Resources, Conservation & Recycling 134 (2018) 165–173

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Resources, Conservation & Recycling

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Full length article

Recyclable resources from municipal solid waste: Assessment of its energy, T

economic and environmental benefits in Nigeria
⁎
Ayodele T.R. , Alao M.A., Ogunjuyigbe A.S.O
Power, Energy, Machine & Drive Research Group, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Technology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this paper, the potential of recyclable municipal solid waste in each of the six geographical zones in Nigeria is
Recycling presented with the aim of evaluating its energy saving potentials, economic and environmental benefits. The
Municipal solid waste amount of recyclable materials in a stream of municipal solid waste is evaluated based on population model
Energy and economic potentials spanning from 2017–2036, waste generation model and recycling collection rate gathered from local literature,
Environmental benefits
reports and publication from relevant institutions. The environmental advantage from recyclable municipal solid
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission
waste is conducted based on evaluation of its greenhouse gas emission potentials while the economic potential is
Nigeria
estimated using cost adjustment factor method. Some of the results indicate that plastic is the most prominent
recyclable waste in all the cities in the South-East, South-South and all the Northern parts of Nigeria. However,
paper is the most available recyclable material in the waste stream of the cities in the South-West. The results
also reveal that a total of 89.99 toe (1046.43 GW h) of energy could be saved per annum by recycling the
recyclable waste materials rather than producing new products from the virgin materials. The saving in elec-
tricity could provide electrical power for about 9.8 million people based on available statistics of average
electricity generation of 29,697,360.1 MW h and per capita electricity consumption of 107 kW h in Nigeria.
Furthermore, a total of 11.71 million USD economic benefits could be realized which equivalent to about 16,562
jobs annually. The environmental assessment result indicates that a total of 307.364 ktons CO2eq of GHG
emission reduction could be achieved annually.

1. Introduction
In recent years, one of the greatest environmental challenges around
the world is the exponential upsurge in the generation of municipal
solid wastes (MSW) as a result of rapid population growth, urbaniza-
tion, industrialization, economic development as well as changing
consumption patterns. In the year 2012, the global MSW was ap-
proximately 1.3 billion metric tons and this amount is expected to rise
to approximately 2.2 billion tons by the year 2025 (Rajaeifar et al.,
2017) and 4.2 billion tons per year by 2050 (Nazmul -Islam, 2016). This
unprecedented upsurge in MSW generation has put a lot of pressure on
the existing infrastructure for waste management. Adequate treatment
of this huge amount of waste being generated on daily basis is one of
the biggest challenges faced by public authorities around the world
(Lino and Ismail, 2017). However, the situation is more severe in Africa
and other developing economies such as Nigeria where waste man-
agement is a herculean task. Indiscriminate dumping and burning of
refuse along the road side or vacant space are the predominant methods
of waste disposal in Nigeria; and in some cases the MSW generated is
collected and conveyed to open dump sites, or collected and trans-
ported to landfill sites without methane capture where some informal
recovery for recycling occurs and final treatment is by open incinera-
tion. This practice does not only pose great risk to social and public
health but also endangers the ecosystem. It also distorts the esthetic of
the environment; hence, pragmatic solution is required to bring this
menace under control
MSW is a mixture of biomass and fossil fuel based materials. The
biomass based (degradable) portion of MSW include materials such as
food and animal wastes, yard waste, paper/cardboard, leather and
wood among others. Fossil fuel based (non-degradable) components of
MSW include glass, ceramics, plastic, rubber and metal (Ayodele et al.,
2017b). Due to their physical and chemical compositions, the highly
degradable components (such as food, human and animal wastes) give
obnoxious odours after decomposition in the landfill. The non-degrad-
able matters in the MSW are stable and can take years to decompose in
the landfill. They only occupy space and therefore reduce the useful life
of the landfill areas leading to waste disposal problem especially in the
urban cities where land area for waste deposition is scarce. In some

