Astroparticle Physics: Detectors for Cosmic Rays

Humberto Salazar∗ and Luis Villaseñor†

∗
Facultad de Ciencias Fisico-Matematicas, BUAP, Puebla Pue., 72570, Mexico.
†
Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Universidad Michoacana, Edificio C3, Ciudad
Universitaria, Morelia, Mich., 58040, Mexico.

Abstract. We describe the work that we have done over the last decade to design and construct
instruments to measure properties of cosmic rays in Mexico. We describe the measurement of the
muon lifetime and the ratio of positive to negative muons in the natural background of cosmic
ray muons at 2000 m.a.s.l. Next we describe the detection of decaying and crossing muons in a
water Cherenkov detector as well as a technique to separate isolated particles. We also describe the
detection of isolated muons and electrons in a liquid scintillator detector and their separation. Next
we describe the detection of extensive air showers (EAS) with a hybrid detector array consisting of
water Cherenkov and liquid scintillator detectors, located at the campus of the University of Puebla.
Finally we describe work in progress to detect EAS at 4600 m.a.s.l. with a water Cherenkov detector
array and a fluorescence telescope at the Sierra Negra mountain.
Keywords: Cosmic rays; Extensive air showers; Water Cherenkov detectors; Liquid scintillator
detectors.

DETECTION OF ISOLATED MUONS AND ELECTRONS

Muon Decay in a Liquid Scintillator Detector

Primary cosmic rays are composed of protons (85%), alpha particles (12%), electrons
(2%) and heavier nuclei (1%). The primary cosmic rays that reach the earth atmosphere
collide with nuclei of nitrogen and oxygen of the stratosphere to produce numerous
secondary particles collectively called extensive air showers (EAS). The measurement
of the muon lifetime is one of the simplest experiments that can be used to illustrate
the basic elements of modern high energy physics experiments. We have used these
experiments in the past to motivate students to appreciate the beauty of experimental
high energy physics [1, 2, 3].
The muons used for this first experiment were cosmic ray muons resulting from the
decay in flight of secondary pions and kaons. At sea level the muon flux is about 180
m2 s−1 and it corresponds to approximately 75% of the flux of charged cosmic rays. The
muon flux has a mean energy of 2 GeV and a differential spectrum falling as E −2 up
to a few TeV. The muon lifetime at rest is of tens of kilometers reach the ground before
decaying is a consequence of the relativistic time dilation.
Fig. 1 shows 1 340 845 data events corresponding to a data taking period of 2 572
h with a 35 l detector. On this plot a four-parameter fit of these data to the function
P1 e−t/P2 + P3 e−t/P4 + 156.8. Where 156.8 events per bin corresponds to the previously
measured noise due to accidental coincidences; P2 corresponds to the lifetime of µ + ,
P4 corresponds to the lifetime of µ − which is reduced due to its inverse beta decay
FIGURE 1. Raw muon data with a fit superimposed. The solid curve is a fit to the data using the
function P1 e−t/P2 + P3 e−t/P4 + 156.8. The muon lifetime from this fit is τ = 2.208 ± 0.027µs and the
measured plus to minus charge ratio of cosmic rays muons is P3−1 = 1.28 ± 0.06, i.e., in good agreement
with the literature.

interaction with the protons of the nuclei of the liquid scintillator. In turn, P2 , gives a
measurement of the intensity ratio µ − to µ + .
The result obtained for the muon lifetime was τ = 2.208 ± 0.027µs, in good agree-
ment with the literature. From the fit we also measured the plus to minus charge ratio of
cosmic rays muons at a latitude of 20◦ North; the result obtained was 1.28 ± 0.06, also
in good agreement with the literature.

