Biochemistry

Research
Carbohydrates

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Table of contents:

1-INTRODUCTION OF CARBOHYDRATES AND ITS COMPONENT:___________________2-8

2-HOW DOES THE CARBOHYDRATE FORM?____________________________________2-8

3-COMPONENTS:___________________________________________________________8

4-BILATERAL SUGARS:_______________________________________________________9

5-COMPLEX SUGARS:______________________________________________________ 10

6-FOOD THAT CONTAIN CARBOHYDRATES:__________________________________10-13

7-CARBOHYDRATE FUNCTIONS IN THE BODY:___________________________________14

8-CONCLUSION:___________________________________________________________15

9-REFERENCES:___________________________________________________________ 16

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1-Definition of carbohydrates and its component:
1.1- Carbohydrates: which are commonly called sugars are organic compounds classified as a
family of hydrogenated fats (carbohydrates) and contain several functions of ghouls (-H), which are
generally characterized by sweet taste so used in foods and beverages for desalination.

1.2-Sugar is commonly used in daily life to denote the sugar used daily, sucrose is a kind
of sweet sugars. It is also called table sugar or food sugar similar to the name of table salt
(sodium chloride exclusively).

1.3-Sucrose is a bicarbonate (formed from two primary sugar molecules, glucose and
fructose) and has a solid crystalline structure, often extracted from sugar cane or sugar
beets. But the main source of energy in the body is the primary sugars, specifically glucose
(also called dextrose) and is present in abundance in the fruit - especially grapes -. The
glucose from the animal cell is used directly to release energy.

2- How does the carbohydrate form?

Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are molecular compounds made from just three
elements: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Monosaccharides (e.g. glucose) and disaccharides
(e.g. sucrose) are relatively small molecules. They are often called sugars. Other
carbohydrate molecules are very large (polysaccharides such as starch and cellulose).

Carbohydrates are:

 a source of energy for the body e.g. glucose and a store of energy, e.g. starch in
plants
 building blocks for polysaccharides (giant carbohydrates), e.g. cellulose in plants
and glycogen in the human body
 components of other molecules eg DNA, RNA, glycolipids, glycoproteins, ATP

2.1- Monosaccharides:

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Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates and are often called single sugars. They
are the building blocks from which all bigger carbohydrates are made.
Monosaccharides have the general molecular formula (CH2O) n, where n can be 3, 5 or 6.
They can be classified according to the number of carbon atoms in a molecule:
n = 3 trioses, e.g. glyceraldehyde
n = 5 pentose, e.g. ribose and deoxyribose ('pent' indicates 5)
n = 6 hexoses, e.g. fructose, glucose and galactose ('hex' indicates 6)
There is more than one molecule with the molecular formula C5H10O5 and more than one
with the molecular formula C6H12O6. Molecules that have the same molecular formula but
different structural formulae are called structural isomers.
Glyceraldehyde's molecular formula is C3H6O3. Its structural formula shows it contains an
aldehyde group (-CHO) and two hydroxyl groups (-OH). The presence of an aldehyde
group means that glyceraldehyde can also be classified as an aldose. It is a reducing sugar
and gives a positive test with Benedict's reagent.
CH2OHCH(OH)CHO is oxidized by Benedict's reagent to CH2OHCH(OH)COOH; the
aldehyde group is oxidized to a carboxylic acid and Benedict's reagent is reduced (Cu2+ to
Cu+).
Monosaccharides containing the aldehyde group are classified as aldoses, and those with a
ketone group are classified as ketoses. Aldoses are reducing sugars; ketoses are non-
reducing sugars. This is important in understanding the reaction of sugars with Benedict's
reagent.
2.1.1- Glucose:
Glucose is the most important carbohydrate fuel in human cells. Its concentration in the
blood is about 1 gdm-3. The small size and solubility in water of glucose molecules allows
them to pass through the cell membrane into the cell. Energy is released when the
molecules are metabolized (C6H12O6 + 6O2     6CO2 + 6H2O). This is part of the process of
respiration
There are two forms of the cyclic glucose molecule: α-glucose and β-glucose.

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α-glucose - β-glucose -
Two glucose molecules react to form the disaccharide maltose. Starch and cellulose are
polysaccharides made up of glucose units.
2.1.2- Galactose:
Galactose molecules look very similar to glucose molecules. They can also exist in α and β
forms. Galactose reacts with glucose to make the disaccharide lactose.

α-galactose - β-galactose
However, glucose and galactose cannot be easily converted into one another. Galactose
cannot play the same part in respiration as glucose.
This comparison of glucose and galactose shows why the precise arrangement of atoms in a
molecule (shown by the displayed formula) is so important.