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: tr.ayodele@ui.edu.ng (T.R. Ayodele), moshoodakanni4u@yahoo.com (M.A. Alao), a.ogunjuyigbe@ui.edu.ng (A.S.O. Ogunjuyigbe).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.03.017
Received 13 January 2018; Received in revised form 15 March 2018; Accepted 17 March 2018
0921-3449/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
T.R. Ayodele et al.
developed countries such as Denmark, Sweden and Germany, land-
filling of certain types of waste such as combustible waste or untreated
organic waste are now illegal (Leme et al., 2014) with the view to
avoiding emission of free methane and other bad odour-causing gases.
It is also to prolong the life of landfill areas. However, recycling as an
alternative waste management option for waste is now recognised as an
important approach to solving waste problem both in developed and
developing world and has been recommended by researchers (Lino
et al., 2010) to extend the useful life of landfills and some other value
added advantages.
The term ‘waste’ is a subject of human appraisal as it could mean a
different thing for different people. In general, waste is ‘unwanted’ for
the person who discards it because the material has lost its use-value
and is therefore thrown away (Bako, 2014a,b). However, to some
people, waste is a valuable resource and is used as secondary raw
materials (Nzeadibe and Adama, 2013). The use of waste material as an
input to produce a new product is called recycling. In recycling, the so
called waste material is a useful recourse. This process has the potential
to provide some environmental, energetic, economic, and social bene-
fits. Some of which include conservation of natural resources due to the
use of less quantities of virgin (raw) material in manufacturing in-
dustries, reduction of energy and water consumption thereby reducing
air and water pollution from the emission of greenhouse gas into the
environment, job creation and income for waste pickers (scavengers),
increasing the useful life of landfill areas and reduction of public
spending for treating waste in the landfill sites (Lino et al., 2010; Lino
and Ismail, 2017; Rajaeifar et al., 2017; Simonetto et al., 2013).
Recycling is the conversion of waste materials such as paper and
cardboard, plastics, glass and metals into new and useful products with
an economic value (Lino et al., 2010; Read, 1999). In this process,
wastes materials are collected either from the source or final disposal
site (landfills) and separated (sorted) according to type, compressed to
reduce their volume, packed and transported to intermediate dealers or
directly to the recycling plant where they enter again into the manu-
facturing chain (Lino and Ismail, 2017) to produce secondary materials
or new products. Material recycling is generally categorised into either
closed-loop recycling or open-loop recycling. In closed loop recycling
waste products are recycled into material that is used for products of
the same kind whereas open loop recycling occurs where waste pro-
ducts are recycled into material that is used for other kinds of products
(Nakatani, 2014). For example, the reprocessing of polyethylene ter-
ephthalate (PET) plastic bottles into fibre is an open loop recycling
process. For closed loop recycling, the recycled material and its virgin
equivalent have the same quality and can be used to produce the same
products. It is a general argument that the recycled product (such as
recycled fibre) from open loop recycling system may be different in
quality from its virgin equivalent (such as virgin fibre) (Shena et al.,
2010). Another example is that recycled metal from “tins’’ cannot al-
ways be reused to machine cans (Diaz and Warith, 2006). This is
however dependent on the recycling technology and the scope of such a
comparison (Shena et al., 2010). Shena et al. (2010), confirmed that
PET fibre produced by chemical recycling back-to-oligomers, mechan-
ical and semi-mechanical recycling has a very similar quality to virgin
fibre if a clean PET bottle source is used. In the context of this paper, it
is assumed that all recycled materials have similar properties and
quality as their virgin equivalent and considered to be used in place of
the virgin inputs to manufacture new products. However, for the better
functioning of recycling, it is very important to implement a wide
system of selective collection in the cities, where recyclable portions in
the MSW are segregated in homes and collected by the municipal se-
lective collection system (Johnson et al., 2018). In Brazil, selective
collection was introduced in urban cities in the 1980s with 1.2% of
MSW selectively collected (Lino and Ismail, 2015). It is not clear as at
now which state or region in Nigeria has adopted selective collection to
enhance recycling program. Rather, collection of recyclables is in-
formally left in the hands of scavengers. Recycling activities are very
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 134 (2018) 165–173
intensely driven by informal waste pickers in developing countries such
as Nigeria (Bako, 2014a,b) and Brazil (Bako, 2014a,b; Lino and Ismail,
2017).
A number of studies have been conducted on the potential benefits
embedded in waste recycling and its experiences in different countries
around the world. Simonetto et al. (2013) assessed the energy savings
in waste recycling using system dynamics model for metropolitan city
of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil. The model considered two scenarios and
it was revealed that there were energy savings of 7500 MW h/month for
positive scenario and 5800 MW h/month under current scenario. Lino
et al. (2010) analysed the energy impact of waste recyclables in Cam-
pina metropolis, Brazil. The authors considered the use of selective
collection as a tool for waste data gathering. It was estimated that the
amount of recyclable material selectively collected was about 1% of the
mixed solid waste collected. The authors also opined that with this
amount of recyclable matter, an energy savings of 12,552 GJ/month
(3487 MW h) could be realised which is equivalent to monthly elec-
tricity consumption of 4000 residences in Campina. This implies that
recycling can greatly conserve energy. Seike et al. (2018) conducted a
research on the PVC sash recycling system in Japan, and assesses the
efficacy of the system in Hokkaido on environmental impact reduction,
as well as its economic feasibility. Based on the result of these assess-
ments, the efficacy of future PVC sash recycling systems on environ-
mental impact and its economic feasibility was discussed. The authors
revealed that CO2 emissions from PVC sash recycling in Hokkaido using
manually secondary separation in recycling plants was about 233 kg-
CO2/ton. However for the machine separation, the CO2 varies between
288–380 kgCO2/ton. It was concluded that recycling of PVC sashes are
generally economically viable in Japan. More studies on the benefit of
waste recycling around the world can be found in (Lino and Ismail,
2013; Morris, 1996; Read, 1999; Themelis and Todd, 2004).
Some local authors have also conducted studies on MSW recycling
in Nigeria. For example, (Otitoju, 2014) investigated the attitude of
individuals toward recycling of municipal solid waste in Lagos, Nigeria.
The author found that lack of awareness; inadequate infrastructural
facilities and lack of involvement of public on policy formulation in
waste management are the major impediments to waste recycling in
Lagos. (Olukanni et al., 2014) did appraisal of the potential of the
current state of solid waste management in a semi-urban city, its as-
sociated challenges and prospects in Nigeria. More studies on waste
recycling in Nigeria can be found in (Kofoworola, 2007, Kofoworola,
2016; Sridhar and Hammed, 2014). However, studies on the assessment
of the energy potentials, economic benefit and environmental ad-
vantage in terms of GHG emission reduction and fossil fuel displace-
ment as well as social benefits of recycling of MSW in Nigeria are
scarcely available. Therefore, this paper intends to assess the energy
potential of recycling of recyclable MSW in some selected cities in Ni-
geria, its economic benefit, social inclusion in terms of employment
creation as well as environmental advantages.
2. Recycling situation in Nigeria
Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa. By virtue of its large
population, enormous amount of waste is generated resulting into huge
waste management challenge. Recycling as an alternative waste man-
agement option has now been recognised as an important approach to