Muon Decay in a Water Cherenkov Detector

Fig. 2 shows the experimental setup and data acquisition system used to study muon
dacay in a water Cherenkov detector (WCD); the latter consists of a cylindrical alu-
minum container of 26 cm of diameter and 36 cm of height filled with 35 l of liquid
scintillator. The sealed container has a 2 inch photomultiplier tube (PMT) looking down-
wards from the top of the liquid. We also used this setup to measure the absorption length
of UV light in water [4]
This experiment confirmed the viability of the use of muons stopping and decaying
inside the detector to calibrate and monitor the Auger Observatory WCDs [5] in a remote
way [6, 7, 8]. Three clear peaks of PMT charge distributions were identified. All of them
FIGURE 2. Experimental setup and data acquisition system for the muon decay experiment with a
water Cherenkov detector.

are useful for calibration and monitoring of WCDs: one for stopping muons, one for
decay electrons and one for crossing muons.
Fig. 3 summarizes our results for the study of muon decays in a water Cherenkov
detector, for additional details see [6]. Fig. 3.a shows the charge distribution for the first
pulse obtained by requiring Q2 > Q1 and time difference between consecutive pulses
< 8µs. The upper plot corresponds to data and the lower to simulations. The solid line
is a gaussian fit. Fig. 3.b shows the charge distribution for the second pulse obtained by
requiring Q2 > Q1 and time difference between consecutive pulses < 8µs. The upper
plot corresponds to data and the lower to simulations. The solid line is a gaussian fit.
Fig. 3.c shows the charge distribution for the first pulse obtained by requiring Q2 < Q1 .
The upper plot corresponds to data and the lower to simulations. The solid line is a
gaussian fit. Fig. 3.d shows the distribution of the time difference between the first
and second pulses obtained by requiring Q2 > Q1 . The solid line corresponds to an
exponential curve with a decay constant of 2.09 µs. We see good agreement between
data and simulation.
If we assume that a VEM corresponds to 2 MeV/cm times the 120 cm tank height we
obtain as a first approximation that 1 VEM = 240 MeV. Assuming that this conversion
factor applies for decay electrons, which are relativistic for most of their paths as long
as their energies are above a few MeV, we obtain a mean energy for the decay electrons
of 240 MeV times 0.17 = 41 ±11 MeV, i.e., in agreement with their maximum possible
energy of 53 MeV.
FIGURE 3. a: Charge distribution for the first pulse obtained by requiring Q2 > Q1 and time difference
between consecutive pulses < 8 µs. The upper plot corresponds to data and the lower to simulations. The
solid line is a gaussian fit. b: Charge distribution for the second pulse obtained by requiring Q2 > Q1 and
time difference between consecutive pulses < 8 µs. The upper plot corresponds to data and the lower to
simulations. The solid line is a gaussian fit. c: Charge distribution for the first pulse obtained by requiring
Q2 < Q1 . The upper plot corresponds to data and the lower to simulations. The solid line is a gaussian
fit. d: Time distribution for the time difference between the first and second pulses obtained by requiring
Q2 > Q1 . The solid line is a linear fit to the data; the muon lifetime measured this way is 2.09 µs, i.e.,
in agreement with our expectation given the inverse beta decay interaction of negative muons with the
oxygen nuclei.

Identification of Isolated Muons and Electrons in Water Cherenkov

Detectors
The experimental setup used to identify and statistically separate isolated electrons
from isolated muons is shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 4 shows the amplitude vs. rise time from
10% to 90% for a water Cherenkov detector located inside a building. The events
labeled as Electrons, with rise times around 10 ns, include mostly knock-on and muon-
decay electrons produced in the concrete ceiling and walls of our laboratory housing our
FIGURE 4. Amplitude vs. rise time from 10% to 90% for signals from the water Cherenkov detector
shown in Fig. 2 located indoors. The different labeled components are clearly separated in this 2-
parameter.