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2.1.3- Fructose:
Fructose, glucose and galactose are all hexoses.
However, whereas glucose and galactose are
aldoses (reducing sugars), fructose is a ketose (a
non-reducing sugar). It also has a five-atom ring
rather than a six-atom ring. Fructose reacts with
glucose to make the disaccharide sucrose.

α-fructose
2.1.4- Ribose and deoxyribose:
Ribose and deoxyribose are pentose. The ribose unit forms part of a nucleotide of RNA.
The deoxyribose unit forms part of the nucleotide of DNA.

Ribose Deoxyribose

2.2- Disaccharides:
Monosaccharides are rare in nature. Most sugars found in nature are disaccharides. These
form when two monosaccharides react. A condensation reaction takes place releasing
water. This process requires energy. A glyosidic bond forms and holds the two
monosaccharide units together. The three most important disaccharides are sucrose, lactose

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and maltose. They are formed from the a forms of the appropriate monosaccharides.
Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar. Lactose and maltose are reducing sugars.

Disaccharide Monosaccharides
sucrose from α-glucose + α-fructose
maltose from α-glucose + α-glucose
α-lactose * from α-glucose + β-galactose

* Lactose also exists in a beta form, which is made from β-galactose and β-glucose
Disaccharides are soluble in water, but they are too big to pass through the cell membrane
by diffusion. They are broken down in the small intestine during digestion to give the
smaller monosaccharides that pass into the blood and through cell membranes into cells.
C12H22O11 + H2O     C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
This is a hydrolysis reaction and is the reverse of a condensation reaction. It releases
energy.
Monosaccharides are used very quickly by cells. However, a cell may not need all the
energy immediately and it may need to store it. Monosaccharides are converted into
disaccharides in the cell by condensation reactions. Further condensation reactions result in
the formation of polysaccharides. These are giant molecules which, importantly, are too
big to escape from the cell. These are broken down by hydrolysis into monosaccharides
when energy is needed by the cell.

2.3- Polysaccharides:
Monosaccharides can undergo a series of condensation reactions, adding one unit after
another to the chain until very large molecules (polysaccharides) are formed. This is called
condensation polymerization, and the building blocks are called monomers. The
properties of a polysaccharide molecule depend on:
its length (though they are usually very long) the extent of any branching (addition of units
to the side of the chain rather than one of its ends) any folding which results in a more
compact molecule whether the chain is 'straight' or 'coiled'.

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2.3.1- Starch:
Starch is often produced in plants as a way of storing energy. It exists in two forms:
amylose and amylopectin. Both are made from α-glucose. Amylose is an unbranched
polymer of α-glucose. The molecules coil into a helical structure. It forms a colloidal
suspension in hot water. Amylopectin is a branched polymer of α-glucose. It is completely
insoluble in water.

Section of the amylose molecule

2.3.2- Glycogen:
Glycogen is amylopectin with very short distances between the branching side-chains.
Starch from plants is hydrolyzed in the body to produce glucose. Glucose passes into the
cell and is used in metabolism. Inside the cell, glucose can be polymerized to make
glycogen which acts as a carbohydrate energy store.
2.3.3- Cellulose:
Cellulose is a third polymer made from glucose. But this time it's made from β-glucose
molecules and the polymer molecules are 'straight'.

Section of a cellulose molecule

Cellulose serves a very different purpose in nature to starch and glycogen. It makes up the
cell walls in plant cells. These are much tougher than cell membranes. This toughness is
due to the arrangement of glucose units in the polymer chain and the hydrogen-bonding
between neighboring chains.Cellulose is not hydrolyzed easily and, therefore, cannot be

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digested so it is not a source of energy for humans. The stomachs of Herbivores contain a
specific enzyme called cellulose which enables them to digest cellulose.
3-Components:
Single sugars are the simplest types of sugars, so they are also called simple sugars,
Examples include:

 3.1 - Glucose: It is the simplest type of carbohydrate called the blood sugar, and is
in the form of natural sugar in food or the body can provide it by digesting complex
carbohydrates such as carbohydrates in rice, pasta and potatoes.

 3.2 - Fructose: This is the fructose found in fruit and honey, the most sugary and
starchy sweetness in terms of taste.

 3.3 - Galactose: a mono sugar less sweet than glucose and fructose, and is found in
dairy products and sugar beet.

4-Bilateral sugars:

Bilateral sugars: A compound consisting of a combination of two types of simple sugar.

One of the two types is glucose, containing sugars containing 2-6 units of monosaccharide.
These include:

 4.1- Sucrose (sugar cane): It consists of Glucose + Fructose, one of the most
important sugars is a sugar is not reduced and hydrolyzed by intestinal enzyme
sucrose to glucose and fructose.
 4.2- Lactose (sugar milk): It is the least sugar sweetness and consists of glucose
and gluctose.