solving waste problem in Nigeria (Bako, 2014a,b). At present, there is
an obvious absence of formal recycling of municipal waste in Nigeria
(Nzeadibe and Adama, 2013). Although waste recycling has formally
been accepted in Lagos as an effective strategy towards waste diversion
from landfills (Otitoju, 2014), yet it has not received adequate attention
from the government (Bako, 2014a,b). Other cities in the country are
yet to recognize recycling as an effective waste management. Waste
recycling system is mainly carried out by informal sectors in Nigeria
(Kofoworola, 2007; Nzeadibe and Adama, 2013) and this involves
waste scavengers and itinerant waste pickers thereby achieving low but
T.R. Ayodele et al.
significant recycling rates (Nzeadibe and Adama, 2013).
The current waste recycling method (informal) being practice in
Nigeria is not different from what is obtainable in many other devel-
oping nations such as Colombia (Vergara et al., 2016) and Brazil (Lino
et al., 2010). According to Nzeadibe and Iwuoha (2008), informal re-
cycling refers to the activities of scavengers or waste pickers that are
involved in the processing, transformation and trading of materials
recovered from waste. Scavengers use carts to collect recyclable mate-
rials both from street bins and at the dumpsites (Otitoju, 2014). In
Lagos state for example, there are 1–30 scavengers per dumpsite de-
pending on the size of the landfill who sort recyclable materials
(Kofoworola, 2007). The collected materials are subjected to some level
of intermediate processing (i.e. washing and drying) and are thereafter
sold to refuse dealers who in turn sell to small and large scale proces-
sing and manufacturing industries as raw materials to produce new
products. In recent times, most cities around the world are adopting a
range of policy measures to increase their recycling rates. In Bogota,
Colombia, there was an attempt to formalise their recycling system by
replacing informal (unregulated) recycling sectors with municipally-
run (regulated) recycling schemes (Vergara et al., 2016) with the ob-
jective of repositioning waste management in Colombia. Nigeria is yet
to develop a blueprint to formalise her recycling sector, however re-
commendation has been made to legislative in support of waste man-
agement reforms that will be implemented at the national, state and
municipal levels to guide formal recycling activity. Also, an inclusive
policy that recognises informal sector in the waste management and
recycling has been advocated with the view to increasing the recycling
rates. Countries such as Brazil, Colombia, India and Peru have laws that
recognise the informal waste sector in their recycling systems (Nzeadibe
and Adama, 2013).
3. Methodology
This section presents a stepwise formulation of model equations
required for the estimation of energy potential, economic benefit as
well as environmental savings of waste recycling process. The basic
model equations considered are waste generation potential, amount of
recyclables, economic benefit, energy, GHG emission savings and fossil
fuel displacement. Detailed of the methodological framework for this
paper is shown in Fig. 1.
3.1. Municipal solid waste generation (MSW) and composition
In order that the waste generated by population be reused or re-
cycled, and contributes to reducing the use of natural resources which
are becoming unavailable, it is essential to have accurate and reliable
information on the physicochemical characteristics of the waste, the
amounts generated, the fractions collected, as well as its destination
(Simonetto et al., 2013). In Nigeria, about 25 million tonnes of MSW are
generated annually at a rate of 0.44−0.66 kg/person/day (Ogwueleka,
2009). The quantity of MSW generated has a direct correlation with
population growth rate, economic prosperity, weather and seasons.
This value is expected to increase due to increase in population (in
Nigeria, the population growth rate is 3.2% (Ayodele et al., 2017a,b).
MSW composition is influenced by culture, consumption pattern and
the level of income of individuals which varies from place to place.
More of organic biodegradables such as food waste and other pu-
trescible are characteristic of MSW in low income-developing econo-
mies while developed countries have more of paper, plastic, metal and
glass in their waste stream. In Nigeria, plastic and paper form the
second and third largest constituents of MSW, which are recyclables.
In other to determine the amount of MSW generated, a predictive
waste generation model based on projected population growth rate and
per capita waste generation is used. Detail of this model has been de-
scribed in (Ayodele et al., 2017a,b; Ogunjuyigbe et al., 2017) and hence
will not be further discussed.
167
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 134 (2018) 165–173
The amount of waste generated MWgen can be obtained using:
(pb (1 + rb)t × Wb (1 + gr )t × 365)
MWgen = tons / yr
1000 (1)
where, pb and Wb are the base population and base waste generation per
capita, respectively, rb is the base population rate, gr is the per capita
waste generation rate and t is the projected period of time (year) (Phiri
et al., 2012).
But, gr = rec (2)
Where, rec is the gross domestic product (GDP) that measures income
level. The value of rec is assumed to be positive if there is economic
development and negative for economic recession.
It is assumed that a favourable economic atmosphere is expected
throughout the period of calculation (i.e., rec is expected to be positive)
Not all the waste generated is collected. About 74% of the waste
generated in Nigeria is collected (Aboyade, 2004). Some of the gener-
ated waste will find their ways into the unauthorized places such as
gutter and drainages. For simplicity, an average value is used as a ty-
pical representative of annual waste collected.
Therefore, the average amount of waste collected can be calculated
using:
20
∑t = 1 (MWgen × CR)
MWcollected = tons / yr
20 (3)
Where, CR is the waste collection rate and t is the projected period of
time (year).
Tables 1–3 contain the parameters required for the estimation of the
amount of waste generated, collected and recycled. Note: These para-
meters are assumed to remain constant throughout the projected time.
3.1.1. The quantity of recyclables in the waste stream
Obviously, waste recycling system is at an infant stage in Nigeria
and there are no formal waste recycling programs or resource recovery
plants in the country. This has actually resulted in lack of information
on the proportion of recovered materials in relation to the total annual
amount of MSW generated. It is however difficult to obtain site specific
data on either in statistical form or otherwise. However, based on the
established relationship between population increase and MSW gen-
eration, the predictive model as proposed in this paper is meant to
determine the future MSW generated based on the projected national
population growth increase (i.e., 3.5%) and Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) value as depicted in Table 1. These values are assumed to remain
constant throughout the projected period (2017–2036). Therefore, the
amount of recyclables in the waste stream is mathematically estimated.
Therefore, the amount of the recyclables in the waste stream is
obtained as:
Q(i) recycled = MWcollected × Q(i) fraction × Q(i) rate (4)
Where, i is the index referring to recyclable materials (i.e., paper,
plastic, metal and glass), Q(i) rate is the recycling rate for each recyclable
material and Q(i) fraction is the percentage composition of recyclable ma-
terial in the waste stream (expressed in fraction). Paper, plastic, metal
and glass are considered as the recyclable materials in this study be-
cause they are those with high market values in Nigeria. The actual
amount of recyclables that will make it to the recycling plant depends
on the recycling rate. With improved recycling rates, the amount of
waste recycled will increase. However, in the context of this paper,
waste collection rate, recycling rates, waste composition etc., as de-
picted in Table 3 are assumed to remain the same throughout the
projected period of calculation (2017–2036).
In this study, the plastics are assumed to be polyethylene (PE) (low
and high density) i.e., LDPE and HDPE and polyethylene terephthalate
(PET). This is because water sachets and bottles made of PE and PET are
products of plastics that are widely used in Nigeria. The paper is of
mixed type which encompasses cardboard, newspaper and fine paper,
T.R. Ayodele et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 134 (2018) 165–173

