The three ways of forming ATP:

- Substrate-level phosphorylation
- Oxidative phosphorylation
- Photophosphorylation
In covalent compounds, it is usually easier to lose a whole hydrogen (H) atom – a proton and an
electron – rather than just an electron.
Dehydrogenation: an oxidation reaction during which both a proton and an election are lost.
Electron carriers -> freely diffusible coenzymes (NAD+, FAD, and NADP+).
Dehydrogenase: NAD+ -> NADH/ FAD -> FADH2/ NADP+ -> NADPH.
Kinase: substrate-level phosphorylation