
work is proportional to the square of the blade speed. In radial turbines, a shroud also
increases the complexity of manufacture of the rotor wheel.
8.2 Preliminary study

The technology of micro-turbines has already been well studied in the field of turboshafl
engines for aircraft applications. The continuing requirement for turboshaft engines is to
reduce both the specific fuel consumption and the weight. If the engine is based on the simple
cycle, the engine pressure ratio can be as high as 20:1, at a turbine inlet temperature of
1800 K or more. The weight target also leads to the requirement of a minimum number of
turbomachinery stages with high efficiency.
Hill (1) investigated three candidates for a gas generator turbine. These are a two-stage axial, a
single-stage axial, and a single-stage radial turbine. In his analysis, Hill assumed that the stage
efficiency is a function of turbine loading alone. If optimal flow co-efficients are used, this is
indeed correct according to the Smith Chart (2). In order to calculate the aerodynamic efficiency,
Hill made further assumptions about the blade speed and allowable metal temperature based on
Tip-leakage Flow: a Comparison between Axial and Radial Turbines 99
current design practice. Figure 8.1 shows the improvement in efficiency and specific fuel
consumption compared to the datum case, which was selected based on current designs.
Fig. 8.1 Improvement of efficiency and SFC compared to datum case

(inlet temperature 1800 K and engine pressure ratio 20:1)
The assumptions underlying the analysis are summarized in the following table.
Table 8.1
Blade speed Blade tip speed Allowable metal

(axial) (radial) temperature
Datum 410m/s 670 m/s 900 °C
New design 460 m/s 750 m/s 950 °C
The tip speed for a radial turbine is significantly higher than that for an equivalent axial
turbine. Work is absorbed in the radial turbine due to the change in radius of the flow. The
relative stagnation temperature decreases with radius because Euler's work equation states
that the relative stagnation enthalpy, minus one half of the square of the blade speed, is
constant in an adiabatic turbine. The stage loading co-efficient (Aho/U2) is lower for the radial
turbine, but the higher rotational speed enables larger work than is obtained in a single-stage
axial turbine. The lower stage loading co-efficient and the change of radius in the radial
turbine will be shown to reduce the overall tip clearance losses in this type of turbomachine.
Figure 8.1 shows that the two-stage axial and the single-stage radial turbine have the potential
for a significant improvement in efficiency and specific fuel consumption for the given
technology assumptions. The radial turbine is a good match to the two-stage axial turbine as it
is operating at an optimum loading and requires lower cooling flows. The single-stage axial
turbine is operating at too high a loading and is not competitive with the two other machines.
8.3 Wheel manufacture
Many factors go into the choice of the wheel type for a given application. The brief analysis
by Hill (1) has shown that a single-stage radial turbine has to be compared with a two-stage
axial turbine. The chosen wheel type and the method of manufacture have many implications
on the product quality, the manufacturing cycle time, and the final cost. A single stage radial
turbine has fewer parts than a two-stage axial turbine and is usually more robust. Figure 8.2.
shows, for example, how different manufacturing methods affect the designer's choice of the
maximum tip speed of a radial turbine. All these factors will also play a role in the final cost
of the product. The manufacturing costs of a closed wheel that is milled from solid are, for
example, three times higher than those of an open wheel that is milled from solid, hi the
following, this Chapter concentrates on the open wheel type. This may be investment cast or
milled from solid.
Fig. 8.2 Allowable tip speed as a function of the manufacturing type