Fig. 1. Methodological Framework for the study.

Table 1 of glass considered is assumed to be both coloured and clear glass

Parameters for evaluating the waste generation and collection potential of the selected bottles that are found in the food and beverage containers. Recovery or
cities in Nigeria.
recycling of textile from MSW is not culturally acceptable in Nigeria
Parameters Base population GDP growth Collection rate Year of (Kofoworola, 2016) and is therefore not considered in this paper. These
rate r b (NPC, rate (renc ) CR (Aboyade, calculation (t) materials are sorted either at the source or at landfill sites before taking
2017) (NBS, 2016) 2004) to recycling plant.
Value 3.5% 2.79% 74% 20
3.2. Economic benefit estimation from the sale of recyclable material

and metal is assumed to be ferrous (steel) and non-ferrous (aluminum). The sale of processed recyclable materials gives some financial
Aluminum scraps in the waste stream come mostly from beverage cans value to the dealers involved. Based on the selling price of recyclables
and is the most attractive materials for recovery while majority of metal listed in Table 4, the economic benefit from the sale of the recyclable
present in domestic wastes is steel in the form of tin cans. The fraction materials in the MSW can be obtained as follows:

Table 2
Parameters on study locations across all the 6 geographical zones in Nigeria (Ogunjuyigbe et al., 2017).