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  4.3- Maltose (sugar): It consists of glucose + glucose, a sugar reduced to contain
an aldehyde group, consisting of two molecules of alpha-glucose, and is broken
down in the intestine into two alpha-glucose molecules by the enzyme Malthas and
is an intermediate product during the process of hydrolysis of starch by salivary
amylase enzyme.

5-Complex sugars:

Complex sugars (compound): Consists of three or more simple sugars. More than 300 to
500 units of simple sugars may combine to form complex sugars. These sugars do not
dissolve in water like other sugars. Complex sugars are divided into two main parts:

Sugars of plant origin:

5.1 - Starch: In the parts that are digested from the plant and are found in corn and grain
and various derivatives of wheat, rice, potatoes, pasta and plant roots as well as vegetables

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and fruits. The starch belongs to the complex group of sugars and its general formula (n)
C6 H12 O6, where n ranges from 2000 to 3000 units of glucose, starch with iodine water in
dark violet blue, starch accumulates in the daytime in the leafy pancreatic, and at night it
disintegrates and becomes dissolved sugars.

5.2- Cellulose: It is the material that forms the fibers and stems of the plants. It is also
found in plant leaves, stem, roots, husks, fruits and vegetables, as well as in the connective
tissue of meat. Since this part of carbohydrates is not digested in the body, its main role is
to give food that contains a large volume so that the person feel full in the stomach and
intestines and so does not feel hungry, so this type helps in the treatment of obesity because
it inhibits hunger, at the same time Fiber or cellulose helps the digestive system, which
combines with water as well as cholesterol and any other substances does not need the
body, and because of its size and union with water.

6- food that contain carbohydrates:

Carbs have been unfairly blamed for causing the obesity epidemic. However, the truth is
that not all carbs are created equal. Processed junk foods high in sugar and refined grains
are definitely unhealthy and fattening. But this has no relevance to whole, fiber-rich foods
that also happen to contain carbohydrates. Although low-carb diets can be beneficial for
some people, this does not mean that all high-carb foods are “bad.”
Here is a list of 8 high-carb foods that also happen to be incredibly healthy.

6.1- Quinoa:
Quinoa is a nutritious seed that has become incredibly popular in the natural health
community.
It is classified as a pseudo cereal, a seed that is prepared and eaten like a grain.
Cooked quinoa is 21.3% carbs, making it a high-carb food. However, it is also a good
source of protein and fiber.

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Quinoa is rich in many minerals and plant compounds. It has been linked to health benefits
like improved blood sugar control
Quinoa is also very filling since it is relatively high in fiber and protein. For this reason, it
may be an excellent addition to an effective weight loss diet

6.2- Oats:
Oats may be the healthiest whole grain food on the planet.
They are a great source of many vitamins, minerals and antioxidants.
Raw oats contain 66% carbs, and nearly 11% of that is fiber. They
are particularly high in a powerful soluble fiber called beta-glycan.
Oats are also a relatively good source of protein, containing more than most other grains
Eating oats may also lower blood sugar levels, especially in diabetics

6.3- Buckwheat
Buckwheat is also a pseudo cereal.
Despite the name, buckwheat is not related to wheat in any
way, and does not contain gluten.
Raw buckwheat contains 71.5% carbs, and cooked buckwheat
groats contain about 20% carbs.
Buckwheat is very nutritious, containing both protein and fiber. It also has more minerals
and antioxidants than most grains

6.4- Bananas
Bananas are among the world’s most popular fruits.
They are made up of about 23% carbs, either in the form of
starches or sugars.
Unripe (green) bananas are higher in starches, which transform into
natural sugars as the bananas ripen (turn yellow).
Bananas are high in potassium, vitamin B6 and vitamin C. They also contain several
beneficial plant compounds.

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Due to their potassium content, bananas may help lower blood pressure and improve heart
health .
Unripe bananas also contain decent amounts of resistant starch and pectin. Both of these
support digestive health and feed the friendly gut bacteria.

6.5- Sweet Potatoes

Sweet potatoes are a delicious, nutritious tuber.
Cooked sweet potatoes contain about 18–21% carbs. This carb
content consists of starch, sugar and fiber.
Sweet potatoes are a rich source of vitamin A (from beta-
carotene), vitamin C and potassium.
They are very rich in antioxidants, and may help reduce oxidative damage and the risk of
several diseases.