detector [9].
Fig. 5 shows the PMT charge distribution for the same data. The dashed-line data
labeled as Electrons correspond to events with rise time 10-90% < 20 ns, while the
solid-line data labeled as Muons correspond to events with rise time 10-90% > 20
ns. The shaded curve corresponds to vertical non-central muons. The horizontal scale
has been chosen so that the MPV of the latter curve equals 1 VEM: it corresponds 74
photoelectrons.
In contrast, Fig. 6 shows data taken with an identical setup but this time located
outdoors, i.e., outside the building. The events labeled as Muons, with rise times around
45 ns, include vertical, inclined and corner clipping muons; they occur at a measured rate
of around 870 Hz. For comparison, the events labeled as Electrons, selected by requiring
Q/A < 0.5 and rise time 10%-90% < 0.5 occur at a rate of 80 Hz.
Note that the ratio for the MPV of the electron/muon peaks of 0.045, i.e., in good
agreement with our expectations for electrons with energies around 10 MeV which
would deposit all of their energy in about 5 cm of liquid compared to the about 240
MeV energy deposition for vertical muons crossing the whole tank height of 120 cm.
This value is considerably lower than the same ratio (0.12) for the tank located inside
the building, see Fig. 5, in which the electron peak is dominated by knock-on and decay
electrons with higher energies, i.e., up to 53 MeV for decay electrons.
We have also used these data to attempt to measure the muon contents of EAS by
means of neural networks by exploiting the different temporal structures of EM showers
with different muon contents [10].
FIGURE 5. PMT charge distribution for the arbitrary muon trigger events. The dashed-line data labeled
as Electrons correspond to events with rise time 10-90% < 20 ns, while the solid-line data labeled as
Muons correspond to events with rise time 10-90% > 20 ns. The shaded curve corresponds to vertical
non-central muons. The horizontal scale has been chosen so that the MPV of the latter curve equals 1
VEM: it corresponds to 107.5 pC, or, equivalently, 74 photoelectrons.

FIGURE 6. Spectrum of charge depositions scaled in VEMs; the shaded histogram corresponds to
electrons selected by requiring Q/A < 0.5 and rise time from 10% to 90% in amplitude < 0.5. The
first peak of the non-shaded histogram is dominated by corner-clipping muons, low-energy muons and
electrons from muon decays; the second peak is dominated by muons crossing the whole depth of the the
detector in all directions.

Identification of Isolated Muons and Electrons in Liquid Scintillator

Detectors
Fig. 7 shows data taken with a setup similar to that shown in Fig. 2, but for a liquid
scintillator detector. The shaded histogram gives the distribution of the PMT charge
for penetrating muons triggered by a scintillator paddle placed below the scintillation
detector and shielded with a 2 cm steel slab. The first peak of the non-shaded histogram
corresponds to electrons and corner-clipping muons while the second peak is dominated
FIGURE 7. Spectrum of PMT charge deposition taken with a setup similar to that shown in Fig. 2, but
for a cylindrical detector filled with liquid scintillator up to a height of 13 cm. The shaded histogram gives
the distribution of the PMT charge for penetrating muons. The first peak of the non-shaded histogram
corresponds to electrons and corner-clipping muons while the second peak is dominated by crossing
muons.

by crossing muons. The ratio of the MPVs of these two peaks is about 3.3, i.e., in rough
agreement with the fact that crossing muons deposit around 26 Mev of energy in 13 cm
of liquid while low energy electrons deposit all of their energy, i..e., around 10 MeV.