Geographical location within Cities Acronym Name of selected Population pb based on 2006 Waste Generated per capita Lat (°N) Long (°E)
Nigeria cities census Wb (kg/capita/day)

ABK Abeokuta 449088 0.60 (Achi et al., 2012) 7.14 3.33

AKR Akure 491033 0.54 (Fakere et al., 2012) 7.25 5.20
South -East ONS Onitsha 263109 0.53 (Nwachukwu, 2010) 6.17 6.78
ABL Abakaliki 149683 0.18 (Eze and Edu, 2014) 6.32 8.11
South-South BEN Benin 1086882 0.50 (Igbinomwanhia, 2012) 6.32 5.60
PHC Port -Harcourt 1201965 1.11 (Igoni et al., 2007) 4.82 7.05
North-Central ABJ Abuja 1406239 0.66 (Ayuba et al., 2013) 9.00 7.27
ILR Ilorin 781934 0.43 (Ajadi and Tunde, 2010) 8.48 4.54
North- East BAU Bauchi 493730 0.22 (Lawal and Garba, 2013) 10.64 10.08
JAL Jalingo 140318 0.34 (Tsunatu et al., 2015) 8.89 11.38
North- West DTS Dutse 251135 1.00 (Oumarou et al., 2012) 11.70 9.33
KAT Katsina 318132 1.12 (Oumarou et al., 2012) 12.51 7.61

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T.R. Ayodele et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 134 (2018) 165–173

Table 3 recycling reduces the use of new raw materials for the production of
Gravimetric composition of recyclables (Q(i) fraction %) adapted from (Ayodele et al., consumer goods. However, most electricity users especially industrial
2017a,b).
firms in Nigeria have resorted to generate their power independently
Cities Acronym Paper Plastic Metal Glass (captive power plants) using diesel generators because the power gen-
eration capacity from utility is inadequate to meet their growing energy
IBD 6.60 4.00 2.50 0.60 demand. It is therefore assumed that the diesel generators are used to
ABK 25.5 24.95 5.26 5.75
power the material recovery (recycling plant) plants in this study. It
AKR 14.5 1.70 7.20 6.30
ONS 8.10 17.90 8.70 4.50 should be noted that not all the waste sent for material recovery at the
ABL 12.96 17.48 7.96 4.52 recycling plant are completely recovered or recycled. The actual mass
BEN 14.27 25.43 3.21 3.89 of material recovered depends on the efficiency of the recovery or re-
PHC 9.87 17.55 3.42 1.87 cycling processes and hence the amount of energy consumed by the
ABJ 25.30 17.90 3.14 3.00
process will depend on the efficiency of the recycling plant. Therefore,
ILR 0.00 26.03 0.00 18.03
BAU 16.00 27.00 0.00 5.40 the amount of energy (E(i) recycled ) consumed by recycling plants when
JAL 0.00 15.00 10.00 0.30 using recyclable matter in tonnes of oil equivalent (toe) can be de-
DTS 11.00 26.00 6.00 7.00 termined as:
KAT 11.00 20.00 10.00 8.00
Recycling Rate (Q(i) rate ) % (Kofoworola, 2016) 10.00 10.00 10.00 5.00 f(i) recycled × Q(i) recycled × R (i) eff
E(i) Recycled =
41.868 (7)

Table 4 Where;
Parameters for determining the financial benefit of recyclable materials from MSW f(i) recycled is the recycling energy factor in (GJ/ton), Q(i) recycled is the
(Olukanni et al., 2014).
waste recycled (ton), R (i) eff is the recycling efficiency and the conver-
Material Price (NGN/ton) Price (USD/ton) sion factor from GJ to toe is 41.868 (MIT, 2007).
The amount of energy (E(i) virgin ) expended for the production of the
Paper/Cardboard 35,000 218.75 same quantity of the product using virgin (raw) materials can be esti-
Plastic/Nylon 35,000 218.75 mated as follows:
Glass 30,000 187.50 f(i) virgin × Q(i) recycled
Metal 30,000 187.50 E(i) virgin = 41.868
(8) Where, f(i) virgin , is the energy factor in
* Based on 2013 US Dollar (i.e., 160 NGN to 1 USD) (GJ/ton) for material production from virgin material.
Total energy saved in (toe) due to recycling can be obtained as:

FG = ∑ (P(i) R × Q(i) recycled) (5) ESaved = ∑ (E(i) virgin − E(i) recycled) (9)