of a radial turbine wheel
8.4 Tip-leakage flow — a major loss source in small turbines
The mixing of the tip-leakage flow inside the gap and with the mainstream at the gap exit
creates entropy (loss). This loss contributes up to a third of the loss of efficiency in a turbine.
Typically, a clearance gap equal to one per cent of the blade height is associated with a two or
more per cent loss of stage efficiency in an unshrouded, axial turbine [see Sjolander (3) for a
brief but complete overview of the available literature on this subject]. The penalty of a one
per cent clearance as a percentage of the blade height in unshrouded radial turbines is about
one per cent of stage efficiency [see Japikse and Baines (4) and Futral and Holeski (5)]. A
typical tip clearance in a medium-size turbine is about one to two per cent of the span.
8.5 The nature of tip-leakage flow in a radial inflow turbine
Tip-leakage flow in radial turbines appears to be driven by two main mechanisms (6), (7), (8).
The first mechanism is created by the pressure difference across the rotor tip, the second by
the motion of the casing relative to the blade. The degree of interaction between these two
mechanisms determines the nature of the flow in the gap region of a radial turbine.
The results of measurements in the tip gap region have shown three regions of tip-leakage flow
behaviour in a radial turbine, as schematically indicated in Fig. 8.3 (8). In the inducer region
(labelled I), the nature of tip-leakage flow is very different from that of axial turbines. The weak
pressure difference over the tip of the inducer supports only a small amount of tip-leakage flow.
Fluid adjacent to the casing is dragged by the strong relative casing motion (the 'scraping' flow)
and opposes the tip-leakage flow on the suction side. A part of this scraping fluid is dragged
through the gap to the pressure side of the blade (dragging effect). This dragging effect, due the
scraping flow, can dominate the flow inside the tip gap. It is also observed that the change of
momentum of the scraping flow supports a tangential pressure gradient.
Fig. 8.3 Schematic of the three regions of different tip-leakage flow

in a radial turbine
In the midsection (labelled II), the relative casing motion is weakened and the loading near
the casing increases. A strong tip-leakage flow, driven by the difference in pressure between
the pressure and suction sides of the blade, accelerates into the gap and travels through the
gap almost perpendicular to the blade camberline. As a consequence of the increased
momentum of the tip-leakage jet, most of the scraping fluid is prevented from moving in a
circumferential direction near the suction side of the blade and is re-directed towards the hub
(this has been termed the 'blocking effect'). This blocking effect causes a static pressure rise
on the suction side of the blade. The part of scraping fluid that is still dragged into the gap is
diverted, and little or no scraping flow exits the gap on the pressure side.
In the exducer (labelled III), the influence of the relative casing motion upon the tip-leakage
flow is negligible. The blocking effect takes place further away from the suction side and no
scraping fluid is dragged through the gap. The tip-leakage flow behaviour in the exducer is
very similar to that in axial turbines.
Figure 8.4 shows secondary velocity vectors at 9 per cent Sm and at 58 per cent Sm
for t = 1.2 per cent of span. The figure demonstrates that computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
(9) is able to resolve the local features of scraping flow in the gap region. Fig. 8.4(a) shows
that a small amount of tip-leakage flow is turned immediately towards the hub, as it leaves the
tip gap on the suction side. One part of the scraping flow is dragged into the gap by the
dragging effect. The other part is scraped off the blade and deviated towards the hub and part
of the fluid is seen to roll up near the suction side. Figure 8.4(b) displays that the CFD results
capture a distinct blocking effect due to the scraping effect at the gap exit. It seems apparent
that, as a result of the blocking effect, the tip-leakage flow turns sharply towards the hub.
Fig. 8.4 Predicted secondary velocity vectors in the relative frame for a square tip CFD
model of a radial turbine
8.6 A simple tip-leakage loss analysis

Several attempts have been made in the past to model the mixing processes involved with tip-
leakage flow in axial turbines. Endeavours to predict the tip-leakage loss for radial turbines
have mainly remained in the sphere of empirical loss estimates (10). Although the empirical
approach is no doubt useful to the designer, the aim of this Chapter is to apply a more
physical basis to model tip-leakage loss estimates. In so doing, it is hoped that loss models for
radial turbines can be brought up to the standard of existing loss models for axial turbines.
If the tip-leakage loss is to be predicted at an early design stage, an average tip gap mass flow
as well as the velocity of the main flow on either side of the gap has to be approximated.
According to Denton (11), the loss of efficiency based on average quantities is calculated as
follows
where mtf is the pressure, driven, tip-leakage mass flow and vss and VPS are the undisturbed
components of the blade parallel velocity on either side of the blade sufficiently far away
from the tip gap. The term Aha is the work done on the blade row per unit mass flowing.
Equation 8.1 assumes that the streamwise momentum of the tip-leakage flow remains
unchanged on its way to the suction side.
In order to demonstrate the applicability of a future correlation, a simplified Mach number