DETECTION OF EXTENSIVE AIR SHOWERS

Introduction
The collisions of primary cosmic rays with nitrogen and oxygen nuclei high in the
Earth atmosphere give rise to extensive air showers (EAS. The four components of ex-
tensive air showers are: 1) The hadronic component including hadrons such as protons,
neutrons, pions and kaons; this component is very attenuated at sea level. 2) The elec-
tromagnetic component composed of electrons, positrons and photons originates either
from primary cosmic rays or from the decay photons of neutral pions; 3) The muon
component is composed of the decay muons of pions and kaons; at sea level 80% of
all charged particles are muons and 20% are electrons; 4) The neutrino component is
made up of neutrinos coming from decays of pions, kaons and muons; this is the non-
interacting component of extensive air showers.
EASs can be studied by measuring their particle densities as they arrive at the ground
by means of ground detectors or their particle densities as they traverse the atmosphere
by means of fluorescence or Cherenkov light telescopes on the ground.
It has been found that the energy spectrum of primary cosmic rays is well described
by a power law, i.e., dE/dx ∼ E −γ , over many decades of energy with the spectral index
γ approximately equal to 2.7, and steepening to γ = 3 at E = 3x1015 eV [11]. This
structural feature is known as the "knee" of the cosmic ray spectrum.
 The nature of the knee is still a puzzle despite the fact that it was discovered more than
46 years ago [12]. Most theories consider its origin as astrophysical and relate it to the
breakdown of the acceleration mechanisms of possible sources within our galaxy or to
a leakage during propagation of cosmic rays in the magnetic fields within our galaxy; in
particular, these theories lead to the prediction of a primary composition richer in heavy
elements around the knee due to the decrease of galactic confinement of cosmic rays
with increasing energy of the primary cosmic rays. Alternatively, there are scenarios
where a change in the hadronic interaction at the knee energy gives rise to new heavy
particles [13] which produce, upon decay, muons of higher energies than those produced
by normal hadrons.
The best handle to study the composition of primary cosmic rays by using ground
detector arrays is the measurement of the ratio of the muonic to the electromagnetic
component of EAS; in fact, Monte Carlo simulations show that heavier primaries give
rise to a bigger muon/EM ratio compared to lighter primaries of the same energy [14].
In fact, evidence for such variations has been reported recently [15].

Extensive Air Shower Detector Array at University of Puebla

The extensive air shower detector array at University of Puebla (EAS-UAP) was
designed to measure the lateral distribution and arrival direction of secondary particles
for EAS in the energy region of 1014 − 1016 eV. The special location of the EAS-UAP
array; 2200 m above sea level; and all the facilities coming from the Campus of the
University of Puebla make it a valuable apparatus for the long term study of cosmic rays
and at the same time an important training center for new physics students interested in
getting a first class education in the field of cosmic rays in Mexico.
The EAS-UAP array is located in the campus of the University of Puebla in Mexico
(UAP) at 19◦ N, 89◦ W and 2100 m.a.s.l., i.e., 800 gcm−2 ; it consists of 12 liquid
scintillator detectors distributed uniformly on a square grid with spacing of 20 m, and six
water Cherenkov detectors (one of 10 m2 cross section and five smaller ones of 1.86 m2 ),
as shown in Fig. 8, where liquid scintillator detectors are represented by black cylinders
and water Cherenkov detectors by stars. We make use of the natural flux of background
muons and electrons to monitor and calibrate our detectors. For this purpose, single
particle triggers are used simultaneously with EAS triggers.
For the location of the EAS-UAP, muons are the dominant contribution to the flux of
secondary cosmic rays for energies above 100 MeV with a flux of about 85 m−2 s−1 sr−1
and a mean energy of 4 GeV; at lower energies, up to 100 MeV, electrons, positrons
and photons are also an important component; electrons coming from muon decays with
energies up to 53 MeV dominate the flux of EM particles for detectors placed outside,
while knock-on electrons are another important contribution for detectors placed inside
or close to buildings.
We have reported on the performance of the EAS-UAP array elsewhere [16, 17, 18,
19]. The direction of the primary cosmic ray is inferred directly from the relative arrival
times of the shower front at the different detectors. The core position, lateral distribution
function and total number of shower particles on the ground are reconstructed from a
fit of the measured electron-positron densities to the NKG [20] formula. A discussion
of how this detector array is being used to measure the muon contents of EAS is given
elsewhere [21].
Fig. 9 shows the measured particle densities and the fitted lateral distribution function

FIGURE 8. EAS-UAP array located on the Campus of the University of Puebla. Stars represent
Cherenkov detectors filled with 2230 l of purified water and cylinders represent detectors filled with 130
l of liquid scintillator.

FIGURE 9. Typical event shown with the event display program of the EAS-UAP. The solid curve
is a fit of the NKG formula to the measured lateral distribution particle densities using only the liquid
scintillator detectors.
FIGURE 10. Fluorescence detector and electronics presently under construction to detect extensive air
showers at Sierra Negra.

for a near-vertical shower. For this particular event the fitted energy of the primary
cosmic ray was 459 TeV.