Where, FG (USD) is the total economic benefit, P(i) R (USD/ton) is the Note: The oil referred to in this document contains both heavy and
selling price of recyclables and Q(i) recycled (tons) quantity of recyclables. light diesel fuels which are used as a source of energy for electric power
The price in Table 4 is based on 2013 data, in other to adapt these generation to power the recycling plants.
cost values to the present situation; a cost adjustment method is used. The percentage energy saved from recycling process can be de-
This is done by multiplying the cost adjustment factors (such as Pur- termined as:
chasing Power Parity (PPP), Consumer Price index (CPI) and present
ERe cycled
currency exchange rate) and the total financial gain FG as follows: %ESaved = × 100
ESaved (10)
FGAdjusted = FG × Q × R × S (6)
If the diesel fuel had a heating value of 35.8 MJ/Litre (MIT, 2007)
Where, Q, R, S are cost adjustment factors. Q is the present currency and the generator was working at an efficiency of 33% (ICF, 2014),
exchange rate from Nigerian Naira (NGN) to US dollar (i.e., 1 then the amount of diesel fuel equivalent to the energy conserved is
USD = 305.5 NGN) (CBN, Central Bank of Nigeria, 2017a, b), R is the determined as:
Consumer Price index (CPI) inflation rate from 2013 to 2017 taken as
ESaved × 100 × 41868
1.0564 (BLS, 2017) and S is the Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) factor FD =
LHVD × 33 (11)
taken as 0.37122 (CBN, Central Bank of Nigeria, 2017a,b).
It should be noted however that only energy consumed during
3.3. Electrical energy and the amount of fuel saved due to recycling of waste material fabrication using virgin materials and recyclables are con-
sidered in this paper whereas energy (diesel or electricity) used for
Every product has embedded energy in it, which is the energy it waste collection, transportation and, for raw material extraction and
took to extract, transport, and transform the needed materials to pro- processing are not included.
duce the product. This energy could be in form of electricity, oil or coal The parameters for calculating the energy saved are furnished in
equivalents. The use of recyclable materials to produce new product Table 5
prevents the consumption of this energy and results into avoidance of Similarly, the amount of CO2 emission avoided from diesel com-
emission of hazardous gases into the atmosphere. This is because bustion can be calculated using:

Table 5
Parameters for calculating energy saved due to recycling practice.

Energy factor (GJ/ton) Paper Plastic Metal Glass Source

PE PET Average Al Steel Average

Recycled ( frecycled ) 26.21 19.94 46.07 33.05 11.70 9.40 10.55 9.23 (Diaz and Warith, 2006; Hanandeh and El-Zein, 2010)
Virgin ( fvirgin ) 36.85 79.76 107.20 93.48 140.00 25.20 82.60 14.10 (Diaz and Warith, 2006; Hanandeh and El-Zein, 2010)
Recycling Efficiency (R eff ) % 89.0089.00 74.50 87.00 100.00 (Giugliano et al., 2011)

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T.R. Ayodele et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 134 (2018) 165–173