6.6- Oranges
Oranges are among the most popular fruits in the world.
They are mainly composed of water and contain 11.8% carbs.
Oranges are also a good source of fiber.
Oranges are especially rich in vitamin C, potassium and some B-
vitamins. They also contain citric acid, as well as several very potent plant compounds and
antioxidants.
Eating oranges may improve heart health and help prevent kidney stones. They may also
increase the uptake of iron from food, reducing the risk of anemia

6.7- Blueberries
Blueberries are incredibly delicious.
They have often been referred to as a “superfood” due to their
powerful plant compounds and antioxidants.
They consist mostly of water, as well as about 14.5% carbs.

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Blueberries also contain high amounts of many vitamins and minerals, including vitamin C,
vitamin K and manganese.
Studies have shown that blueberries help protect the body from oxidative damage. They
may also improve memory in older people.

6.8- Grapefruit
Grapefruit is a citrus fruit with a sweet, bitter and sour flavor.
It contains about 9% carbs and has high amounts of several
vitamins, minerals and plant compounds.
Eating grapefruit can aid weight loss and reduce insulin
resistance
Furthermore, eating grapefruit may help prevent kidney
stones, lower cholesterol levels and protect against colon cancer

7- Carbohydrate functions in the body:

7.1- Fast source of energy: Carbohydrates are a very fast source of energy compared to fat
and protein, and carbohydrates are the only food in the body that can produce energy
without the need for oxygen.

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7.2- Protein availability: When the amount of carbohydrates in the body, especially
blood glucose, decreases, the liver stock of glycogen is used to compensate for the
deficiency. If the amount of glycogen stored in the liver is depleted by about 80-100
grams, the body uses protein to break the muscle The body parts containing protein to
provide glucose to the central nervous system where the body can convert protein to
glucose, and since the protein performs very vital functions, the lack of glycogen and
carbohydrate in general in the body leads to the consumption of protein from the body, and
this in terms of health is not in the interest of the individual.

7.3- helps to use fat as a source of energy: In order for the body to use fat as a source of
energy, one of the remnants of cracking carbohydrates is an oxalic acid, which must be
available in the body, so the presence of carbohydrates in the body is necessary so that the
body can use fat as an energy source, Where the fight against obesity, eating carbohydrates
is necessary so that the body can get rid of excess fat by using it as an energy source.

7.4- Central nervous system: fuel In order for the brain and other parts of the central
nervous system to function in regulating the body, glucose must be available because it is
the main source of energy for this important organ, and the lack of glucose in the blood
leads to weak processes of thinking and mental concentration, Attitudes that need to be
quick thinking and good behavior.

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8-Conclusion:

Good Carbs: The Complex Kinds

Good carbs include starches found in starchy vegetables, fruit, nuts, seeds and to a lesser
extent non-starchy veggies. Complex carbs take longer than simple carbs to breakdown by
the body, so they don’t result in such a rapid rise in blood sugar, followed by a fast “dip in
energy”. These types of carbs are used over time for steady energy, and also provide fiber
and lots of other nutrients too.
What makes these kinds of carbs good for you?
We all need some carbs, which provide glucose because glucose is used for energy and to
repair muscle and bodily tissue.
Complex carbs are especially important for people who exercise, since they fuel anaerobic
activity. This is why it’s recommended that athletes restore glucose in body following
exercise; it helps to keep muscles and tissue functioning, rebuilding, and growing back
even stronger during recovery.
How much should you aim for daily? The exact number of complex carbs you need each
day depends on a lot on your unique body and physical activity level. For most people,
aiming to have a small portion of starchy complex carbs like potatoes with your main meals
is a good amount.
Bad Carb: The Blood Sugar-Spiking Kinds
Bad, or simple, carbs are food groups including: all fruit, fruit juice, all forms of sugar
(white, brown, coconut palm, high fructose corn syrup, agave nectar, any “syrups”, honey,
pure maple syrup, and all sugary products (cookies, sugary cereal, etc.). Grains can also fall
into this category depending on whom you ask, even 100 percent whole grains. The Paleo
diet recommends avoiding all grains, legumes and dairy (which are carbs) because of
effects on digestion, blood sugar and weight gain.

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9-References:
 Slabaugh, Michael R.; Seager, Spencer L. (2013). Organic and Biochemistry for
Today
 Astbury, W.T. (2010). "Molecular Biology or Ultrastructural Biology
 Butler, John M. (2010). Fundamentals of Forensic DNA Typing.
 Clarence, Peter Berg (2014). "The University of Iowa and Biochemistry from Their
Beginnings".
 Metzler, David Everett; Metzler, Carol M. (2011). Biochemistry: The Chemical
Reactions of Living Cells
 Whiting, G.C (2010). The Biochemistry of Fruits and their Products
 Jaenicke Lothar (2014). The Roots of Modern Biochemistry
 Herbert J.; Hargrove, Mark (2012). Essentials of Biochemistry
 Kohler, Robert (2010). From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry:

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