High Altitude Extensive Air Shower Detector Array at Sierra Negra

The Sierra Negra Observatory is a high mountain facility located at 19◦ N, 97.3◦
W and 4600 m.a.s.l., i.e., 590 gcm−2 , near the city of Puebla. An EAS detector is
under construction at that location; this experiment has been designed to combine two
detection techniques based on two different and independent detectors. For this purpose
an array of water Cherenkov detectors is under construction at Pico de Orizaba at 4200
m.a.s.l. (620 gcm−2 ) spread over 2.25 km2 to measure the particle density at ground
level, and a fluorescence telescope [22], also under construction at Sierra Negra, (590
gcm−2 ), with a field of view overlooking the ground array.
The WCDs will have a continuum duty cycle that will allow us to use them to measure
the arrival direction and energy distribution with a good statistics. In hybrid mode, the
arrival direction and the lateral distribution function of the EAS will also be measured
by the fluorescence telescope [23].
The TUS project [24, 25, 26] is managed by an international collaboration that aims
to detect ultra high energy cosmic rays, i.e., cosmic rays with energies above 1019 eV,
starting operation in the near future. The main innovation is that TUS will use one
or more fluorescence telescopes located on a satellite. In this way the aperture of the
 FIGURE 11. Water Cherenkov detector array located at Sierra Negra at an altitude of 4550 m.a.s.l.

instrument is greatly increased with respect to ground-based observatories. A prototype

of the fluorescence telescope of TUS is being built in Puebla with the intention to test it
at Sierra Negra.
Fig. 10 shows the fluorescence detector that is being built to detect EAS at Sierra
Negra. The light produced by nitrogen molecules excited by the passage of charged
particles is collected by the mirrors of the telescope which focuses it into a PMT camera
where the signal is digitized [27].
An absolute calibration provides the conversion factor from FADC counts to calculate
the number of photons arriving at the front of the mirror. The digitizing electronics
required for this purpose, shown in Fig. 10, is also being developed at the University of
Puebla. In addition, multi-anode PMTs are being used to develop a simple prototype of
a ring imaging Cherenkov detector [28].
 Search for Gamma Ray Bursts at Sierra Negra
Detection of GRBs from ground-based experiments has enormous potential for re-
vealing new information about the energy spectrum, origin and propagation of γ-rays
through space. This potential is greatly increased if GRBs are detected by two or more
ground-based experiments without ambiguity. The possibility of continuously moni-
toring GRBs by observing GeV γ-rays by the Milagro (USA)-Sierra Negra (Mexico)-
Chacaltaya (Bolivia)- Auger Argentina) network is discussed in [29].
Fig. 11 shows the array of water Cherenkov detectors located at Sierra Negra, at an
altitude of 4550 m.a.s.l. At present, the array consists of 4 cylindrical light-tight water
Cherenkov detectors; two of cross section equal to 4 m2 and two of 1 m2 , filled with
750 l of ultra-pure water. The interior of each tank is covered with tyvek to reflect the
Cherenvov light in a diffusive way. These detectors have a PMT each, located on the
cylinder axis and looking downwards to the water volume to collect the Cherenkov light
produced in the water. The PMT signals are read out by a DAQ system that measures
the rates of secondary particles each tenth of second [30, 31].

Conclusions
We discussed several past and present detectors built in Mexico to measure properties
of cosmic rays. First we described a simple measurement of the muon lifetime and the
ratio of positive to negative muons, next we described the detection of decaying and
crossing muons in water Cherenkov detectors and liquid scintillator detector. We also
discussed a technique to separate isolated particles based on the temporal structure of
their PMT pulses. Next we described the detection of extensive air showers (EAS) with
a hybrid detector array consisting of water Cherenkov and liquid scintillator detectors,
located at the campus of the University of Puebla. Finally we described work in progress
to detect EAS at 4600 m.a.s.l. with a water Cherenkov detector array and a fluorescence
telescope at the Sierra Negra mountain.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank University of Michoacan, University of Puebla and CONACyT
for supporting this work.

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