ECO2Avoided = FD × EF
where, EF is the emission factor of diesel fuel taken as 2.7kgCO2/Litre
(Manfredi et al., 2009)
3.4. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions saved from waste recycling
Large quantities of gaseous emissions are given off during the
manufacture of consumer products especially recyclable materials such
as paper, plastics, metals and glass. However, recycling has the poten-
tial to reduce the emission of these huge amounts of air pollutants such
as acid gases (SO2, NOX, HCl etc.,) and greenhouse gases (GHGs) (CO2,
CH4 etc.,) into the atmosphere. However, in the context of this study,
only GHGs are considered.
The amount of GHGs emission produced from recycling, virgin raw
materials and emission saved are determined using the following
equations.
GHG(R) = ∑ (EF (R) j × QRe cycled × GWPj)
GHG(V ) = ∑ (EF (V ) j × QRe cycled × GWPj)
GHGSaved = GHG(V ) − GHG(R)
Percentage GHG emission saved due to recycling of MSW can be
determined using:
GHG(R)
%GHGSaved = × 100
GHGSaved
Total greenhouse gas emission saved is obtained by adding the
emission saved from waste recycling and emission due to fossil fuel
displacement. This is obtained as
GHGTotal = GHGSaved + ECO2Avoided
Where, j is the index referring to specific GHG which could be (CO2 and
CH4), GHG(R) (CO2eq) is the GHG emitted from recycling process,
GHG(V ) (CO2eq) is the GHG emitted from material production from
virgin material, EF (R) is the emission factor for recycling process, EF (V ) is
the emission factor for material production from virgin material,
GHGSaved (CO2eq) is the GHG emission saved and GWP is the global
warming potential of the GHG gas in 100 year time horizon. The
parameters used in determining the GHG emission saved are provided
in Table 6.
(12) determined by (4) for all the selected cities in each of the six geo-
graphical zones in Nigeria is presented in Fig. 2.
From the figure, PHC, ABJ, ILR, BAU, JAL, DTS and KAT have
higher proportion of plastic in their waste stream compared to other
recyclable materials. All these cities except PHC (i.e Ilorin (ILR), Abuja
(ABJ), Bauchi (BAU), Jalingo (JAL), Dutse (DTS) and Katsina (KAT))
are located in the Northern part of the country. The reason for most
Norther cities having more plastics in their waste stream may be due to
the fact that this part of the country is closer to the equator with hotter
climatic condition (higher temperature) compared to the other regions.
Hence, the consumption of sachet water (water in nylon) and plastic
bottled water which results into high plastic component in their waste
stream. Large composition of plastic in the waste stream in Port
Harcourt (PHC) (a city located in the South-South region) may be at-
tributed to the fact that it is crude oil producing areas with high pre-
sence of plastic and nylon producing industries. Paper is the major re-
cyclable in Ibadan (IBD), Akure (AKR) and Abeokuta (ABK) because
these cities have higher concentration of commercial and institutional
(13)
outfits where papers are mostly used.
(14)
4.2. Economic benefit from the recyclables materials
(15)
Even though revenue from the sale of recyclable materials leads to
financial benefit, the exact revenue from the sales of these recyclable
materials is difficult to estimate due to lack of historical local market
prices for recovered materials in Nigeria. However, data on prices of
recyclable materials in a semi-urban town in Nigeria are obtained from
(16)
the literature (as presented in Table 4) and used for the determination
of economic benefit of recyclable material in Nigeria. The amount of
revenue obtained from the sale of the recyclables is estimated using
305.5 NGN to a US dollar. The result of the economic benefits of re-
(17) cycling at each selected location as determined from (6) is depicted in
Table 7.
From the table, it could be observed that a total of about 3.6 Billion
NGN (11.71 Million USD) could be realised annually from the sale of
recyclables in the selected cities. This amount is equivalent to 16,562
jobs being created annually based on 18,000 NGN national monthly
minimum salaries. This is a huge cash inflow which could go a long way
in ameliorating the poverty condition among the chunk (waste picker)
sellers.
4.3. Electrical energy saved due to recycling process

4. Results and discussion
This section presents the results and discussion of the methodolo-
gical framework described in Section 2
4.1. Quantity of recyclable materials in the waste stream in Nigeria
The recyclable materials under consideration in this study are
paper, plastic, metal and glass. The wood is not accounted for because
of its insignificant amount in the waste stream. Wood is also a major
raw material for paper production therefore it will be a duplication of
the same material in the same process. The amount of recyclables as
The quantity of recyclables to which electrical energy saved, GHG
saved and amount of diesel displaced are calculated is based on the
collected recyclable portion of the MSW. This is because not 100% of all
recyclable waste would get to the recycling plant. In the case of Nigeria,
only 10% of the recyclable waste potential are assumed to undergo
recycling (Kofoworola, 2016). The savings in the electrical energy ex-
pended for the production of consumable good by using recyclables are
determined using (7)–(9). The results of which are depicted in Table 8.
It could be seen from table that recycling has a great potential to
conserve energy. Total energy of 89.99 toe/yr (which is equivalent to
1046.43 GW h/yr of electricity) is saved due to recycling in the selected
cities. This energy is equivalent to 3.5% of the total electricity

Table 6
Parameters for calculating the GHG emission savings adapted from (Diaz and Warith, 2006; Hanandeh and El-Zein, 2010).

GHG (j) (kg/ton) GWP kgCO2eq Mixed Paper Plastic Metal Glass

PE PET Al Steel

EF (V ) EF (R) EF (V ) EF (R) EF (V ) EF (R) EF (V ) EF (R) EF (V ) EF (R) EF (V ) EF (R)

CO2 1 1304 −1300.0 2400 163 2363 163 5126 518 1820 595 632 278
CH4 25 0.02 0.01 28.00 0.016 25.00 0.016 6.54 2.71 0.0097 1.29 1.11 0.83

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T.R. Ayodele et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 134 (2018) 165–173

Fig. 2. Quantity of recyclable materials in the selected cities in Nigeria.