distribution was chosen to approximate the velocity components VPS and vss- Figure 8.5 shows
this idealized Mach number distribution in the relative frame. These are intended to be
representative of current, but conservative, designs. The pressure surface Mach number
distribution is the same for both turbines. The velocity components were calculated as a
function of the inlet and exit Mach number fixed by the velocity triangles and the assumed
shape shown in Fig. 8.5. The tip gap mass flow rate was estimated based upon the pressure
difference over the tip and a tip gap discharge co-efficient as follows
where it is assumed that the leakage flow (velocity = vn) exits the gap normal to the pressure
surface. The term t is the clearance between the blade tip and the casing and / is the
camberline length. The result of equation 8. 2 was inserted into equation 8.1.
Fig. 8.5 Idealized isentropic Mach number in the relative frame

for an axial and a radial turbine
For axial turbines, the discharge co-efficient defined by Heyes and Hodson (12) was used.
They assumed that partial mixing of the tip-leakage jet after the vena contracta occurs
between 1.5 t and 6 t of the blade width inside the tip gap. Heyes and Hodson introduced a
partial mixing factor M defined as the fraction of tip gap mass flow rate that mixes inside the
gap. Assuming a linear variation of the partial mixing inside the gap with /I, where A is the tip
gap height to width ratio (t/w), M takes the following values.
Using M and the contraction co-efficient crat the vena contracta, the momentum equation in
the blade normal direction for the case of tip-leakage flow without casing rotation yields the
discharge co-efficient as follows
McGreehan and Schotsch (13) presented an empirical technique for calculating the
contraction co-efficient, a, based upon the Reynolds number and the ratio of the pressure side
corner radius, r, at the blade tip divided by the local gap height, t. For the present work the
same values were taken for the axial turbine as measured on the test rig of the radial turbine.
Those were r/t = 0.2 for gap AO, r/t = 0.1 for gap BO, and r/t for gap B8 (8). Gap AO
corresponds to a gap of 0.6 per cent of span, gap BO to a gap of 1.2 per cent of span, and gap
B8 to an average value of 2.5 per cent of span. The above technique was applied and the
contraction co-efficient crwas used in equation 8.3 to obtain the discharge co-efficient CD-
For the radial turbine the discharge co-efficient CD was approximated from experimentally
determined discharge co-efficients measured by Dambach (8). The above method was not
used as the flow mechanisms occurring near the leading edge of the radial turbine differ from
those in the axial turbine. The measurements together with the approximations are shown in
Fig. 8.6. The discharge co-efficient is defined as the ratio of the actual pressure driven mass
flow at the gap exit divided by the ideal tip gap mass flow as follows
where z = 0 is at the blade tip surface and z = z0 is the height where the blade normal velocity
is equal to zero.
Fig. 8.6 Measured and approximated discharge co-efficients in a radial turbine for
different gap heights (AO is 0.6 per cent gap/span, BO is 1.2 per cent gap/span,
and B8 is on average approximately 2.5 per cent gap/span)
Figure 8.7 shows the tip-leakage loss co-efficient for a single-stage radial turbine and a
two-stage axial turbine based on equation 8.1. Both turbines were designed with a mean-line
analysis for a given pressure ratio of 2.5 and inlet temperature of 1500 K. The generated
power of 200 kW is typical for micro-turbine applications. Figure 8.7 shows that the effect of
scraping significantly reduces the tip-leakage loss in a radial turbine. For small clearances in
the radial turbine the model indicates slightly more than one per cent decrease of efficiency
for a one per cent clearance height per span, which corresponds to experimental findings
documented in the literature (10, 5).The low value of CD near the leading edge of the radial
turbine, caused by the scraping effect, and the results from the model explain the results
obtained by Futral and Holeski, (5). By independently changing the axial and radial
clearances in a radial turbine Futral and Holeski observed that the loss of efficiency due to
radial clearance in the exducer was approximately ten times greater than the loss of efficiency
due to axial clearance near the inlet.
Fig. 8.7 Comparison of tip-leakage loss between a single stage radial turbine and
a two-stage axial turbine (inlet total temperature = 1500 K, pressure ratio = 2.5,
mass flow = 0.5 kg/s)
For small clearances in the axial turbine the model indicates about a two and a half per cent
loss of efficiency for a one per cent clearance height per span, which also corresponds to
values found in the literature (3). Both axial stages together account for a loss of efficiency of
