NOTE PHYSICS 2 - THEORY

(Final)
I. The kinetic theory of gas
1. Ideal gas
a) The equation of state:
- For an ideal gas, the
equation of state:
𝒑𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝒑𝑽 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻
𝑝: pressure (𝑃𝑎)
𝑉: volume (𝑚3 )
𝑛: number of moles of
𝑚
gas (𝑛 = 𝑀 )
𝑁: number of
molecules
𝑘: Boltzmann constant (1.38 𝑥 10−23 𝐽𝐾 −1 )
𝑅: gas constant (𝑅 = 8.31 𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1 )
𝑇: temperature: (K)
* Note:
For gas constant: 𝑅 = 𝑘𝑁𝐴
For number of molecules: 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑁𝐴
𝑁𝐴 : Avogadro number (𝑁𝐴 = 6.022 𝑥 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 )
- 3 special cases:
• Isothermal: constant temperature (T)
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
• Isochoric: constant volume (V)
 𝑝
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑇
• Isobaric: constant pressure (p)
𝑉
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑇
b) The work done of the gas:
- Isothermal: constant temperature (T)
𝑽𝒇 𝑽𝒇 𝑽𝒇
𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝑾 = ∫ 𝒑𝒅𝑽 = ∫ 𝒅𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝑽𝒊 𝑽𝒊 𝑽 𝑽𝒊
- Isobaric: constant pressure (p)
𝑾 = 𝒑∆𝑽
- Isochoric: constant volume (V)
𝑾=𝟎
* Note:
- For the work done:
+ Expansion: 𝑊 > 0
+ Compression: 𝑊 < 0
- For the heat
+ Absorbing heat: 𝑄 > 0
+ Releasing heat: 𝑄 < 0
2. Molecule models
a) The speed
- The root-mean square speed (RMS speed):
𝟑𝑹𝑻
𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √
𝑴
The relationship between pressure, volume and RMS speed
 2
𝑛𝑀𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑝=
3𝑉
- The average speed:
8𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 =√
𝑀
- The probable speed (based on Boltzmann’s distribution of
speed)
2𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝑃 = √
𝑀

b) Translational kinetic energy

- Kinetic energy of one moles of molecule:
𝟑
𝑲 = 𝒌𝑻 per molecule
𝟐
- Total translational kinetic energy:
𝟑
𝑲 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝟐
- In one direction
 1
𝐾𝑥 = 𝐾𝑦 = 𝐾𝑧 = 𝑘𝑇
2
3. Specific heat
a) The change in internal energy
- General case:
𝟑
∆𝑬𝒊𝒏𝒕 = 𝒏𝑹∆𝑻
𝟐
- In case of isochoric process (constant volume):
∆𝑬𝒊𝒏𝒕 = 𝒏𝑪𝑽 ∆𝑻
b) Molar specific heat:
- At constant volume (isochoric)
𝑄 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 ∆𝑇
- At constant pressure (isobaric)
𝑄 = 𝑛𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
For each degree of freedom in which a molecule can
store energy

𝒇
𝑪𝑽 = ( ) 𝑹
𝟐
𝑪𝒑 = 𝑪𝑽 + 𝑹
 c) Adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas: A process that
𝑄=0
𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑇𝑉 𝛾−1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝐶𝑝
where: 𝛾 = 𝐶𝑉
II. Entropy and The Second Thermodynamics Law
a) Entropy
- An extensive property of a thermodynamic system.
- To change the entropy:
+ In terms of the system’s temperature and the energy
the system gains or loss as heat
+ By counting the ways in which the atoms or molecules
that make up the system can be arranged
The change of entropy
𝒇
𝒅𝑸
∆𝑺 = 𝑺𝒇 − 𝑺𝒊 = ∫
𝒊 𝑻
- For ideal gas, the change of entropy
𝑽𝒇 𝑻𝒇
∆𝑺 = 𝑺𝒇 − 𝑺𝒊 = 𝒏𝑹𝒍𝒏 ( ) + 𝒏𝑪𝑽 𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝑽𝒊 𝑻𝒊
+ Isothermal (T = const): Q = W
𝑉𝑓
∆𝑆 = 𝑛𝑅𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑉𝑖
𝑄 𝑊
∆𝑆 = =
𝑇 𝑇
+ Isochoric (V = const):
𝑇𝑓
∆𝑆 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑇𝑖
- For heat transformation:
+ Cooling, heating
𝑻𝒇 𝑻𝒇 𝑻𝒇
𝒅𝑸 𝒎𝒄𝒅𝑻
∆𝑺 = 𝑺𝒇 − 𝑺𝒊 = ∫ =∫ = 𝒎𝒄𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝑻𝒊 𝑻 𝑻𝒊 𝑻 𝑻𝒊
+ Phase change:
𝑳𝒎
∆𝑺 =
𝑻
b) The second thermodynamics laws
If a process occurs in a
closed system, the
entropy of the
system increases for
irreversible processes
and remains constant for
reversible processes. It
never decreases.
∆𝑺𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 ≥ 𝟎
Example: Water is
melted in outdoor
environment
From water (1) to environment (2): ∆𝑆1→2
From environment (2) to water (1): ∆𝑆2→1
 The change of entropy of the system
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∆𝑆1→2 + ∆𝑆2→1 ≥ 0