Table 7 Ogunjuyigbe, 2015). Therefore, recycling could be a means of reducing

Result of the economic benefit from the sale of recovered recyclable materials. electrical energy poverty in Nigeria if given proper attention by the
government and all other concerned stakeholders.
Cities Acronyms Financial Gain(Million NGN) Financial Gain (Million USD)

IBD 356.25 1.17 4.4. Greenhouse gas emissions saved due to waste recycling
ABK 325.96 1.07
AKR 140.05 0.46
It has been proven that recycling reduces the amount of air pollu-
ONS 0.28 0.01
ABL 22.25 0.07 tants released into the ambient that are associated with the re-fabri-
BEN 1.38 0.05 cation from the virgin (raw) material. In the context of this study, the
PHC 880.67 2.88 amount of GHG gas reduction was determined using (13)–(17) and the
ABJ 922.43 3.02
results are shown in Table 9. From table, the highest emission reduction
ILR 239.11 0.78
BAU 103.69 0.34 occurred in PHC followed by ABJ and KAT with values 89.17, 58.51
JAL 23.82 0.08 and 32.86 ktons CO2eq/yr, respectively. A total of 307.364 ktons CO2eq/
DTS 238.83 0.78 yr of GHG could be prevented from getting to the ambient on annual
KAT 322.77 1.06 basis if waste recycling is implemented within the study’s time frame
TOTAL 3577.50 11.71
(i.e., 2017–2036) in the selected cities in Nigeria.

Table 8 4.5. Amount of diesel fuel and carbon dioxide emission avoided from diesel
Energy saved due to recycling of recyclables in MSW in selected cities in Nigeria. generator due to recycling

Cities Acronym Evirgin x 103 ERe cycled x 103 Esaved x 103 % Esaved
Recycling leads to reduction in energy (electricity) which in turn
toe/yr toe/yr toe/yr
causes reduction in generator’s commitment. Invariably, reduction in
IBD 14.56 5.04 9.52 65.38 generator’s commitment results in reduction in diesel fuel usage and
ABK 12.21 4.81 7.40 60.61 also CO2 emission reduction. Therefore, the amount of diesel fuel that
AKR 5.59 1.76 3.83 68.52
ONS 0.02 0.01 0.01 73.33
Table 9
ABA 0.99 0.31 0.68 68.69
Results for GHG emission saved from the recycling of MSW.
BEN 0.06 0.02 0.04 66.67
PHC 36.93 13.12 23.81 64.48
Cities Acronym GHG(R) GHG(V ) GHG(Saved) % GHG(Saved)
ABJ 32.05 13.87 18.18 56.73
ktonsCO2eq/ ktonsCO2eq/ ktonsCO2eq/
ILR 9.08 3.39 5.69 62.67
yr yr yr
BAU 3.69 1.61 2.08 56.37
JAL 1.51 0.31 1.20 79.47
IBD 11.16 34.58 23.42 67.74
DTS 10.32 3.44 6.88 66.68
ABK 9.01 33.73 24.72 73.28
KAT 15.02 4.35 10.67 71.04
AKR 4.94 10.62 5.68 53.50
Total/Average 89.99 66.20
ONS 0.01 0.04 0.03 83.77
ABA 0.54 2.60 2.05 79.03
BEN 0.03 0.17 0.14 82.34
generated in Nigeria in 2014 based on total electricity generation of PHC 18.80 107.96 89.17 82.59
29,697,360.1 MW h (NESP, 2015). Also, recycling could achieve an ABJ 27.71 86.22 58.51 67.86
average percentage savings of 66%. However, this amount of energy ILR 1.74 33.42 31.68 94.80
BAU 2.23 11.96 9.73 81.34
saved is peculiar to the current recycling rates as assumed in this paper.
JAL 0.29 3.91 3.61 92.46
More energy could be saved if the recycling rates improve. This amount DTS 4.49 30.26 25.77 85.16
of energy saved can provide electricity for about 9.8 million people in KAT 6.69 39.55 32.86 83.09
Nigeria based on per capita consumption of 107 kW h (Ayodele and Total/Average 307.37 79.00

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T.R. Ayodele et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 134 (2018) 165–173

Table 10 million people in Nigeria based on present per capita electricity con-
Amount of Diesel fuel saved and Carbon dioxide emission avoided from diesel generator sumption of 107 kW h. Moreover, an annual economic benefit of USD
due to recycling.
11.71 million can be realised which is enough to pay 16,562 workers
Cities Acronym Diesel fuel saved (Million Emission avoided from diesel based on present 18,000 NGN minimum monthly salaries. A total of
Litres/yr) generator (ktons/yr) about 308 ktons CO2eq/yr of GHG emission reduction could be achieved
per annum. Taking 2017 as the base year, and with the national po-
IBD 33.74 91.09
pulation growth rate of 3.5% and all other variables assumed constant
ABK 26.23 70.81
AKR 13.57 36.65 (i.e., waste collection rate, recycling rate, waste composition etc.,),
ONS 0.04 0.10 recycling is capable of preventing about 19.196 Mtons CO2eq from
ABA 2.41 6.51 being emitted into the atmosphere by 2050. This study could assist
BEN 0.14 0.38 decision makers in policy formulation and the intending investors for
PHC 84.38 227.83
optimal investment in material recovery programme in terms of energy
ABJ 64.43 173.96
ILR 20.17 54.45 and its GHG emission mitigation potentials in Nigeria
BAU 7.37 19.90
JAL 4.25 11.48 References
DTS 24.38 65.83
KAT 37.81 102.10
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