nearly five per cent for a one per cent clearance height per span.
8.6 Conclusion
This Chapter has shown how a tip-leakage loss model for axial turbines (12) can be applied to
radial turbines. In order to model the nature of tip-leakage flow in radial turbines, the scraping
effect is taken into account via an experimentally determined discharge co-efficient. The
result of the analysis shows that a radial turbine suffers less from tip-leakage flow than an
axial turbine, as observed in the literature. For a given duty in the range of micro-turbine
generators the model shows that tip-leakage loss for an axial flow turbine can be about four
times greater than for a radial turbine operating with typical clearances. The scraping effect in
the inducer region of a radial turbine can accentuate this difference for small clearances.
References
(1) Hill, S. 1988, 'Radial Inflow Turbine Investigations', Brochure B1D1-13L, Rolls Royce
Technical Note LTN01474.
(2) Smith, S. F. 1965, 'A Simple Correlation for Turbine Efficiency', Jnl Royal
Aeronautical Society, Vol. 69, p 467.
(3) Sjolander, S. A. 1997, 'Overview of Tip-Clearance Effects in Axial Turbines', VKI
Lecture Series 1997-01 on Secondary and Tip-Clearance Flows in Axial Turbines.
(4) Japikse, D. and Baines, N. C. 1994, 'Introduction to Turbomachinery', ISBN 0 933283
06 7, Concepts ETI, Inc., Vermont, p 7-17.
(5) Futral, S. M. and Holeski, D. E. 1970, 'Experimental Results of Varying the Blade
Shroud Clearance in a 6.02 inch Radial Inflow Turbine', NASA TN D-5513.
(6) Dambach, R. Hudson, H. P., and Huntsman, I. 1998, 'An Experimental Study of Tip
Clearance Flow in a Radial Inflow Turbine', ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, Vol.
121, No 4, pp 644-650.
(7) Dambach, R. and Hodson, H. P. 1999, 'Tip-leakage Flow in a Radial Inflow Turbine
with Varying Gap Height', IS ABE 99-7192, 14th International Symposium on
Airbreathing Engines, Florence, Italy.
(8) Dambach, R. 1999, 'Tip-leakage Flow in a Radial Inflow Turbine', Dissertation
submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Cambridge University Engineering
Department.
(9) Denton, J. D. 1990, 'The Calculation of Three Dimensional Viscous Flow Through
Multistage Turbomachinery', ASME 90-GT-19.
(10) Baines, N. C. 1998, 'A Meanline Prediction Method for Radial Turbine Efficiency', 6th
International Conference on Turbocharging and Air Management Systems, IMechE
Conference Transactions, C554/008/98.
(11) Denton, J. D. 1993, 'Loss Mechanisms in Turbomachines', the 1993 IGTI Scholar
Lecture, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, Vol. 115, pp 621-656.
(12) Heyes, F. J. G. and Hodson, H. P. 1993, 'The Measurement and Prediction of the Tip
Clearance Flow in Linear Turbine Cascades', ASME Journal of Turbomachinery,
Vol. 115, pp 376-382.
(13) McGreehan, W. F. and Schotsch, M. J. 1988, 'Flow Characteristics of Long Orifices
with Rotation and Corner Radiusing', ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, Vol. 110,
pp 13-217.
R Dambach
Cryostar France SA (Member of the BOC Group), Hesingue, France
H P Hodson and I Huntsman
Whittle Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England
Index
Air bearing 5 Magnetic bearings 5
Automotive turbocharger 4 Micro-turbine engines 2
Market 23, 27
Bearings, 69, 93 drivers 32
air 5 forecast 30
magnetic 5 Europe 27
system 4 Mechanical sub-system 68
Case studies 35
New Electricity Trading Arrangement
Catalytic combustion 5
CHP system 78 (NETA) 27
New entrant 34
Carbon monoxide (CO) 77
NOx emissions 77
Combined heat and power 78
Cogeneration 17,45 Operating temperature 68
Compressor 68, 89, 90
pressure ratio 87 Performance 22
Customers 31 data 74
Permanent magnet rotor 2
Economic analysis 63 Power conditioners 3, 11
Electrical sub-system 70 Power-to-weight ratio 38
Emissions 38, 77 Purchase price 38
data 77
NOx 77 Radial inflow turbine 101
performance 77 Recuperators 3, 8, 69
End users 31 Reliability 38,67
Engine management 13 Running costs 38
Environmental issues 24
European: Second-law analysis 53
markets 27,32 Shaft layouts 94
micro-turbine market 28 Sound levels 38
EU players 33 Specific power 87
Footprint 38 Test results 22
Fuel: Thermal efficiency 69, 87
efficiency 38 Tip leakage 91
flexibility 18,24 flow 97, 100
sub-system 71 loss 103
Tri-generation 43, 46
Gas: plant 54
boost compressors 4, 14 Turbine 91
compressor 70 entry temperature 87
Generator configuration 68
isentropic efficiencies 89
Heat: Turbo alternators 2, 5
exchanger effectiveness 87
Unity output 31
recovery systems 75
recovery unit 70 Utility mode operation 12
US Department of Energy 21
High-temperature fuel cell 48
High-speed alternators 95 Wheel manufacture 100
Hybrid cycle 43, 46,48
Integration to the grid 24
Island mode operation 11
Landfill gas 82
Air Engines
By T Finkelstein and A J Organ
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Published by Professional Engineering Publishing,

© 2002 The Institution of Mechanical Engineers, unless otherwise stated.

ISBN 1 86058 391 1

Printed by The Cromwell Press, Trowbridge, Wiltshire, UK

Title Editor/Author ISBN

Air Engines T Finkelstein and 1 86058 338 5

Condition Monitoring - Engineering the Practice E D Yardley 1 86058 361 X

Engineers' Guide to Rotating Equipment C Matthews 1 86058 344 X

Investment in Renewable Energy IMechE Seminar 1 86058 163 3

Power Generation by Renewables IMechE Seminar 1 86058 309 1

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About the Editor ix

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Micro-turbine Generators

Chapter 2 Micro-turbine Generators - Next Generation

Chapter 3 Analysis of Micro- and Mini-turbine Competitive and Supply

Chapter 4 Future Potential Developments of Micro-turbine Generators -

Chapter 5 Design Reliability of Micro-turbines

Chapter 6 Field Experience with Micro-turbines in Canada

Chapter 7 Design Problems in Micro-turbine Generators

Chapter 8 Tip-leakage Flow: A Comparison between Axial and

1.1.1 Micro-turbine engines

In comparison with reciprocating engines, micro-turbine engines incur lower maintenance

Key features of Bowman micro-turbine engines are:

• single-stage centrifugal compressor;

1.1.2 Turbo alternators

Key features of the Bowman turbo alternator are:

The 'micro-turbine industry' definition of an MTG is where a high-speed generator running at

A typical micro-turbine general arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Turbogen cross section

1.1.4 Power conditioners

1.1.5 Gas boost compressors

1.2 Bowman Technology

Micro-turbine production is benefiting from the technologies developed for automotive

Catalytic combustion is an alternative to conventional combustion and the progress of this

1.2.2 Turbo alternator

Bowman possesses a deep understanding of machine topologies alternative to the

Fig. 1.2 Turbo alternator

1.2.2.2 Technology comparison

1.2.2.2.3 Bowman design features

Rotor structure and retaining sleeve

Thermal design and cooling

The current Bowman recuperator is a 'primary surface recuperator' (PSR), manufactured

Fig. 1.3 Cycle arrangements

The majority of micro-turbine manufacturers consider stainless steel primary surface

Fig. 1.4 Recuperators

Parameter Box Annular

Fig. 1.5 Cuboid recuperator

1.2.4 Power conditioner

1.2.4.2 Power controller

1.2.4.3 Island mode operation

1.2.4.4 Utility mode operation

1.2.4.4.1 Export mode

1.2.4.4.2 Load following mode

1.2.4.4.3 Peak shaving mode

1.2.4.5 Dual mode switching

1.2.4.6 Power conditioning system elements

A typical system is shown in Fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.6 Power conditioning units (PCUs)